EDITORIAL BOARD
Table of Contents
Editor Dzafer Kudumovic
Eta-Mu modeled multipath propagation of electromagnetic
Execute editor Lana Kudumovic
waves .......................................................................................................456
Secretary Nadja Sabanovic
Marija Matovic, Stefan R. Panic, Zoran Popovic, Mihajlo Stefanovic,
Technical editor Eldin Huremovic
Jeroslav Zivanic, Milos Peric
Lector Mirnes Avdic
Lector Adisa Spahic
The role of information systems in the process of prevention
of tax evasion...........................................................................................462
Members Amir Pasic
Muharem Kozic, Irma Dedic
(Bosnia and Herzegovina)
Davor Zvizdic
Categorization of underground coal mines in Serbia related to the
(Croatia)
potential risks depending on natural – geological conditions...........469
Slobodan Kralj
Mirko Ivkovic, Mile Bugarin, Milenko Ljubojev, Vesna Ljubojev,
(Croatia)
Dragoslav Rakic
Joza Duhovnik
Restoration of traditional housing complexes - case studies:
(Slovenia)
Muslibegovic, Bišcevic-Lakšic, Gavrankapetanovic and
Janez Grum
Ramic street housing complexes (in Mostar and Pocitelj).................475
(Slovenia)
Amir Pasic, Aida Idrizbegovic Zgonic, Lana Kudumovic
Janez Dijaci
Traffic noise pollution in Belgrade by using zonal
(Slovenia)
evaluation method..................................................................................484
Ivan Polajnar
Boris Antic, Milan Vujanic, Dalibor Pesic, Dusko Pesic
(Slovenia)
Tadeja Zupancic
Effect of stretcher position on strength and stiffness
(Slovenia)
of the chair side frame...........................................................................493
Milan Medved
Izet Horman, Seid Hajdarevic, Nikola Vukas, Sandra Martinovic,
(Slovenia)
Stefo Sorn
Milivoj Vulic
Statistical analysis of the product of two sums of Ricean
(Slovenia)
distributed variables and some of its applications..............................499
Venceslav Grabulov
Fatih Destovic, Ismet Kalco
(Serbia)
Java technology in the design and implementation
Zijah Burzic
of web applications.................................................................................504
(Serbia)
Sead Masovic, Muzafer Saracevic, Hamza Kamberovic,
Camil Sukic
Mensura Kudumovic
(Serbia)
Nebojsa Vidanovic
Analysis of insurance sector with special review
(Serbia)
on bankassurance...................................................................................513
Elvira Snagic
Miroslav Miskic, Rado Maksimovic
(USA)
Numerical calculation of the of the heat flux distribution and
Vesna Maric-Aleksic
temperature field in the furnace with floating slag ...........................525
(Bosnia and Herzegovina)
Enes Dzihic, Vlado Madzarevic
Avdo Voloder
Obtaining The Relation Between The Courses By Using
(Bosnia and Herzegovina)
Data Mining Application.......................................................................532
Samir Causevic
Ali Buldu, Kerem Üçgün
(Bosnia and Herzegovina)
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Published by DRUNPP, Sarajevo
Volume 7 Number 2, 2012
ISSN 1840-1503
Impact Factor 0.351 (ISI Journal Citation Reports 2011)
Table of Contents
Experimental determination of chip compression ratio
during counterboring................................................................ 539
Snezana Radonjic, Pavel Kovac, Radomir Slavkovic,
Nedeljko Ducic, Jelena Baralic
Distance distribution-based verification of the clusters
in a multidimensional space..................................................... 544
Demographic influence on students’ performance case study of University of Belgrade...................................... 648
Sonja Isljamovic, Milan Vukicevic, Milija Suknovic
The impact of privatization on insurance
risk management in transition countries –
The Case of Former Yugoslavia............................................. 661
Jasmin Malkic, Nermin Sarajlic
Marijana Lemic-Saramandic, Ilija Cosic, Mensura Kudumovic
Workplace and challenges in the communication
process......................................................................................... 549
Development of technical innovation in
secondary vocational school students..................................... 667
Slobodan T. Ristic, Dobrivoje Mihailovic,
Zoran P. Cekerevac, Dzafer Kudumovic, Samed Karovic
Use of monetary aggregates as targets in
developed economies................................................................. 563
Boris Siljkovic, Sasa Obradovic,
Jadranka Djurovic Todorovic
Development of environmental copper-based alloys........... 572
Novica Pavlovic, Goran Petkovic, Vanja Voskresenski
Natural and geological conditions of coal mining in the
pits of the brown coal mine “Rembas” - Resavica............... 673
Mile Bugarin, Mirko Ivkovic, Vesna Ljubojev,
Milenko Ljubojev, Dragoslav Rakic
Green Information Technology/Information System
Education: Curriculum Views................................................ 679
Aleksandra Ivanovic, Vesna Marjanovic,
Silvana Dimitrijevic, Miroslav Ignjatovic, Vlastimir Trujic,
Miroslav R. Ignjatovic
Alok Mishra, Ali Yazici, Deepti Mishra
Deep oil wells between production and disaster................... 580
Tosa Ninkov, Vladimir Bulatovic, Vladimir Malenkovic,
Milivoj Vulic
Zvonimir Boskovic, Vladimir Mitrovic, Tatjana Malbasic,
Jelka Stupar
Grain size efect on quantity of oil shale ash from Aleksinac
deposit, storage and environmental protection.................... 585
Miroslav Ignjatovic, Snezana Ignjatovic, Milanka
Negovanovic, Dragan Milanovic, Dragan Ignjatovic,
Lidija Djurdjevac Ignjatovic, Srdjana Magdalinovic
One Challenge of Implementing Clinically-Based
Teacher Education In Turkey: Selecting & Preparing
Clinical Faculty.......................................................................... 592
Hidayet Tok, Nathalie Gehrke
The Determination of Beam Displacement with
Isotropic Material Hardening by Energy Methods............. 603
Besim Demirovic, Mirsad Topalovic, Zijad Pozegic
Process management as basis for quality management
in service industry .................................................................... 608
Milic Radovic, Slobodan Camilovic, Zoran Rakic,
Barbara Simeunovic, Ivan Tomasevic, Dragana Stojanovic
A novel ultrasonic technique for material testing................ 614
Zoran Ebersold, Nebojsa Mitrovic, Slobodan Djukic,
Aleksandar Peulic
Influence of Testing Temperature and Crack
Positioning on Behaviour of Welded Joint Submitted
to Impact Load........................................................................... 622
Ivica Camagic, Nemanja Vasic, Zijah Burzic,
Dzafer Kudumovic, Tamara Gvozdenovic, Predrag Pravdic
Necessary Skills of Managers in Transition Countries –
The Case of Serbia..................................................................... 631
Petar Jovanovic, Dejan Petrovic, Marko Mihic,
Vladimir Obradovic
A New Trend in Vocational Education:
Mechatronics Program and the Preference Factors............ 638
Aksarayli Mehmet, Çelik Hakan, Akkan Taner
Contemporary Methods of Determining
Energy Losses in Structures.................................................... 687
Evaluating intervention policies in city centers
Case study “Sabzemeidan-Qazvin”........................................ 693
Sayyid Kamal E Din Shahriari, Ardalan Karimi Khiyavi
Why charisma matters?
Domination of charismatic leadership style in
Serbian enterprises.................................................................... 698
Vesna Stojanovic Aleksic, Verica Babic, Jelena Eric
Pareto’s retail trade turnover distribution............................ 706
Bozo Draskovic, Jelena Minovic
Barriers to participation in programs for adult
education in environmental protection.................................. 716
Mirjana Galjak, Vesna Nikolic
Aplication of DEA method in comparative analysis
of non-profit organizations efficiency
(Case studies of state high mechanical technical
schools of Belgrade district in periods of 1994/98. and
2004/2008. years)........................................................................ 724
Janko M. Cvijanovic, Zvonko Sajfert, Zeljko Grujcic,
Jelena Lazic, Carisa Besic
Foreign Investments in Banking System of
Serbia and Western Balkans Countries ............................... 747
Zaklina Spalevic, Mirjana Knezevic, Zeljko Bjelajac
ICT knowledge and skills of Croatian
polytechnic students ................................................................. 758
Darko Dukic, Goran Kozina
Research into Attitudes of Accountants in
Trade Companies on the Importance and
Role of External Audit.............................................................. 765
Snezana Ljubisavljevic, Biljana Jovkovic
Satisfaction of high school students with
the applicability of their knowledge....................................... 777
Vladan Radlovacki, Mladen Pecujlija, Bato Kamberovic,
Radmila Jovanovic, Milan Delic, Ivan Beker
Table of Contents
Personality and absence in sport context............................... 786
Nikbakhsh Reza
The Effect of Science Education through Modeling
on Pre-service Teachers’ Views on Model and Modeling.... 793
Ozgul Keles, Mustafa Kisoglu
Fatigue crack propagation models: numerical and
experimental comparisons....................................................... 801
Stasevic M., Maksimovic S., Geric K., Burzic Z., Vasovic I.
A Numerical Study Effect of Aircraft’s Main Gear
Configuration on Airport Runway Damages .......................811
Gholam Ali Shafabakhsh, Ehsan Kashi
Evaluation of sugarbeet technical quality............................. 820
Jasna Grbic, Stevan Radivojevic, Rada Jevtic-Mucibabic,
Vladimir Filipovic
Dual prices and objective harmonization of
multicriteria programming models........................................ 825
Marija Cileg, Tibor Kis, Carisa Besic
Some considerations on optimization of time and
costs in network diagrams........................................................ 832
Aleksandar Dragasevic, Zoran Nesic, Miroslav Radojicic
Teaching computer design in mechanical
engeenering schools in Serbia.................................................. 841
Thermoelastic stress analysis based on infrared
thermography............................................................................ 914
Zvonko Damnjanovic, Dragan Mancic, Predrag Dasic,
Dragoljub Lazarevic, Radoje Pantovic
Improvement of spa tourism in the Republic of
Serbia as a pattern of positive impact on ecology
and regional development ....................................................... 920
Srdjan Nikezic, Milosav Djordjevic, Dragan Bataveljic
Research of vitamin D3 influence on the growth
and compact bone density measured by
morphometric indices............................................................... 926
Ago Omerbasic, Damir Secic, Amir Denjalic,
Rifat Sejdinovic, Denis Mackic
An Approach to Including Uncertainty Information
in the Design Process Decision Making .............................. 933
Mirko Djapic, Ljubomir Lukic, Elma Elfic Zukorlic,
Veda Kilibarda
Development of quality management in enterprises
of Serbia...................................................................................... 944
Zora Arsovski, Slavko Arsovski, Srdjan Nikezic
Multiagent architecture for intelligent monitoring
of postal traffic .......................................................................... 950
Goran Nestorovic, Zivoslav Adamovic, Zeljko Djuric
Branka Vasojevic Deljhusa, Miladin Stefanovic,
Nenad Babajic
Role of management in the process of managing
human resources in electronic media..................................... 849
Instructions for the authors..................................................... 964
Almira Huseinovic
An Alternative Method for the Quantitative
Assessment of the Production Function................................. 858
Aleksandar Pesic, Dragan Radovic, Branislav Djordjevic
Duska Pesic, Branka Radovic, Jugoslav Anicic
Expert Based Learning (EXBL) Methodology
for Developing Mobile Expert Learning Knowledge
Management Software System .............................................. 864
Mirlinda Ebibi, Bekim Fetaji, Majlinda Fetaji
The Use of Web Mapping Services for Designing
e-City Government Web Portals............................................. 875
Enes Sukic, Leonid Stoimenov
Traditional and contemporary approach
to teaching mathematics........................................................... 882
Irena Misurac Zorica, Maja Cindric, Fatih Destovic
Analysis of the impact of time and maintenance
strategy on availability of complex technical system........... 889
Slobodan T. Ristic, Zivoslav Z. Adamovic,
Zoran P. Cekerevac
Value added tax in Serbia and Bosnia and Herzegovina
A comparative aspect vat in Serbia and Bosnia and
Herzegovina . ............................................................................. 895
Ljiljana Dmitrovic Saponja, Suncica Milutinovic,
Sasa Gravorac, Snezana Besic
Comparative Analysis of the Intensity of the Induction
and Assimilation Effects of the Equivalent Geometric
Structures of Graphic Reproductions.................................... 905
Marin Milkovic, Nikola Mrvac, Igor Zjakic
technics technologies education management
Eta-Mu modeled multipath propagation of
electromagnetic waves
Marija Matovic1, Stefan R. Panic2, Zoran Popovic3, Mihajlo Stefanovic1, Jeroslav Zivanic3, Milos Peric1
1
2
3
Faculty of Electronic Engineering, University of Nis, Nis, Republic of Serbia,
Faculty of Natural Science and Mathematics, University of Pristina, Kosovska Mitrovica, Republic of Serbia,
Faculty of Technical Science, University of Kragujevac, Republic of Serbia.
Abstract
In this paper multipath propagation of electromagnetic (EM) waves will be analyzed through
the η-μ multipath fading propagation model. Constructive and destructive effects of co-channel interference (CCI) occurrence will be considered.
Standard performance measures regarding the
wireless EM receptions will be obtained. Infinite
series expressions are obtained for outage probability (OP) and average bit error probability
(ABER). Multiple antenna reception of EM waves
with space diversity will be observed, for the purpose of performance improvement.
Key words: EM wave propagation, η-μ multipath fading model, CCI, multiple antenna reception, OP, ABER.
1. Introduction
Wireless multipath propagation of electromagnetic (EM) waves is the phenomenon, that occurs
due to various atmospheric and terrestrial objects
reflections and refractions of transmitted signal.
Quality of services (QoS) at the receiver are
heavily affected by this phenomena, and it is considered as a major source of performance drawback [1-3].
The η-μ fading distribution has been proposed,
as a general fading distribution, for representing
small scale signal variation in general non-lineof-sight condition [4-5]. The in-phase and quadrature components of the fading signal within each
cluster are assumed to be independent from each
other and to have different powers. The distribution is written in terms of two physical parameters,
namely η and μ and it may appear in two different formats. Roughly speaking, the parameter μ is
related to the number of multipath clusters in the
environment, whereas the parameter η is related
456
to the scattered wave power ratio between the inphase and quadrature components of each cluster
of multipath [4]. As a general distribution, this
model includes some classical fading distributions
as particular cases, e.g. Nakagami-q (Hoyt), onesided Gaussian, Rayleigh and Nakagami-m [5].
Co-channel interference (CCI) is defined as the
interfering signal that has the same carrier frequency as the useful information signal in EM wireless
transmission. It appears when, due to frequency reuse, signals from two or more channels operating
at the same frequency, but from different locations,
interfere [6-7]. Usually is more significant drawback than the front-end Gaussian noise. CCI is also
affected by multipath fading and is necessary to incorporate this effect in performance analysis.
Various techniques for reducing multipath fading effect and influence of the CCI are used in
wireless communication systems. Upgrading transmission reliability without increasing transmission
power and bandwidth, and increasing channel capacity, could be obtained by the principle of providing the receiver with multiple faded replicas of the
same information-bearing signal [8-9]. This reception technique is known as space diversity.
In order to study the effectiveness of any modulation scheme and the type of diversity used, there
is a need to evaluate the system’s performance
over the channel conditions. First, infinite series
expressions for cumulative distribution function
(CDF) and probability distribution function (PDF)
of the received SIR (signal-to-interference ratio)
are obtained. Capitalizing on them, rapidly converging infinite series expressions for important
performance measures, such as the outage probability (OP), is obtained and shown graphically
for different system parameters. Using this infinite series formulae, an average error probability
(ABER) is efficiently evaluated for several coherent and non-coherent modulation schemes.
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
technics technologies education management
2. System model
The desired signal at the reception, could be
presented as [10-12]:
D (t ) = R (t )e
j 2π f c t +φ ( t ) +F ( t )
, ......... (1)
where fc is carrier frequency, Φ(t) desired information signal, ф(t) the random phase uniformly
distributed in [0.2π], and R(t), a η-μ distributed
random amplitude process given by [5]:
4 π µ d µd +1/ 2 hd µd R 2 µd pR ( R ) =
e
Γ( µ d ) H d µd -1/ 2 Ω d µd +1/ 2
2 µ d hd R 2
Ωd
2µ H R 2
´ I µd -1/ 2 d d ;
Ωd
........................................ (2)
where Ωd = E [R2], is the desired signal average
power, I0 (x) is the zero-th order modified Bessel
function of the first kind. Γ(a) denotes Gamma
function, while Hd i hd are parameters, defined in
the function of ηd as [5]:
Hd =
η d -1 - η d
4
;
hd =
2 + η d -1 + η d
; ....... (3)
4
where θ (t) is the random phase, and ψ(t) is the
information signal. This model refers to the case
of a single CCI. r(t) is also η-μ distributed random
amplitude process [5]:
4 π µc µc +1/ 2 hc µc r 2 µc pr (r ) =
e
Γ( µc ) H c µc -1/ 2 Ω c µc +1/ 2
2µ H r 2
´ I µc -1/ 2 c c ;
Ωc
........................................ (6)
where Ωc = E [R2], is the interfering signal average power.
Since we are discussing an interference-limited
system, the effect of noise could be ignored. In
this case it can be shown that the instantaneous
signal-to-interference ratio (SIR), l=R2/r2, has the
pdf [13]:
pl (t ) =
with parameters defined in similar manner.
Generality of this model is evident, because
as special cases it includes other fading models,
as Nakagami-q (Hoyt), one-sided Gaussian, Rayleigh and Nakagami-m. Namely, for μd = 0.5, it
reduces to Nakagami-q model, with q parameter
corresponding to ηd1/2. Nakagami-m model is approximated when ηd → 0 i ηd → ∞, with m corresponding to μd.
In the same manner resultant interfering signal
received by the antenna, can be presented as:
j 2π f c t +θ ( t ) +y ( t )
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
2 t
¥
∫p
0
R
(r t ) pr (r )rdr ; .......... (7)
¥
¥
pl (l) = åå
k =0 l =0
πS 2 k + 2µc µc2 k + 2µc µ d2l + 2µd hdµd hcµc H d2l H c2 k
22 k ++2l + 2µc + 2µd - 2 Γ ( µ d ) Γ ( µc ) Γ ( µ d + k + 1/ 2 )
Γ(2k + 2l + 2µc + 2µ d )l 2l + 2µd -1
Γ ( µc + l + 1/ 2 ) k !l !( lµ d hd + S µc hc )
2
E 2 (R2 ) H
1
+
; . ............ (4)
2 var( R 2 ) h
C (t ) = r (t )e
1
After substituting (2) and (6) into (7), we derive:
Parameter μd, is now defined as [5]:
µd =
2 µc hc R 2
Ωc
2 k + 2 l + 2 µc + 2 µ d
;
........................................ (8)
where S=Ωd/Ωc is denoting the average-signal
to average interference power ratio (SIR).
Following [13], the cumulative distribution
function (cdf) of l can be obtained as:
πH d2l H c2 k Γ(2k + 2l + 2µ c + 2µ d )
2 k ++2 l + 2 µc + 2 µ d - 2 2 l +µ d 2 k +µc
hd hc
Γ ( µd ) Γ ( µc )
p =0 q =0 2
Bz (2l + 2µ d , 2k + 2µ c )
;
Γ ( µ d + k + 1/ 2 ) Γ ( µ c + l + 1/ 2 ) k !l !
lµ d hd
z=
;
lµ d hd + S µ c hc
¥
¥
Fl (t ) = åå
........................................ (9)
; ......... (5)
457
technics technologies education management
3. Performance measures
Outage probability (OP) is a measure of the
system performance, used to control the cochannel
interference level, helping the designers of wireless communications system's in order to meet the
QoS and grade of service (GoS) demands. In the
interference limited environment, OP is defined as
the probability that the output SIR of the SC falls
below a given outage threshold γth also known as
a protection ratio.
Pout = PR (ς < g th ) =
¥
_
g th
∫ pς ( t ) dt = Fς (g ) ; ...... (10)
¥
P e = åå
k =0 l =0
πH d2l H c2 k Γ(2k + 2l + 2µ c + 2µ d )Γ(2l + 2µ d )
22 k ++2l + 2µc + 2µd -1 hd2l +µd hc2 k +µc Γ ( µ d ) Γ ( µ c )
aS µ c hc
y 2l + 2µ d ;1 - 2k + 2µ c ;
lµ d hd
Γ ( µ d + k + 1/ 2 ) Γ ( µ c + l + 1/ 2 ) k !l !
...................................... (12)
where ψ (a,b,x) is the confluent hypergeometric function of the second kind [14].
For a coherent system, the conditional probability of error may be expressed in terms of the
confluent hypergeometric function [15] as:
th
0
In an interference-limited environment, the
average probability of bit error (ABER) can be
derived by averaging the conditional error probability Pe over the pdf of SIR:
al
1
1
1 3
Pe = e rfc( al ) = 1 - 2
1 F1 ; ; -al
π
2
2
2 2
...................................... (13)
Similary as previous after substituting (4) into
(8), we obtain:
( S µc )2 k - 2l + 2µc - 2µd µ d 2l - 2 k - 2µc + 2µd πH d2l H c2 k
P e = åå 2 k ++2l + 2µc + 2µd -1 2l +µd -µc 2 k +µc -µd
hd
hc
Γ ( µd ) Γ ( µc )
k =0 l =0 2
Γ(2k + 2µc )Γ(2l + 2µ d )
Γ ( µ d + k + 1/ 2 ) Γ ( µc + l + 1/ 2 ) k !l !
¥ ¥
( S µ )2 k - 2l + 2µc - 2µd - 2 p -1 µ 2l - 2 k - 2µc + 2µd - 2 p -1
- åå π (-1) p g 2 p +1 2 kc++2l + 2µc + 2µd - 2 2l +µd -µd c + 2 p +1 2 k +µc -µd
2
hd
hc
k =0 l =0
2l 2 k
πH d H c Γ(2k + 2µc )Γ(2l + 2µ d )
Γ ( µ d ) Γ ( µc ) Γ ( µ d + k + 1/ 2 ) Γ ( µc + l + 1/ 2 ) k !l ! p !
_
¥
¥
...................................... (14)
where (a)p is the Pochhammer symbol [15].
Figure 1. Outage probability versus normalized
SIR in η-μ fading environment for various values
of system parameters
_
l
P e = ∫ Pe ( l ) pl (l)d l ; .................. (11)
0
For a non-coherent frequency shift keying
(NCFSK) or a differential phase-shift keying
(DPSK) system, the conditional probability of error for a given SIR, l , is given by Pe =1/2 exp (-αl),
with α=1 for binary PSK, and with α=1/2 for binary FSK. After substituting (8) into (11), by using
[13] previous can be easily written as:
458
Figure 2 Average error probability versus average
SIR for binary NCFSK in η-μ fading environment
for various values of system parameters
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
technics technologies education management
Figure 3 Average error probability versus average
SIR for binary BFSK in η-μ fading environment for
various values of system parameters
4. Selection diversity reception
There are several principal types of multi antenna combining techniques at the receiver, that
can be performed by the dependence on complexity restriction put on the wireless communication link and amount of channel state information available at the receiver. Simplest combining
method is selection combining (SC). When CCI
level is considered as a major drawback, and is
sufficiently high as compared to the thermal noise,
SC chooses and outputs the branch with the highest SIR. When multi-antenna system has uncorrelated branches (sufficient spacing between antennas), the PDF of the SIR at the output of the
receiver is given by:
L
L
j =1
k =1
k≠ j
pl ( t ) = å pl j ( t ) ∏ Fl k ( t ) ; . ............ (15)
where L stands for the the number of branches.
SC diversity reception effect on the OP versus
normalized SIR in η-μ fading environment for
various values of system parameters is presented
at Fig.1, while in Figures 2-3 same effect on the
ABER for binary DPSK and NCFSK has been
shown. Balanced reception for input branches
SIR (S1 = S2 = S), system was observed.
From Fig.1 is obvious, that higher OP values are achieved, where parameter μ has higher
values (higher number of clusters, trough which
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
signal propagates). Also performance improvement obtained with usage of SC diversity is visible, since for the same system parameter values,
significantly lower OP values are reached. From
Figs 2-3, one can see, how higher ABER values
are obtained in the area of higher η parameter values (fading influence is more severe). It can be
seen, that performances upgrade for almost 3 dB
in the wide range of observed OP values (10-2 - 106
), when dual-branch reception is used. Finally by
comparing figs. 2-3, a conclusion arises, that by
applying NCFSK modulation scheme better performances are obtained performance over the case
when BPSK modulation scheme is used.
5. Conclusions
Analysis of wireless EM propagation subjected
to influence of CCI has been considered. Multi-antenna receiving combiner performance improvement was discussed. The desired signal, as well
as the CCI propagation, were modeled by general
η-μ process, which as general physical model, includes other models like Hoyt, one-side Gaussian
and Nakagami-m as special cases. Infinite series
expressions for the received SIR’s PDF and CDF
are first obtained, and then based on them, standard performance measures, like OP and ABER
over various modulation schemes were efficiently
evaluated, graphically presented and discussed.
Acknowledgement
This work has been funded by the Serbian Ministry of Science under the project III 044006.
A1. Appendix
Instantaneous signal-to-interference ratio
(SIR), defined as l=R2/r2, has the PDF that can be
calculated according to [13]:
pl (t ) =
1
2 t
¥
∫p
0
R
(r t ) pr (r )rdr ; ......... (A.1)
After substituting (2) and (6) in (A.1), and by
using infinite series representation of modified
Bessel function:
459
technics technologies education management
¥
Iv ( z) = å
k =0
A3. Appendix
z v + 2k
; ........... (A.2)
2v + 2 k k !Γ(v + k + 1)
Averaging the conditional bit error ratePe over
the PDF of SIR for the cases of NCFSK and DPSK
modulation schemes, the bit error rate for a given
SIR, l , can be calculated from (6). By substituting
(8) into (11), with respect that Pe =1/2 exp (-αl),
where α=1 for binary PSK, and α=1/2 for binary
FSK, we are obtaining the following expression:
Observed PDF can be written in the form of :
¥
¥
¥
pl (t ) = åå C1 ∫ r 2 k + 2l + 2µd + 2µc -1
k =0 l =0
0
2µ h
´ exp -r 2 l d d
Ωd
2 2µc hc
exp -r
dr
Ωc
; .... (A.3)
_
After denoting the average SIR’s value with
S = Ωd /Ωc, by using well-known definition of
Gamma function [14] (A.4) can be written as:
¥
¥
pl (l) = åå
k =0 l =0
πS 2 k + 2µc µc2 k + 2µc µ d2l + 2µd hdµd hcµc H d2l H c2 k
22 k ++2l + 2µc + 2µd - 2 Γ ( µ d ) Γ ( µc ) Γ ( µ d + k + 1/ 2 )
Γ(2k + 2l + 2µc + 2µ d )l 2l + 2µd -1
Γ ( µc + l + 1/ 2 ) k !l !( lµ d hd + S µc hc )
2 k + 2 l + 2 µc + 2 µ d
¥
¥
P e = åå
k =0 l =0
2 k + 2 µc 2 k + 2 µc
c
2 k ++2 l + 2 µc + 2 µ d -1
µ d2l + 2µd hdµd hcµc H d2l H c2 k Γ(2k + 2l + 2µc + 2µ d )
2
Γ ( µ d ) Γ ( µc ) Γ ( µ d + k + 1/ 2 ) Γ ( µ c + l + 1/ 2 ) k !l !
¥
x 2l + 2µd -1 exp(- gx)
∫0 ( xµ h + S µ h )2k + 2l + 2µc + 2µd dx
d d
c c
πS
..................................... (A.9)
Now by using [16]:
;
¥
∫x
0
q -1
p
-v
exp ( - px )(1 + ax ) dx = a - q Γ(q ) Ψ (q, q + 1 - v, )
a
..................................... (A.4)
A2. Appendix
Cumulative distribution function (cdf) of l can
be derived from:
t
Fl (t ) = ∫ pl ( x)dx ; ................... (A.5)
0
after substituting (8) into (A.5), we obtain the
following expression:
µ
...................................... (A.10)
previous integral can be solved, and ABER can
be presented in the form of (14).
References
1. J. Proakis, “Digital Communications”, 4th ed. New
York: McGraw-Hill, 2001.
2. G. L. Stuber, “Mobile communications”, New York:
Kluwer, 2nd edn. 2003.
3. M. Stefanovic, et. al, “Statistics of signal envelope in
composite multipath fading/shadowing microcellular
environment”, TTEM, vol.6, no.4, January 2011, pp.
1147-1151
πS 2 k + 2µc µ c2 k + 2µc µ d2l + 2µd hdµd hcµc H d2l H c2 k
2 k ++2 l + 2 µc + 2 µ d - 2
Γ ( µ d ) Γ ( µ c ) Γ ( µ d + k + 1/ 2 )
k =0 l =0 2
Γ(2k + 2l + 2µ c + 2µ d ) t
x 2l + 2µd -1
dx 4. D. B. da Costa and M. D. Yacoub, The η-μ joint
Γ ( µ c + l + 1/ 2 ) k !l ! ∫0 ( xµ d hd + S µ c hc )2 k + 2l + 2µc + 2µd
phase-envelope distribution, IEEE Ant. and Wirel.
¥
¥
Fl (t ) = åå
..................................... (A.6)
Above integral can be solved, by using the wellknown definition of incomplete beta function:
l
xm
a- p a
=
n b
m +1
n
m +1
m +1
Bz
, p;
n
n
... (A.7)
0
n
bl
m +1
z=
, a > 0, b > 0, n > 0, 0 <
<p
n
a + bl
n
∫ ( a + bx )
n p
Propag. Lett., vol. 6, pp. 195-198, 2007.
5. M. D. Yacoub, G. Fraindraich, B. T. Hermano, M.
T. Cesar” The symmetrical η - κ distribution : A
general fading distribution”, IEEE Transactions on
Brodcasting, 2005, vol. 51, no.4, pp. 504-511.
6. W.C.Y. Lee, “Mobile communications engineering”
(Mc-Graw-Hill, 2001).
7. Stavroulakis, P. (2003). Interference analysis and
reduction for wireless systems. Artech House, INC,
London,
and requested CDF could be written as (9).
460
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
technics technologies education management
8. M. K. Simon, M. S. Alouini, Digital Communication
over Fading Channels, USA: John Wiley & Sons. 2000.
9. A. Goldsmith, “Wireless communications”, Cambrage University press, 2005.
10. M. Stefanovic, D. Milovic, A. Mitic, M. Jakovljevic,
''Performance analysis of system with selection combining over correlated Weibull fading channels in the
presence of cochannel interference'', AEU - International Journal of Electronics and Communications,
Vol. 62, Issue 9, pp. 695-700, October 2008.
11. S. Panic, M. Stefanovic, A. Mosic, "Performance
analysis of selection combining diversity receiver
over α-μ fading channels in the presence of CCI",
IET Communications, Volume 3, Issue 11, pp. 17691777, November 2009
12. G. K. Karagiannidis, "Performance Analysis of
SIR-Based Dual Selection Diversity over Correlated Nakagami-m Fading Channels," IEEE Trans.on
Vehicular Technology, vol. 52, no.5, pp. 1209-1216,
September 2003
13. Petar Spalevic, Mihajlo Stefanovic, Stefan Panic, Borivoje Miloševic, Zoran Trajčevski "The
co-channel interference effect on average error
rates in Hoyt fading channels", Revue Roumaine
des Sciences Techniques. Ser. Electrotechnique et
Energetique, ISSN: 0035-4066, accepted for publication in March 2011
14. I. Gradshteyn, I, Ryzhik. (1980). Tables of Integrals,
Series, and products. Academic Press, New York,
15. http://mathworld.wolfram.co
Corresponding Author
Marija Matovic,
Faculty of Electronic Engineering,
University of Nis,
Nis,
Republic of Serbia,
E-mail: ttem_bih@yahoo.com
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
461
technics technologies education management
The role of information systems in the
process of prevention of tax evasion
Muharem Kozic, Irma Dedic
University “Dzemal Bijedic” Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina
Abstract
Grey economy is defined as a legal economic activity that is not reported in order to evade
paying taxes, thus increasing the personal gain
of the tax defaulter. The paper will be elaborating the concept of tax evasion or tax payment
evasion, which is an indicator of the refusal of
the tax burden for which the taxpayer, in order to
evade payment, takes certain actions that may or
may not be in conflict with statutory provisions.
When, however, tax payment evasion causes the
conflict with law, we are talking about defraud.
The consequence of increasing tax evasion is the
erosion of tax bases. Lack of collected revenues
may cause a deficit that can be funded either in a
further increase in taxes, which ultimately further
deepens the size of the underground economy and
the tendency to evasion, or in borrowing, increasing the tax burden of future taxpayers. However,
the concerted actions of institutional, legal and socioeconomic measures can influence the reduction
of tax fraud. A good information system is of great
importance for the efficiency system function, the
purpose of which is safe inclusion of the data on liabilities and settlement of public earnings and also
their timely processing for asserting tax duties. In
order to sustain fluent cooperation between clerks
and information system specialist, it is proposed to
establish the appropriate organizational structure
in which a special place takes “data manager”.
Key words: grey economy, taxes, tax evasion,
tax fraud, information system, data manager.
Introduction
In order to secure its existence and functionality, every modern state must ensure its incomes,
which are mostly collected in a form of taxes. Collected taxes then, satisfy fiscal goals (for which realization are gathered financial means necessary
for financing of expenditures with which the state
462
pays for its public needs, i.e. non-fiscal taxation
goals, when taxes are means for accomplishing
other needs according to economic policy guidelines (stimulation of certain economic trends, impact on foreign trade, protection of domestic production, increase of export, and the like).
Regardless if they have a fiscal or non-fiscal
goal, taxes also are derivative (in Latin derivare
means to dissuade, to take), coercion, non-repayable nature and absence of direct counter recompense, what necessarily causes a negative attitude
of tax payers towards fulfilment of their duty to
pay taxes.1
Having in mind that tax paying has a direct impact on decrease of tax payers’ purchasing i.e. economic power (individuals and legal entities which
carry out business activities in diminished production and investment capacity and citizens in diminished consumption and savings capacity) what can
cause change in status of a tax payer on a social
scale. Therefore, we can expect resistance when
collecting taxes and attempts of taxpayers to decrease taxes or to evade completely that obligation.
Despite the fact that by paying taxes, we secure
benefits for both state and its citizens (through
state’s stability, functioning of its legal system,
protection of property and tax payers’ physical
integrity) due to unfavourable taxation impact on
purchasing power of tax payers, evading to pay
taxes or tax evasion is present in almost every taxation systems.
Stability of taxation system is an important factor for reduction of tax evasion. Transitional environment with its dynamics and series of changes
in taxation and economic system, however, gas a
negative impact on reduction of tax evasion. In the
conditions of adjusting taxation systems to market
economy, extension of tax base, introducing new
1 Jelcic, B.; Loncaric-Horvat, O.; Simovic, J. Arbutina, H.,
„Financial law and financial science“, Narodne novine,
Zagreb, 2002., page 189.
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taxes, abolishing of the old ones and changing of
tax rates, it is hard to come up reliable conclusions
regarding the real extent of tax evasion. It is easy
to make the decision to carry out with the evasion
in unstable environment while for irreversible
process, even though it seems as possible, tax defaulters need critical mass of positive reforms and
relatively long period.
Because taxpayers think of tax as a burden, it
is a well-known premise that almost all taxpayers
put up resistance to paying taxes. The extent of
the resistance is bigger if the tax burden is high
and the resistance to pay taxes is increased with
the increase of tax burden. As opposed to this, the
resistance to paying taxes is smaller if the funds
collected by taxation for the purpose of certain
public expenditures spent rationally and correctly
redistributed in order to meet useful and just needs
of taxpayers.2
Fundamental work goals refer to conceptual
determination and classification of tax evasion, as
well as the measures that are undertaken in order
to prevent this phenomenon. Special emphasis will
be put on application efficiency of an information
system in the process of preventing tax evasion.
In addition, we will also examine the role of data
manager in daily work of tax administration, and
particularly in discovering and identifying taxpayers in an attempt to violate the principles of general tax duty.
Conceptual determination and forms of tax
evasion
Under evasion we imply illegal actions or evading to pay taxes in a situation when tax authority
has not managed to collect taxes from some tax
payer i.e. it represent those situations that lead to
the violation of general tax duty.
According to Zivota Ristic, tax evasion represents “…. actions and failing to carry out new actions that tax payer carries out in order to evade
paying taxes. Tax evasion is a consequence of taxpayer’s attempts to decrease his/her tax burden. It
is a direct consequence of deeply rooted resistance
of a tax payer to pay taxes”. Therefore, we can say
that tax evasion implies absence of tax revenues
2
for unpaid taxes, what is contrary to goals that are
to be achieved through taxation policy. If we refer
to form of tax evasions, we can talk about legal or
allowed (in English tax avoidance – not against
the law) and illegal or not allowed tax evasion (in
English tax evasion – it implies sanction).
Legal tax evasion
Legal tax evasion represents that certain form
of evading of paying taxes where the taxpayer
will not have a run-in with the law. The aforementioned form of evasion can be further divided into:
1. Deliberate; a) from the standpoint of the tax
payer when he/she is undertaking certain
steps precisely with the intention to evade
paying taxes. The presumption of fairness
of tax laws results in the opinion that rich
people due to incomplete regulations
intentionally are looking for:
○○ “legal loophole” – tax law provisions
where individuals are allowed to legally
evade paying taxes or to decrease the
burden of their duty.
○○ “tax shelters” – they refer to investment
plans that decrease the obligation to pay
taxes, i.e. when the deductions from one
source can be transferred to the income
account of another source.
○○ “tax arbitration” – represents deliberate
legal evasion of obligation to pay taxes in
two ways by postponing of paying taxes
and deliberate transferring of property
from one person that pays high taxes to
persons with lower taxes.
b) from the standpoint of the state, which by
enacting provisions on certain tax expects
for the tax to not to be paid (by the law
organized tax evasion, such as e.g. in the
case of extremely high customs burdens
that are designed to prevent importers from
importing certain kind of goods).
2. Non-deliberate evasion – from the
standpoint of the tax payer in the case
when not paying taxes represents only an
incidental consequence of his/her activities
or omissions he committed without wanting
to evade paying taxes.
Op., cited. page 202.
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technics technologies education management
Illegal tax evasion
Illegal tax evasion happens when taxpayer by
evading to pay taxes has a run-in with the law.
Therefore, if the taxpayer directly violates law and
acts illegally by undertaking certain business, then
we are talking about illegal tax evasion that is tax
fraud, which is in financial world known as tax defraud. There are two forms of tax fraud – complete
and incomplete.
Complete tax fraud occurs when taxpayer does
not report to authorities anything from totally realized income, revenue or property that is subject
to taxation. According to the tax discipline, these
subjects form the category of “sloppy” taxpayers,
whose amount of realized income and tax base,
the authorities determine by assessment, by using
all available data.
Contrary to complete, incomplete tax fraud
occurs when tax payer submits to tax authorities
incomplete i.e. partial or false financial indicators
on the real extent of realized revenue, determined
amount of income and the property value with the
goal to decrease tax burden what will finally result
in paying less taxes compared to that that is determined by the law.
Illegal evasion or tax fraud can refer to evading
to pay direct taxes (such as profit tax, income tax,
communal tax, and the like) which directly burden
tax payer’s income while they are to be paid before
the income is spent as well as evading to pay indirect
taxes (sales tax and duties) when for tax fraud we
use terms such as smuggling, fare evasion, blackmarketing. There are many forms of black marketing (in our region this phenomenon is connected
with goods such as cigarettes, oil, and the like).
In the case of illegal tax evasion, whether we
are talking about complete or partial tax fraud, we
have different forms of legal sanctions as the consequence. They can be extremely high fines or (in
the case of a felony) imprisonment, dispossessing
of property or tax defraud banning to carry out
business activities and the like.
Prevention of tax evasion
Each country, the one in transition as well the
developed one, is trying to increase its efficiency
in collecting taxes and in preventing criminals to
464
evade paying taxes. However, regardless whether
we are talking about market-oriented countries
with completely determined fiscal system or not,
we can say that, with no exception, they are all facing attempts by business entities to evade paying
taxes. This kind of conduct in developed market
oriented countries with good fiscal systems represents a challenge for both the state and authorities.
It actually causes establishment of tax administrations i.e. systems, which in every moment will
have capacity to enable information flow and to
identify each taxpayer that has committed a felony.
In order to prevent tax evasion, all modern
countries are establishing comprehensive control
system of determining and collecting taxes. Administrative bodies are in charge of the implementation of the tax control system. They are mostly
organized as financial or tax control and in some
cases even as financial police. Apart from permanent inspection, some countries also establish supervisory offices that are supervising determining
and collecting of taxes. In order to prevent, successfully, tax evasion tax administrations need to
establish also international cooperation that will
control legality, validity and updating of statements and public revenues payments. However,
even with efficient bodies for detecting tax frauds,
the majority of countries are trying to improve the
efficiency of bodies in charge when it comes to
prevention of tax evasion by establishing highly
qualified specialised employees in tax administrations, by introducing efficient information systems, timely detecting and proving of felonies.
They are also granting broader powers to bodies
in charge, introducing harsher sanctions, speeding
up courts’ proceedings and in the case of the felonies, they are introducing banning of carrying out
business activities to the tax defrauder.
Information system and tax evasion
Every modern country is trying to cut tax evasion to a minimum by applying different measures.
However, if we want the interacting effect of aforementioned measures for prevention of tax evasion
to be as effective, then solid information support
system is extremely important. This system, whose
primary goal is efficient and safe coverage of data
i.e. records on obligations and payments of public
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revenues as well as their timely processing for determining of tax debt. With good information support
system we also need professional, efficient and fast
human potential that, will based on data gathered
through ISPU, be able to detect suspicious actions
in tax payers’ business transactions. Therefore, in
order to be as efficient in the field of preventing and
decreasing tax evasion, beside the developed information system, we also need to train tax administration officers continuously, because only with their
joint efforts, we can decrease tax frauds. Unfortunately, based on the Bosnia and Herzegovina experience, we can conclude that training of people
employed in tax administration is still insufficient.
Not all employees are included in periodical additional improvement of both tax and information as
a subject matter.
Application of ISPU in preventing the tax
evasion
Systematic monitoring of tax payer’s economic
power is extremely important for the very process
of detecting the causes of tax fraud. In order to
implement successfully the aforementioned process, it is also important to have good information
system that can secure gathering and comparison
of data important for just determination of tax obligations. The very fact, that by typing of identification number or unique citizens’ master number
into the information system, tax administration
can see all data that refer to tax payer’s economic
power, implies that informative infrastructure can
contribute to decrease of tax fraud.3
Pursuant to the law, tax administration has an
obligation to collect data on taxable incomes of
every individual, monitor the circulation of goods,
and carry out other duties. Besides, tax administration has an obligation to compare tax payer’s
entire income earned based on dependent work
(income earned based on employment such as
salaries or pensions), independent business activity (income earned based on entrepreneurship and
free occupation), property and property rights (income earned based on lease and sale of real estates
3 Mahovic-Komljenovic M, „Information system snd tax
evasion – dta manager role“, Collection of Faculty of
economy of Zagreb, year 7, No 1., 2009.
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
and movables), from capital (income earned based
on interests, exempting of property or using of services to the debit of third parties income) from insurance (income paid by insurance house based on
life insurance with savings and voluntary pension
fund) and other incomes (all incomes that are not
employment related as dependent work) as well
as other tax free incomes and claims with data on
purchased real estates, movables and other kind of
property and other expenditures of individuals and
their commitments during tax period.
If during the data-gathering period and their
comparison we determine that amounts for property of individuals are not proved, we need to, on
that basis, determine income as the difference between the property value and proved amount of
funds necessary for its earning. Therefore, tax administration has an obligation to establish records
on tax payers’ personal property by using its own
data, which are presented to tax administration by
tax payers and gathered as data from other state
administration bodies and local autonomy units.
From above mentioned, we can conclude that
by insight into applicative programmes of such an
information system, we can easily get the data on
purchasing of movables, real estates and tax burden of each tax payer and by comparing these data
with payments that tax payer has, determine possible disproportion between payments and expenditures, what is one of the first signs of tax fraud.
The bigger disproportion the bigger is the tax fraud
if the tax payer is not able to prove the sources of
fund for purchased property on the request of tax
administration in an administrative proceeding.
The role of data manager in tax administration
Fundamental goal of functioning of tax administration information system in every country as
well as in Bosnia and Herzegovina is collecting as
much as budget incomes as possible with the lowest costs possible. Evading to pay taxes regardless
of the form it manifests (whether it is legal or illegal) causes impossibility to pay planned public
expenditures, where money is actually evading
economy and causing huge damages to the state
budget. Decrease of tax base is a consequence of
tax evasion and as an additional problem, there is
entering of illegal money into legal business trans465
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actions. In order to decrease tax evasion as much
as possible, it is necessary to monitor monetary
flows and supervise entire monetary operations
via giro account (except legally allowed cash payment), because unrecorded transaction turnover
usually is not recorded.
Continuous control of taxpayers’ monetary operations is also necessary in order to comply with
the regulations of the Law on payment operations
in the country.4 However, it is an undisputable
fact that above mentioned legal provisions are
usually not obeyed in everyday life, particularly
if the business entity accounts are blocked due to
confiscation of funds deposited in bank, but the
tax payer is still using funds for purchase of raw
materials and executing other payments by not using giro account what for final consequence has
evading of paying taxes.
Inspection supervision by tax administration is
one of important instruments in order to decrease
tax evasion to a minimum. Its efficiency as well
as frequent controls of taxpayers’ business transactions can actually prevent a fraud. In order for
inspection to be as efficient as possible, there is a
suggestion to use actively data from ISPU database and to administer those data in terms of monitoring monetary flows and control of payment operations via giro account. That way we will monitor earned income as well recognizing unusual exceptions between taxpayer’s earned property and
reported income, what would enable determining
accurate tax bases as well as more even taxation.5
In this way, we would create the possibility:
–– To increase state revenues,
–– To distribute tax burden evenly and
–– To decrease tax rate on a long-term basis;
Data manager would be in charge of processing, evaluating and analysing data gathered
through information system on taxpayers that
make so-called risk group. His/her basic task
would comprise of detecting, classifying and selecting taxpayers based on determined risk factor.
4 This very Law regulates that all business entities have
an obligations to keep their funds in bank accounts and
execute all payments via these accounts.
5 Mahovic-Komljenovic M, „Information system and tax
evasion – data manager role”, Collection of Faculty of
economy in Zagreb, year 7, No. 1, 2009.
466
Here, it would be necessary to carry out ranking of
entities starting with those who are extremely high
risk, then those who are high risk and then those
who are classified as average risk and low risk.
During the entire process, it is necessary to act
and to carry out tax supervision. It is possible to
achieve all aforementioned by using information
from databases i.e. by data mining where the process of intelligent data analysis comprises of several phases whose goal is to select relevant from
less relevant information regarding the taxpayers
from tax administration information system. With
the help of information system, tax administration
easily gathers and stores huge amount of data regarding the taxpayers’ business operations. Having in mind the phases of intelligent data analysis, we should emphasise that the very procedure
starts with identifying the problem that is, with defining the hypothesis, preparation of data and their
valuation, selection of the method and creation of
valuation model and in the end with evaluation
and assessment of obtained results.
By carrying out intelligent data analysis with the
assistance of specialized software (for example Statistics data Miner), it is possible to identify certain
normalities and relations that are hidden in gathered
databases. It is also possible to make strong conclusions needed in order to carry out an analysis and
assessment of the risk factor of taxpayers based on
already existing and gathered data.
With access to financial statements as well as
other available data about taxpayers, that tax administration keeps analytical records and classification of taxpayers according to risk factor. In order
to determine the risk factor and select the taxpayers,
which needs to be supervised due to higher possibility of tax fraud. It is possible to carry out this supervision based on certain criteria, which are:
–– The extent of importance determined based
on the value of taxable and non-taxable
deliveries during the current and previous
year, the amount of realized transactions via
giro account and share of tax obligations in
the entire income,
–– Extent of tax discipline and in time
submitting of monthly and annual reports
and tax return that are stipulated by the law,
respecting the deadlines for paying their tax
obligations and the like.
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–– Need and recognized indicators of
monitoring taxpayers based on the type of
business activity the taxpayer is carrying out
as well as combination of above-mentioned
criteria.
Proposal for organizational structure
In order to develop the model to discover tax
evasion in time by using the technique of intelligent data analysis it is necessary to secure jobs for
data managers and therefore, we suggest certain
organization of employees.
Tax administration of Bosnia and Herzegovina
Federation has three levels of authority, main office, cantonal offices (10 offices) and tax branch
offices (51 branch offices). Tax branch office can
have one or more local offices. Main office of tax
administration of Bosnia and Herzegovina Federation is in Sarajevo. Further, in the text we will
examine one of the possible ways of establishing
organizational structure in Bosnia and Herzegovina Federation Tax administration, (1) 5 employees
in the Office for supervision in main office, (2) 5
employees in the Office for supervision of large
and medium taxpayers. Then, per 2 employees
in the Office for supervision of small taxpayers
in cantonal tax offices and (3) per one employee
in 51 branch tax offices. Besides, the aforementioned, we should also include external associates
– supervisor in finances (Institute for finances) and
two clerks from the firm for support of tax administration information system (one for direct and
one for indirect taxes).
The branches tax offices in Sarajevo would
monitor business operations of taxpayers above
determined turnover during the year where they
would inform permanently about detected indicators. Main office, which would then make decisions
on relevance of detected phenomenon and then it
would inform the Office for supervision in main office. Beside the aforementioned, Main office would
have the option to make decisions on benefits for
taxpayers that are regular in paying their taxes.
Office for supervision in Main office would assign orders for supervision to branch offices and
supervisor would create new ideas about measures – sanctions and benefits for taxpayers based
on reports of the main office employees that are
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
involved with the project. Finally, the role of the
employee from the firm for support to information
system would be cooperation with all stakeholders involved with the project in order to detect of
important data in time.
If tax administration would establish control of
business transactions in order to check accuracy
and validity of tax base of those taxpayers that
are, based on the model for detecting tax evasion,
recognized as taxpayers with very high and high
risk factor. Their business would be targeted for
supervision as a priority. Such actions would lead
to change in the conscience of taxpayers; it would
strengthen their tax discipline and it would have
decrease of tax frauds as a final effect.
Conclusion
We can define grey economy as legal business
activity that is not registered in order to evade
paying taxes what increases the personal gain of
tax defaulter. Evading to pay taxes or tax evasion
represents an indicator of rejection of tax burden
why taxpayer in his/her attempt not to pay taxes,
undertakes certain activities, which can but also
do not have to be against the law. If however, by
tax evasion, taxpayer clashes with the law, then we
are talking about tax fraud. The consequence of tax
evasion increase id erosion of tax bases. The lack of
collected incomes results in deficit, which is possible to finance either by further tax increase what
for a final effect has growth of grey economy and
tendency toward evasion or by borrowing what increases tax burden for future taxpayers. However,
by joint action of institutional, legal and socio-economic measures we can affect the decrease of tax
fraud. In order for tax system to function efficiently,
it is of utmost importance to have information system with the goal to cover all data on obligations
and payments of public revenues and their timely
processing in order to determine tax indebtedness.
In order to establish adequate cooperation between
the employees and experts for information systems,
we are proposing the establishment of corresponding organizational structure, where “data manager”
would have a special place.
Modern state tries to decrease tax evasion to
a minimum by introducing different measures,
where a special role has adequate system of infor467
technics technologies education management
mation support. Fast modern development of information technologies assigns tax administration
in Bosnia and Herzegovina with a task to upgrade
continuously information system, particularly in a
programme infrastructure by introducing new application programmes. There is also a necessity
to connect information system with information
systems of other state institutions. However, the
development of information system demands also
continuous development of employees in tax administration, because only with their joint effort
we can decrease tax fraud. Unfortunately, based
on the Bosnia and Herzegovina experience, we
can conclude that training of people employed in
tax administration is still insufficient. Not all employees are included in periodical additional improvement of both tax and information as a subject matter.
In order to realize supervision of taxpayers
successfully and finally to decrease tax evasion,
besides a good information support system, it is
extremely important to have human potential that
requires permanent education (in the field of taxes
and legal provisions that refer to taxes and in the
field of information technologies) which currently
are insufficient. By creating a job for data manager, we would secure better cooperation between
employees in tax administration and information
experts. Only by improving knowledge of employees that in tax administration are carrying out
activities of determining, collecting and controlling of paying taxes and simulative awarding of
those employees for their efficiency in collecting
taxes, we can actually have an effect on decrease
of tax evasion in our country and by that secure
bigger income receipts in the state budget.
4. Jelcic, Ba. „Public finances“, RRIF-plus ltd. for
publishing industry and business services, ISBN 9536121-54-9, Zagreb, 2001.
5. Fishlow, A. & Friedman, J. (1994). Tax Evasion,
Inflation and Stabilization. Journal of Development
Economics, 43 (1), 1994.
6. Madjarevic-Sujster, S. „Assessment of tax evasion
in Croatia, Financial theory and practise”, Zagreb,
2002.
7. Ebibi M., Fetaji B., Fetaji M.: Combining and Supporting Expert Based Learning and Academic Based
Learning in Developing Mobile Learning Knowledge
Management System, Tem Journal, ISSN 2217-8309,
e-ISSN 2217-8333, pp 16-23, Vol. 1, No. 1, 2012.
8. Mahovic-Komljenovic M, „Information system and
tax evasion – data manager role“, Collection of Faculty of economy in Zagreb, year 7, No.1., 2009.
9. Musgrave, R. Musgrave P. „Public finances in theory
and practise, Institute for public finances“, Zagreb,
1993.
Corresponding Author
Muharem Kozic,
University “Dzemal Bijedic” Mostar,
Bosnia and Herzegovina,
E-mail: Muharem.Kozic@unmo.ba
References
1. Hak, M., „New tendencies in development of information systems in tax administration“, Tax journal,
Institute for public finances, Zagreb, 2008.
2. J.A. Berry M. & Linoff G. „Data Mining Techniques, For Marketing, Sales and Customer Support“, Canada, 1997.
3. Jelcic, Bo.; Loncaric-Horvat, O.; Simovic, J. Arbutina, H. „Financial law and financial science“,
Peoples journal, Zagreb, 2002.
468
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technics technologies education management
Categorization of underground coal mines
in Serbia related to the potential risks
depending on natural – geological conditions
Mirko Ivkovic1, Mile Bugarin2, Milenko Ljubojev2, Vesna Ljubojev2, Dragoslav Rakic3
1
2
3
Public Company for Underground Exploitation Resavica, Serbia,
Mining and Metallurgy Institute Bor, Serbia,
University of Belgrade, Faculty of Mining and Geology, Belgrade, Serbia.
Abstract
This paper presents the systematization of natural - geological conditions in the active underground mines (coal deposits) in Serbia based on the
previous carried out investigations. According to
the gained knowledge, the categorization of mines
was made related to the potential risks dependent
on specific natural - geological conditions.
Key words: coal, protection, mining conditions, mine
Introduction
Natural-geological conditions in the coal deposits have a decisive role in the selection of certain technological solutions, selection of mining
system (methods and technologies) and safe operation in the underground mining facilities, and
their detailed knowledge is very important.
Complexity of mining conditions of coal deposits in Serbia, predisposed for underground
mining systems, inevitably requires the systematic
and continuous scientific-professional work in order to improve the system of mining that is the economically viable exploitation and safe operation.
Mining conditions in the present active mines are
now extremely variable and characterized by:
–– complex tectonics
–– unfavorable physical-mechanical properties
of the working environment
–– larger thicknesses of seams and dipping angles
–– presence of hazardous gases and coal dust
–– expressed coal tendency towards self-ignition
Each of these properties has a significant impact on technical-technological solutions of mining and, associated with this, a direct influence on
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
safety and security work. According to the given
framework of investigation, a determination of effect level of some natural-geological conditions
was carried out, previously systematized on the
basis of investigation results.
In development of this paper, the information,
parameters and data from a number of geological
and geomechanical studies and project documentation related to the implementation the mining operations in the active underground coal mines in Serbia.
Systematization of natural–geological conditions in the active coal deposits
Underground coal mines in Serbia now present
the production sites with low production. The entire
production of underground coal mines is now carried out in 8 mines with 11 pits with their general
characteristic of low production, low effects, low
level of mechanization, high share of physical work
and increased risk of injuries to the employees.
Recognizing these facts, it was concluded that it
is very important to explore and define the operating
conditions as a system (method and technology) of
mining could be selected, based on this, and to determine the protective measures for employees and
facilities. Adequately to the conditions, the selected
mining method and technology, the best construction of equipment for coal production and transport,
the choice of type and way of insurance and supporting, optimization of ventilation and drainage
systems as well as work organization, represent
a number of potential possibilities to improve the
effects of mining and higher safety and security at
work. In the first stage of this work processing, the
systematization of natural-geological conditions in
the active underground coal mines was done with
the current size of available data (Table 1).
469
470
Foot wall rocks
Marls
Clayey sandstone
Sandstones
1.0 m3/min
1.5 l/s
Clayey sandstone
70 - 110 g/m3
69-980C/min-coal
630-7000C-dust
0,245 m3/tru
150 - 470
Not explosive
No tendency to
self-ignition
Self-ignition of
coal and dust
up to270 m
over 10m3/tru
Explosiveness
of coal dust
Water bearing
of deposit
Hanging wall
rocks
Ibar mines
Rembas
Sandstone
Marls
2.0 m3/min
62-1200C/min-ug
Non-methane
40 - 110
350 m
450 m
160-200 m
250 m
Marls
Marls, clay
0.5 l/s
270 g/m3
Non-methane
180 g/m3
230 g/m3
75 g/m3
3.0 l/s
2.5 l/s
0.6-1.0 m3/
0.2-0.4 m3/min
min
Marls and rarely Marls and red
Red
Red sandstones
sandstones
sandstones sandstones
Green
Green
Clayey
Clayey marls
sandstones sandstones
sandstones
200 g/m3
Registered
appearances of
CH4
Registered
Registered
appearances cca 5m3/tru appearances of
of CH4
CH4
0
110-120
C/
70-1100C/ 55-950C/min118-1400C/minNo tendency to
min- coal
coal
min- coal
coal
self-ignition
280-2900C0
0
0
260-290 C-dust
300 C- dust
250 C- dust
dust
10 - 100
Jarando
Progorelica
Tadenje
Senjski mine Strmosten
Jelovac
Ravna reka
Anthracite
Stone coal
Stone coal
Stone coal
Brown coal
Brown coal Brown coal
Brown coal
Manu seams (III) Two coal seams
Two coal seams
One coal seam One coal
Four seams
One coal seam
One coal seam
and interlayers (main and foot wall) (main and foot wall)
(stratified)
seam
0.3-3.0 with
I-4.4 II-2.2 IIIMain 1.5-12m
Main 4.0 m
thickenings
1.95
7m
7.7 m
4.5 m
4.5 m
Foot wall 1-2.5m
Foot wall 5.5 .m
up to 6.0m
IV-1.9 V-2.4
0 - 350
10 - 400
10 - 400
5 - 250
10 - 250
10 - 200
5 - 100
10 - 250
Very expressed
Expressed
Expressed
Expressed
Expressed
Expressed
Expressed
Expressed
Vrška čuka
Coal-seam
methane content
Seam slope (0)
Tectonics
Depth of
occurrence
Seam thickness
(m)
Type of coal
Way of seam
appearance
Natural
conditions
technics technologies education management
Table 1. Specific natural-geological conditions of coal mining in the active underground mines in Serbia
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Criteria and categorization of mines in
relation to the potential risks depending on
natural-geological conditions
Potential risks in the coal mines depend on
natural risks and risks caused by the technological
process of mining.
To determine the criteria for categorization, it
starts from the fact that one or more sources of risk
can exist in a coal deposit, and that each of these
sources is appreciated according to the weight
(category) of physical-mechanical parameters.
Regarding to the potential risks, the coal mines
with underground mining are divided into three pit
categories as follows:
I. Pit category includes deposits with favorable
mining conditions, respectively deposits
with geological characteristics which do not
cause particular difficulties concerning the
safety of mining operations,
II. Pit category includes deposits with medium
difficult mining conditions, respectively
deposits with natural - geological characteristics which have influence on the safety of
mining operations,
III. Pit category includes deposits with difficult
mining conditions, respectively deposits
with natural – geological characteristics
which have a significant influence on the
safety of mining operations and requires the
special measures for safety operation.
More detailed definitions for individual categories of these geological conditions are characterized by the following elements:
F1- seam inclination
F2- seam thickness and its variability
F3- inclination depth of a seam
F4- tectonic relationships in the deposit
F5- physical-mechanical properties of a coal seam
and associated rocks
F6- massive tendency to the rock bursts
F7- coal seam methane content
F8- coal self-ignition
F9- explosive properties of coal dust
F10- inflammatory properties of coal dust
F11- aggressiveness of coal dust and associated rocks
F12- tendency to the gas shoots (gas and material)
F13- water bearing deposits
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Below are given the criteria for determining the
categories of:
1. Seam inclination (F1)
In relation to the inclination angle of coal seam,
the following criteria were adopted for determining the categories:
I. Category – Coal seams with inclination
angle up to 5o
II. Category – Coal seams with inclination
angle of 5-30o
III. Category – Coal seams with inclination
angle over 30o
2. Seam thickness (F2)
In relation to the seam thickness, the following
criteria were adopted for suitable categories:
I. Category – favorable operation conditions.
Seam thickness 2-5 m with thickness
variability of ± 10% from medium thickness,
II. Category – medium difficult operation
conditions. Seam thickness 5-7 m with
thickness variability of ± 10% from medium
thickness or 2-5 m with thickness variability
of ± 25% from medium thickness,
III. Category – difficult operation conditions.
Seam thickness is less than 2 m or when
the thickness is greater than 7 m and in
thickness variability over 25% at a distance
per fall and strike up to 50 m.
3. Inclination depth of a coal seam (F3)
In relation to these natural characteristics, the
following criteria were adopted for suitable categories:
I. Category – favorable operation conditions.
Exploitation is carried out to a depth of 200 m,
II. Category – medium difficult operation
conditions. Exploitation is carried out at a
depth of 200-500 m,
III. Category – difficult operation conditions.
Exploitation is carried out at a depth of over
500 m.
4. Tectonic relationships in the deposit (F4)
In relation to tectonic relationships in the deposit, the following criteria were adopted for suitable categories:
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I.
Category – Tectonically little disturbed
deposits, with over 1 million tons of reserves
per working block,
II. Category – Tectonically disturbed deposits,
with reserves of 0.25<1.0 million tons in the
working block in which the seam thickness
is without discontinuity,
III. Category – Tectonically disturbed deposits,
with interruptions of a seam thickness
continuity and size of reserves up to 0.25
million tons in the working block.
5. Physical-mechanical properties of a coal
seam and associated rocks (F5)
In relation to this indicator, the following criteria were adopted for suitable categories:
I. Category – Physical-mechanical properties
of a coal seam and associated rocks allow
insurance of workings without supporting,
II. Category – Physical-mechanical properties
of a coal seam and associated rocks
require supporting with timber support in
development the workings,
III. Category – Physical-mechanical properties
of a coal seam and associated rocks require
special supporting (reinforced steel support,
concreting, combined system of steel
support, anchoring and guniting, etc.) in
development the workings.
6. Massive tendency to the rock bursts (F6)
In relation to this indicator, the following criteria were adopted for suitable categories:
I. Category – Deposits whose massive
properties do not suggest the possibility of
rock bursts,
II. Category – Deposits respectively parts of
deposits whose massive properties suggest
the possibility of rock bursts,
7. Coal seam methane content (F7)
In relation to this characteristic, the following
criteria were adopted for suitable categories:
I. Category – Non methane conditions in the
deposit,
II. Category – Methane pits with appearance of
methane up to 5 m3CH4/min,
III. Category – Methane pits with appearance
of methane over 5 m3CH4/min.
472
8. Coal self-ignition (F8)
For classification of coal seams by degree of risk
from ignition, the following categories are adopted:
I. Category – Coal of coal seams with the
index of self-ignition up to 80oC/min,
II. Category – Coal of coal seams with the
index of self-ignition from 80-120oC/min,
III. Category – Coal of coal seams with the
index of self-ignition over 120oC/min.
9. Explosive properties of coal dust (F9)
For evaluation the potential risk on explosion
of coal dust and categorization of the pit by degree
of risk, the following criteria were adopted:
I. Category - Coal dust does not have explosive
properties,
II. Category - Coal dust has lower limit of
explosiveness over 200 g/m3,
III. Category - Coal dust has lower limit of
explosiveness less than 200 g/m3.
10. Inflammatory properties of coal dust (F10)
I. Category – Coal dust has no inflammatory
properties,
II. Category – Coal dust has inflammatory
properties,
11. Aggressive properties of coal dust and associated rocks (F11)
In relation to the aggressive properties of coal
dust, the following criteria were adopted for suitable categories:
I. Category – with SiO2 content in coal and
associated rocks up to 5%,
II. Category – with SiO2 content in coal and
associated rocks up to 5-20%,
III. Category – with SiO2 content in coal and
associated rocks up over 20%.
12. Tendency to the gas shoots (gas and material) (F12)
In relation to a tendency of gas shoots (gas and
material), the following criteria were adopted for
suitable categories:
I. Category – Working environment has no a
tendency of gas shoots (gas and material),
II. Category – Working environment has a
tendency of gas shoots (gas and material).
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13. Water bearing (F13)
In relation to this indicator, the following criteria were adopted for suitable categories:
I. Category – the pits with water tributary up to 0.5
m3/min and depth to 200 m without accumulated groundwater or pits opened by adit where
the exploitation is done over the adit level,
II. Category – the pits with water tributary of
over 3 m3/min and depth of over 500 m
with a possibility of rapid penetration the
accumulated groundwater.
Analyzing the natural-geological conditions in
the present active deposits – coal mines has deter-
mined the quantitative elements of categorization
by natural-geological conditions.
Including the value for F, the values were determined for the categories, as follows:
I. Category – up to 4.50,
II. Category - from 4.50 – 5.40,
III. Category – over 5.40.
According to these criteria, the III category includes the pits: Jarando, Senjski Mine, Jelovac,
Soko, and the II category includes: Strmosten,
Ravna Reka - IV block. The I category classifies
the pits Štavalj, Osojno–South, Jasenovac, East
Field-Bogovina, Tadenje and Vrška Čuka.
Table 2. Quantitative elements of categorization by natural-geological condition
Category
I
II
III
Elements of categorization
F1
1
5
10
F2
1
5
10
F3
1
3
5
F4
1
5
10
F5
1
3
10
F6
1
15
F7
1
10
15
F8
1
5
10
F9
1
10
15
F10
1
10
F11
1
3
5
F12
1
15
F13
1
5
10
Tabela 3.
Natural
conditions
Bogovina
East field
Brown coal
Soko
Jasenovac
Type of coal
Brown coal
Brown coal
Way of seam
Two coal seams
One coal seam
One coal seam
appearance
Seam
I thickness 1-7.2
thickness
25 - 40 m
5 - 29 m
II thickness 1-4.5
(m)
Seam slope (0)
12 - 140
35 - 450
20 - 330
Tectonics
Expressed
Expressed
Expressed
Depth of
240 m
450 m
220 m
occurrence
Coal-seam
Registered
methane
1.8-7.10 m3/tru
Non-methane
appearances of CH4
content
Self-ignition
115-1880C/min-coal 80-1000C/min-coal
of coal and
80-1200C/min-coal
250-3500C-dust
2600C-dust
dust
Explosiveness
225 g/m3
230 g/m3
225 g/m3
of coal dust
Water bearing
3.67 m3/min
3.0 l/s
0.04 m3/min
of deposit
Hanging wall
Marls
Marls
Clay, sandstones
rocks
Foot wall
Clay
Coal clay
Sandy clay
rocks
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Lubnica
Osojno-south
Lignite
Štavalj
Lignite
Two coal seams
One coal seam
I thickness 5-9
II thickness 2-5
10 - 14 m
18 - 350
Expressed
5 - 200
Expressed
200 m
250 m
Non-methane
Non-methane
800C/min-coal 103-1110C/min-coal
215-2350C-dust 220-2800C-dust
110 g/m3
Not tested for seam
dust
0.5 m3/min
6-8 m3/min
Marls, clay
Marls
Sandstones and
clay
Marls
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Conclusion
Degree of familiarity the natural-geological
conditions in the active underground coal mines
varies from case to case, but generally is still completely insufficient to ensure the absolute safety at
work. This requires a need for additional investigations and continuous monitoring of the working
conditions in order to avoid the risks in a rational
and safe mining. Based on the set information in
this paper, the complexity of impact the naturalgeological conditions is apparent for production
and safety effects of working in the underground
coal mines.
References
1. Ivković M.: Rational System of Underground Mining
the Coal Seams of Large Thickness in the Complex
Conditions of Exploitation, Ph.D. Thesis, Faculty of
Mining and Geology Belgrade, 1997 (in Serbian);
2. Ivković M.: Systematization of Natural and Geological
Conditions Affecting the Choice of the Underground
Mining System in the Active Coal Deposits in Serbia,
Journal Mining Engineering, No.2/2011, Bor, 2011;
3. Miljanović J.: Influential Factors in Realization the
Anticipated Coal Production in the Underground
Mines in the Republic of Serbia, Journal Mining Engineering, No.1/2011, Bor, 2011;
4. Milić V., Pantović R., Svrkota I.: Applied Mining
Methods in Serbian Underground Coal Mines, 34th
International October Conference on Mining and
Metallurgy, Bor, 2002;
5. Ljubojev M., Popović, R., Rakić D.: Development of
Dynamic Phenomena in the rock mass, Journal Mining Engineering, No.1/2011, Bor, 2011;
6. Popović R., Ljubojev M., Bugarin M.: Basics Settings of Mechanical Models of Support Interaction in
the Rock Mass, Journal Mining Engineering, No.12/2006, Bor, 2006 (in Serbian);
7. Djukanović D.: Analysis of Technological Process
of Coal production in the Mines JP PEU - Resavica,
Proceedings of the II Symposium "Mining 2011"
Vrnjačka Banja, 2011 (in Serbian);
8. Kokerić S., Joković D., Knežević I., Radoja R.: Potentiality of the Coal Deposit og the Brown Coal
Mine "Soko" Sokobanja, Proceedings of the National
Conference on Underground Coal Mining, Resavica, 2011 (in Serbian);
10. Djukanović D., Popović M., Košanin M., Cvetković
V.: Possibility of Production Restoring in the WestMoravian Coal Basin, Proceedings of the National
Conference on Underground Coal Mining, Resavica, 2011 (in Serbian);
11. Tošić D., Savič M., Ivaz J.: Perspectives of Coal
Mining in the Lubnica – Zvezdan Coal Basin,
Proceedings of the National Conference on Underground Coal Mining, Resavica, 2011 (in Serbian).
12. Ćosić S., Okanović H.: Modeling of stress-deformation state using the numerical methods in the
wide face mining, Journal Mining Engineering,
No.2/2010, Bor, 2010 (in Serbian).;
13. Đukanović D., Popović M., Zečević D.: Ekonomic
effects of the waste use from coal separation in
the Ibar mines, Journal Mining Engineering,
No.1/2011, Bor, 2011 (in Serbian).;
14. Petrović M., Elezović N., Bogavac J.: Comparative
analysis of use the mechanized hydraulic long-wall
face comparated to the classical mining methods
for coal mining in the Petnjik pit of the Berane
brown coal mine, Montenergo, Journal Mining Engineering, No.2/2011, Bor, 2011 (in Serbian).;
15. Stjepanović M., Mitić R., Mitić S., Stjepanović J.:
possible diseases and dangers with the mining proffesion, Journal Mining Engineering, No.3/2011,
Bor, 2011 (in Serbian).;
16. Sokolović D.: Risk identification in the mine design, exploitation and combustion of oil shale,
Journal Mining Engineering, No.1/2010, Bor,
2010 (in Serbian).;
17. Ljubojev M., Ivković M., Miljanović J. and
Đurđevac-Ignjatović L.: Testing of geomechanical
properties of coal series in order for support determination of the meshnized stope on the example of
“Stara jama” mine in “Lubnica”, Journal of Mining and Metallurgy, 45A(I) , Bor, 2009;
18. Ljubojev M., Ivković M.,Zečević D.: Solution displaying of overburding dumping on the stone-coal
opencast mine Tadenje-Ušće, Journal Mining Engineering, No.2/2009, Bor, 2009 (in Serbian).;
Corresponding Author
Dragoslav Rakic,
University of Belgrade,
Faculty of Mining and Geology,
Belgrade,
Serbia,
E-mail: rgfraka@rgf.bg.ac.rs
9. Langović Ž., Bukumirović D., Kadralija F.: The Mine
»Štavalj" - Mining and Investments by 2009, Mining
Engineering, No.1-2/2005, Bor, 2005 (in Serbian);
474
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
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Restoration of traditional housing complexes
- case studies: Muslibegovic, Bišcevic-Lakšic,
Gavrankapetanovic and Ramic street housing
complexes (in Mostar and Pocitelj)
Amir Pasic, Aida Idrizbegovic Zgonic, Lana Kudumovic
Architecture Faculty in Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina
Abstract
Traditional housing complexes in Bosnia and
Herzegovina are sophisticated dwelling structures
comprised of cubistic architectural forms, courtyards, and elaborate and decorated interior spaces.
The paper deals with the case studies of restoration
of four major complexes in Herzegovina (southern
region), with the technical and design aspects, as
well as exploration of their current use, value and
meaning in contemporary architecture as testaments of history and living functioning structures.
Housing architecture, more so than the public
buildings, represent the local tradition and are the
essence and representation of life itself.
Key words: Traditional housing, restoration,
architectural historic and social values
Figure 1. Ortho photo of The Old City Mostar
2005 with positions of the housing complexes and
The Old Bridge
Introduction
Urban patterns of living quarters are a successful blend of organic street forms that followed
the logic of terrain, relationships to its neighbors.
First and basic was the level of the room, which
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
provided the necessary privacy. The second was the
housing complex with all structures and outdoor
spaces which belonged to a household. The third
was the area of the bazaar, and the last, fourth level
was that of the city, with its numerous aspects and
possibilities. Transitions from the city core into the
residential areas are gradual, almost procession-like.
The street becomes tighter and introspective and the
entrance garden is a small interpretation of paradise.
“The street pattern shows a similarity to a
branching tree. At the points at which the main
streets ‘branch out mosques, stores and fountains
will be found. The houses are arranged in echelon or
step form. The plane of the gates leading to the yards
in front of the houses, is at right angles to the cobbled
‘street whereby attractive vistas are secured To this
purpose stairs were laid out to these gates.”1(Ref.1)
The housing complex. The most important features of residential architecture from the ottoman
period are simple and expressive architecture adapted to its context and the composition of the spaces in
the house that was a reflection of sophisticated and
humane living conditions – complied with the social
circumstances of the times, and was an architectural
expression at the peak time of creativity and innovation. Usually it was a complex of buildings with
interior courtyards, in human scale, with richly decorated multipurpose interiors. They were advanced
in the utilities such as water, bathrooms and toilets.
The housing complexes were constructed according
to the cultural traditions of Islamic housing architecture, ottoman influence and building technology and
local climate and morphology.
Layout. The internal organization and the formation of the rooms were closely related to the
1 Grabrijan, Dušan: The Bosnian Oriental Architecture in
Sarajevo,Univerzum Ljubljana, 1984, pg. 57
475
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structure of the building as a whole, which, while
determining the external features such as windows,
doors, and size of the rooms, did not affect the
fundamental principles of the organization of the
interior space. The main feature, which links the
different types of houses is the layout of the different parts. Different arrangements of the three basic
elements of the house - rooms, halls and staircases
- produced the following four types of house plans:
a) without a hall; b) with an outside hall; c) with an
inside hall; d) with a central hall. (Ref.2,3)
Interior. In an Islamic society every dwelling
and every other clean place is, in principle, a potential place of worship, and may be used in the
manner of a mosque. This means that architecture
in general and all decorative arts and crafts have a
religious aspect. Furniture and household items in
general developed under the influence of the same
factors, which conditioned the layout of the house
as well as its spatial and formal features. For example, sleeping on mattresses spread over the floor
and sitting on the sofa required the windows to be
low, so that the overall horizon became lower. Also
the room height was generally only 210 to 230 cm,
which caused the door to be quite low. The rooms
on the upper floor were usually higher and bigger.
Because of the low ceiling, however, all the rooms
looked larger and more spacious.
Case studies. The selected case studies are four
important housing complexes in Mostar and Pocitelj
by their architectural importance, size, location and
the extent of restoration work made in order to preserve them as part of architectural and social heritage. All four complexes were restored in the period
from 2000 - 2004 at the peak of the rehabilitation of
the Old City of Mostar.2 The degree of destruction
and subsequent restoration is different for each complex, and they will be presented accordingly.
2 All four projects were made duting The Old Town
Rehabilitation Project, cooperation of Aga Khan Trust for
Culture, World Monuments Fund and IRCICA Mostar
2004 program. The restoration of the housing complex
in Počitelj mase made in colaboration of all ofthe above
mentioned and Mostar Institute for preservation of heritage.
Project team leader was Prof. Amir Pasic. Design team
member was the second author of the article Aida
Idrizbegovic Zgonic.
Table 1. Showing the most relevant information on the four complexex that are used as case studies,
three in Mostar and one in Počitelj,Hercegovina-region of mediterranean climate and stone
Housing
complex
Muslibegovic
house
Mostar
Lakšic House
Mostar
Ramic Street
House
Mostar
Gavran-kapetanovic
Art Colony,
Pocitelj
476
Description
Extent of
destruction
Restoration
Current use
and condition
One of the largest complexes,
18th century, only one with
two stories: Main house two
coutyards, stable and additional object.
National Monument
Part of the famous Bišcevic
complex, located on Neretva
river from 17th century.
Area:180m2
National Monument
Roof repair with traditional
slate roofing, and extensive
Part of roof, inwork in the interiors, retroteriors, auxillary
fitting traditional bathroom
objects
cuboards with modern utilities.
Constructive repair of
Total destruction
walls, and total reconstrucby fire, groundtion of the house according
floor stone walls
to original photos and analremaining
ogy with bišcevic house.
Located on Neretva river;
18th century complex, more
important as a part of the Old
Bridge neighbourhoods
Total destruction
Complete typological reby artillery, only
construction and upgrading
basement walls
of the complex.
remaining
Guest house
used by the
owner Islamic
Community
18th century large complex;
dominant structure in Pocitelj
of striking architectural beauty, restored and transformed
after the WWII.
National Monument
Major destruction by dinamite
(indirectly) roof,
by fire, stone
walls remaining
Complete wall and timber
structure reconstruction, external appearance returned
original state interiors new
design with traditional concept.
Owned by Association of
artists in BiH,
Guest house,
art colony
Family residence, butique
hotel and a
museum
Family residence
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Muslibegovic residential complex
History. The complex was established, probably, in the second part of the 18th century. On April
8, 1872, a permission issued by the Municipality
of Mostar for an additional construction of two
rooms on the first, and two rooms on the second
floor, plus a summer kitchen, a storage and a cistern. Buildings were under construction more than
two years. The complex consisted from two parts,
first, courtyard with stable, and second, courtyard
with house and auxiliary buildings, summer kitchen and storage, and water cistern.
Description. House has basement, two floors,
and attic floor. Both floors has identical plan: hall
with two rooms on both sides. Entrance hall was
open, door was added later, and upper floor in projecting part has sofa. The attic floor has a different
plan with a large longitudinal room in the middle
with a special decorated room above the sofa. From
that place a complete city was visible. All rooms are
well decorated with woodcarving ceilings- in every
room different, traditional shelves and cupboards
The main part of these elements is well preserved.
Destruction. Throughout the time several
changes occurred in the complex. Twenty years ago,
a back left room on the first floor was transformed
into a kitchen and a bathroom. One musandera (cupboard), between two rooms on the left on the first
floor, was replaced with a bathroom. The complex
was damaged in war through misuse and neglect
and the interiors were the most damaged. Parts of
the roof were damaged also. The buildings joinery
was in a poor condition. The auxiliary buildings
have been neglected for a longer period and unused.
Figure 2. The main object before restoration
Figure 3. The „stable“ object before restoration
Figure 4. Floor plan of the Complex
Figure 5. Elevation of the residential complex
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Lakšic house
Figure 6. Current condition of the house, photo
taken in 2005.
Restoration. This complex was fully restored
under by AKTC/WMF during a period of three
years, between 1999 and 2002. The front portico
was open (doors visible on Figure 2) since that is
the original layout. The auxiliary buildings were
slightly changed due to the fact that the rooms
needed more light for the new use. The building
has maintained integrity and authenticity even
though its facilities were upgraded for a modern
lifestyle. The only compromise is the joinery the
windows that used to be a single glazed glass with
slightly thinner frames. The complex was declared
a National Monument in 2005.3
Current use. House is in use as a guesthouse,
run by owners, with a full capacity of 17 beds.
Two auxiliary buildings in the courtyard were
transformed in a restaurant, on the ground floor,
and two bedroom studio, on the upper floor. The
stable, consists from a ground floor and an attic
floor, which was destroyed in the recent war, was
reconstructed in the original shape, and together
with courtyard, revitalized in the office space and
later as tourist accommodation.
3 Decision 78/05 The residential architectural ensemble
of the residential complex of the Muslibegović family
in Mostar, together with movable property, is hereby
designated as a National Monument of Bosnia and
Herzegovina (hereinafter: the National Monument).The
National Monument consists of a residential building,
two courtyards, including the surrounding walls with
entrance gateways, and movable property: a Qur’an,
levhas, and a sabre.The National Monument is located on
a site designated as cadastral plot no. 2864 (new survey),
Land Register entry no. 1033, cadastral municipality
Mostar I, City of Mostar, Federation of Bosnia and
Herzegovina, Bosnia and Herzegovina.
478
History. This two-level courtyard dwelling is
part of a traditional Balkan Ottoman residential
complex on the east bank of the Neretva River,
in the Karadjozbegova Mahala (neighborhood associated with the Karadjozbegova Mosque). The
Lakišic house appears to be the former women’s
(family) quarters or haremluk of the adjacent
Bišcevic House, which formed the men’s quarters,
or selamluk. The building dates from the 17th century. The Lakišic House site is entered by way of a
large wooden portal (kapija) from Bišcevic Street,
opening into the courtyard, a primary paved space
with the remains of fruit trees and arbors. The
house, outbuildings and perimeter wall frame this
space and protect its privacy. A small portal connects the courtyard to a small terrace overlooking
the river, from which steps lead to a large rock
ledge below.
Description. Substantial masonry walls formed
the body of the house structure, with timber frame
and infill construction used for cantilevered bays
an interior partitions. A timber-framed roof was
clad with local slate; deeply projecting eaves protected interior spaces from the summer sun. Two
levels of open living spaces (the hajat below with
tavan above) with a connecting stair, provided access to the interior rooms; they were used for outdoor living during the long Mostar summer. The
interior rooms consisted of typical Ottoman living
and kitchen spaces, including one special room
on the first floor which projected over the Neretva
River, named mali cošak (small cošak, by comparison with the larger Bišcevic cošak).
Destruction. Many traditional interior and exterior wood details and cabinetry existed in this
house prior to the recent war, when this site was
heavily shelled, leaving only the some of stone
masonry walls as visible on Figure s 7 and 8.
Restoration and current use. As the house
was heavily damaged in 1993 it was left an empty
shell until 2001 when reconstruction begun. The
general layout of the house was known to the
owners and it was possible to still recognize the
architecture in the stone remains. The details and
interiors were reconstructed according to analogy
with the neighboring Bišcevic house and the need
for a contemporary use of the house.
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Figure 10. Elevation from Neretva riverbank,
shows the rooms protruding over the Neretva river
Figure 7. Photos of the damage and wall remains
The interiors follow the logic of traditional
spaces. Together with its incredible almost metaphysical location and the arrangement of open and
semi-open and enclosed spaces the house stands
as a model for any contemporary architect. The
group of houses which includes the Lakišic House
is one of the few remaining traditional residential
environments in Mostar, and is further notable for
high visibility along the Neretva River. Within this
housing cluster, this house is especially prized for
its elaborate sitting arrangements.
Figure 8. View from the river, Bišćević house on
the left relativly undamaged and Lakšić house on
the right
Figure 11. Divanhana outdoor sitting area
Figure 9. Floor plan of the entire complex,
Lakšić part grey area
Figure 12. View from the Neretva river after reconstruction
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The ensemble was declared a National Monument in 2004. It is currently used as a single family house and a guest house for rent during the
season.
Ramic street complex
Housing neighborhoods around the Old Bridge
were formed in the 16th century. These areas comprised of housing complexes formed along narrow streets leading to the Neretva River. Good
examples are Ramic and Cemalovic streets, even
though somewhat transformed, are still recognizable ensembles.
Ramic housing complex is situated perpendicular to the river Neretva, as well as all other
houses in the area. Between the houses are narrow
courtyards.
During the recent war the objects were completely destroyed and neglected for many years.
In 2002, restoration of the housing complex began with an aim to rebuild the structures, but also
to restore the urban tissue and a visual impression of the area. The restoration was completed
in 2003, according to the survey, old photographs
and building traditions of Mostar. Interiors are
equipped with adequate furniture with strong traditional reminiscence that also satisfy the modern
function.
Today, the complex is served as a guest house
with seven rooms - six with bathrooms, a kitchen,
a courtyard, and two terraces on the Neretva River
bank. All parts of the complex have a perfect view
on the Old Bridge.
Figure 14. Floorplan of the Ramić street complex that consists of two houses and a kitchen
area, with courtyards and terraces looking towards the Old Bridge
The architecture itself of this complex is not a
spectacular one like we see in the other three
examples, these are simple stone structures that
form the supporting urban tissue of the Old
Bridge area.
Figure 15. Left.View from the river after reconstruction, 2008
Figure 13. Archive photo taken cca 1914
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Gavrankapetanovic house /art colony in
Pocitelj
Located on a dominant cliff above the Neretva
River Pocitelj is a unique urban settlement in Bosnia and Herzegovina that has maintained its historical layers and integrity in urban and architectural
form through the several phases of the history. Key
fortification structures date from the mediaeval period from 14th century, defined the limits and basic
layout of the city. The ottoman period continued
the harmonious relationship with the morphology
giving the settlement urban structure and functional
importance through construction of several public
buildings (hamam, han, medresa). Residential complexes were less elaborate than the ones in Mostar
with the exception of Gavrankapetanovic residence.
The structures follow the terrain and its stone slate
roofs have become part of the natural landscape.
After the WWII the decline of the city is rapid,
houses are abandoned and neglected. In the 1970ties the project of revitalization of Pocitelj as an Art
Colony and a place of artistic inspiration gives new
life to the ancient city. (Ref.4,5,6) The whole city
was declared a National Monument. It’s important
strategic role during the 13th to 17th century gave the
power of its inhabitant to build up one of the most
important, and best preserved ensembles within the
city walls in this region.
Figure 16. View of the entire settlement with city
walls, towers and structures. In the center are the
Pocitelj mosque – Šišman Ibrahim paša one of the
finest achievements of the classical Ottoman style
of single-room domed mosques in BiH., It was
built in 1563. It dominates and defines the urban
fabric of the town and its natural surroundings
and the Gavrankapetanovic house next to it.
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Figure 17. archive photo before the restoration of
1970-ties
History. Placed on a dominant position, and
with its large imposing volume, the house expresses clearly the function of its proud former owners
who were the Capitans the protectors of the settlement. Built at the turn from 16th to the 17th-century, the structure was a large family house. After
the WWII the complex was turn into a tourist hotel
with a restaurant, and later it was adapted into an
artist residence and colony. In that period the restoration changed the appearance of the front elevation
and interiors were not according to the traditional
layout. 4New function ignored the essential elements of this ensemble and its authenticity disintegrated. Large alterations to the structure - nearly all
the wooden structure was replaced by a reinforcedconcrete which was then the main trend. In addition
to these procedures all the elements in the interior
have been replaced with modern pieces of furniture. After the war 1992-1995, Gavrankapetanovic
ensemble remained in poor condition.
Figure 18. Photo after the restoration, taken
in 1980-ties It is visible that the windows were
„orientalized“
4 Džemal Čelić: Enterijeri, pitanje njihove zaštite i adaptacija,
Naše starine X, Sarajevo 1965.
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technics technologies education management
The front elevation had its original windows restored and the rooms’ layouts as one can see on the
floor-plan are consistent with the original intent. The
materials used were stone and wood with replacing
the reinforced concrete where it was possible. The
main sanitary block was introduced into the basement in order to respect the sanctity of the room.
Figure 19. Photo taken after the 1993 destruction
Description. The ensemble has an elaborate
and developed disposition, the division into haremluk and selamluk, consists of two larger buildings
and two smaller ones. Haremluk was used by the
captain with his family, a larger part that is used
for receiving guests, servants and service facilities with a spacious divanhana (common open
space on the floor) on the first floor was directly
related to single-flight staircase with wooden hajat
(open-roofed hall on the ground) and exit to the
courtyard. Rooms on the ground and first floor
were used for housing, with all the accompanying
equipment. Sanitary facilities were located in the
courtyard; each room had a traditional washroom
space in musandera (cupboard).
In the basic design of this house, the hall had a
special significance. It was the commonly shared
space, which connected all the rooms issuing onto
it. As well as providing easy access to the rooms,
it served as a gathering place for the entire family. The parts of the hall, which were out of the
way, had sofas and benches for sitting. On the other hand, each room was designed so that it could
serve any purpose of day-to-day living.
Destruction. Destruction of Pocitelj during
1993, was severe. The entire city was nearly destroyed. The house was damaged by dynamite
that was placed inside the minaret of the mosque,
damaging the roof. The building was completely
burned and remained unattended until 2002 when
the government decided to make a Program of the
permanent protection of Pocitelj and this housing
complex was a part of it.
Restoration and current use. The basic decision
for restoration was to respect the original structure
and still make it functional for the Artists’ Colony.
482
Figure 20. Floorplan of Gavrankapetanovic –
Art Colony Complex
Figure 21. View of the Art Colony after restoration, photo taken in 2005
Conclusions
The architecture. The uniqueness of each house
is achieved with variations of the basic scheme of
the essential functional units: flexible and multifunctional rooms, semi-open spaces (hayat and
divanhana) open spaces of the courtyards and gardens was the architectural code than can be repeated, adapted and enhanced for each specific confluence of external elements, climate, morphology,
urban composition. This house is open to change,
never definitively formed, which brings vividness
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and charm of accidental in the urban environment.
Reduction of furniture and equipment in rooms on
two basic elements: the sofa and musandera (cupboard) visually and spiritually purifies the place
constantly reminding us of the essence and the
heavy burden of modern consumerism. The flexibility allowed the house to function in two separate units: an intimate, family and the public or the
business section. It also accommodated different
use of space during summer and winter.
Great efforts were made to fit the house into
its natural surroundings, which was sometimes
blended into the complex as its integral part. In
this process of blending, however, nature was
left unchanged, as if it was caught by a net in the
merging with spaces of the house.
The objects were a fusion of indigenous vernacular traditions, oriental and Mediterranean
influences. During the construction of residential
houses the use of local materials typical of the
area, was the sensible and effective solution. This
means that in the arid Herzegovina climate thick
stone masonry walls and slate roofs defined the
structural aspects of the house.
The restoration. Restoration and reconstruction
of these complexes allowed us to reflect upon the
simplicity and ingenuity of the traditional builder.
As the traditional house was in permanent metamorphosis, we can perceive the reconstruction and
restoration as integral parts of this process, as just
another layer of history. In these extreme cases of
total destruction, it is justified and necessary to intervene in order to preserve the knowledge on the
culture of living in Bosnia and Herzegovina.
References
1. Dušan Grabrijan i Juraj Neidhardt, Arhitektura
Bosne i Hercegovine i put u savremeno, Ljudska
pravica, Ljubljana, 1957.
2. Amir Pašic, Prilog proucavanja islamskog stambenog graditeljstva u Jugoslaviji na primjeru Mostara,
koliko je stara stambena arhitektura Mostara autohtona pojava – doktorska disertacija, Zagreb, 1989
5. Celic, Džemal, Pocitelj grad-muzej, (Pocitelj, a museum town) Capljina, Mogorjelo Tourist Association,
1961
6. Pašic, Amir, Program – Research of Intermixing Islam and Christianity in Architecture, The Conservation of Pocitelj Old Town, Mostar-Pocitelj, 1991
7. Jutraz A., Voigt A., Zupancic T.: 3D city models as
understandable design interfaces for lay public,
Technics Technologies Education Management TTEM, Volume 6, Number 4, pp 890-901
Projects
1. Muslibegovic, Lakšic and Ramic housing complexes
restored as part of the Mostar Rehabilitation Project
(Cooperation of IRCICA Mostar 2004 and the Aga
Khan Trust for Culture and World Monuments Fund
Mostar Project)
2. Gavrankapetanovic complex as project (Cooperation
of the Aga Khan Trust for Culture and World Monuments Fund Mostar Project and the Institute for Protection of Heritage Mostar)
Figure s credits
1. Figure 1 Ortho photo Mostar, 2005_
2. Figure 2-15 Made by authors of the article as parts
of the Mostar Rehabilitation Project (Cooperation
of IRCICA Mostar 2004 and the Aga Khan Trust for
Culture and World Monuments Fund Mostar Project)
3. Figure 16- Panoramic photo of Pocitelj, courtesy of
Project Coordination Unit PCU, Mostar
4. Figure 17,18_ Archive photos Ciro Rajic, obtained
for the project of Reconstruction of the Art Colony
Pocitelj
5. Figure 19,20,21 Made by authors of the article as
a part of the Pocitelj Art Colony restoration project
(Cooperation of the Aga Khan Trust for Culture and
World Monuments Fund Mostar Project and the Institute for Protection of Heritage Mostar)
Corresponding Author
Aida Idrizbegovic Zgonic,
Architecture Faculty in Sarajevo,
Bosnia and Herzegovina,
E-mail: aidaiz@af.unsa.ba
3. Pašic, Amir, Celebrating Mostar, Mostar 2005
4. Celic, Džemal, Naše starine VII, Pocitelj na Neretvi
- Urbanisticko-arhitektonska studija s osvrtom na
problematiku održavanja (Pocitelj on the Neretva:
Urban planning and architectural study with reference to maintenance issues), Sarajevo, 1960.
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
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technics technologies education management
Traffic noise pollution in Belgrade by using
zonal evaluation method
Boris Antic, Milan Vujanic, Dalibor Pesic, Dusko Pesic
University of Belgrade, The Faculty of Transport and Traffic Engineering, Serbia
Abstract
Traffic has a large number of advantages but it
also has a large number of negative consequences.
These negative consequences do not consist of traffic accidents, traffic jam and people and property
infringement only, but also of environmental pollution by harmful substances and by noise. Traffic
noise largely contributes to creating so-called communal noise, which inhabitants of some area are
exposed to. The communal noise has a significant
influence on human abilities and health, therefore
it is necessary to determine the levels of communal
noise and therefore the levels of traffic noise which
are acceptable for the inhabitants. Traffic safety and
traffic ecology researches show different ways of
measuring and determining traffic noise intensity,
which is a prerequisite to define the current state
and to manage successfully noise pollution. In this
work, communal noise, which largely comes from
traffic noise, was measured using the method which
implies that the populated area (city, town etc) had
previously been divided, bearing in mind the characteristics of the area, to: residential-only zones, industrial zones, school zones and so, and then, measuring the noise and comparing the measured noise
levels to the statutory values to determine whether
and to which extent was the allowable noise level in
a certain zone exceeded. It was determined that in
all the researched zones, the noise level was higher
than the prescribed and that it was necessary to implement a series of measures in order to reduce the
noise to the level prescribed.
Key words: traffic noise, communal noise,
zones, measuring
1. Introduction
Negative traffic consequences are many, and
consist of the influence on the urban form of the
city, and traffic jams on the street network as a
484
consequence of the inability of the existing infrastructure to accept an increasing number of the
motor vehicles. Negative traffic influences in city
areas directly affect on the emission of harmful
substances to increase and traffic noise level to
become higher and higher. Noise pollution has become the main problem of huge urban areas. The
number of noise emitters has became larger and
more various. The noise emission is characterized
by a number of specific features which are conditioned by physical principles of sound propagation through space (reflection, absorption, diffraction and so). The main problem of noise pollution
is that even people indoors are exposed to it, and
human body didn’t develop physiological mechanism of defence against this phenomenon.
Noise has become an increasing problem for the
citizens of the European Union and now it is one
of the primary goals of national and international
legislation, and therefore a EU directive (2002/49/
EC) refers to noise assessment and management
and its goal is to create a more quiet and comfortable environment for all citizens of Europe (Directive 2002/49/EC of the European Parliament and
the Council of June 2002, Official Journal of the
European Communities).
Kryer (1985) stressed that an excessive shortterm exposure to noisy environments might cause
certain hearing loss, whereas a long-term exposure to noisy environments causes psychological
stress and some health disruptions. Similar to this
research, Bodin et al (2009) and Allen et el (2009)
conducted a research where they concluded that
there is a significant dependence between traffic
noise and cardio vascular diseases. Many other researches (Nelsson, 1987; Aparicio et el., 1993; Lercher, 1995; Williams and Mc Creae, 1995; Morrell et al., 1997; Franssen et al., 2002; Georgiadou
et al., 2004;) determined that traffic noise is the
main cause of noise sources which somehow affect human health.
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The researches show that in the cities of Europe
about 57% of people live in areas where noise level
is above 55dB, and about 9% in areas where that
level is higher than 65dB, and therefore by a simple
extrapolation of these percentages we come to the
results that across Europe over 210 million people
are exposed to the noise level above 55dB and more
than 38 million to the noise level higher than 65 dB
(EEA Report, Ensuring quality of life in Europe’s
cities and towns, No 5/2009). From all sound sources the largest percent belongs to the sound energy
of traffic, about 81%, whereas the other sources,
industry, building etc, make about 19%. Of total
acoustic energy that traffic produces, about 50 %
is the noise made by road traffic, 28 % by railroad
and 23 % by air traffic (Public Enterprise “Roads
of Serbia” - Feasibility studies of technical measures for decreasing harmful effects of noise made
by road traffic at the selected sections of national
roads, Belgrade). Pronello (2003) in his research
also stresses that road traffic is the largest source of
noise, and has a participation of about 90% in total
traffic noise. Similar to the researches previously
mentioned, Saadu et al. (1998) and Skanberg and
Ohrstrom (2002) determined that traffic noise is the
largest noise pollution source, so according to that
many researchers aldo analyzed the problems related to traffic noise (Zannin et al., 2001; Zannin et
al., 2002; Li et al., 2002; Bhadram, 2003; Pandya,
2003; Calixto et al., 2003; Ramis et al., 2003; Gaja
et al., 2003; Sommerhoff et al., 2004; Abo-Qudais,
2004; Theebe, 2004; Goergiadou et al., 2004; AboQudais and Alhiary, 2007; Pathak et el., 2008; Fung
and Lee, 2011; Brigic et al., 2011a; Brigic et al.,
2011b, Shukla, 2011).
2. The goal of the research
Having analyzed the significance of defining
and precisely determining noise level through our
experiences, and especially by exploring methodologies and the results obtained by implementing these methodologies, all in purpose of noise
level determining (Zannin et al., 2002; Li et al.,
2002; Pandya, 2003; Calixto et al., 2003; Gaja
et al., 2003; Goergiadou et al., 2004; Alberola et
al., 2005; Abo-Qudais and Alhiary, 2007; Pathak
et el., 2008; Fung and Lee, 2011), we have determined the goal of this research, and that is to indiVolume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
cate the growing problem of the increasing communal, that is traffic noise, especially in areas or
zones where people reside, whether to rest, recreate or work. Bearing that in mind, in this work we
analyzed noise level in predefined zones: rest and
recreation zone, residental-only zone, industrial
zone etc, and we also analyzed noise level in both
day and night conditions. Based on the measurements and researches carried out, and comparing
the measured level of communal, that is traffic
noise, to the maximum statutory level, it is necessary to determine whether certain zones, and to
which extent, deviate from the statutory noise levels. Depending on it, it is possible, if needed, to
implement appropriate measures in order to influence on bringing the measured noise level to the
desired, which is statutory level.
3. Methods
In the purpose of recognizing the significance
of traffic noise pollution problem and defining the
current state, which are prerequisite for communal
noise management, measuring points in Belgrade
are classified to seven types of locations-zones,
which differ in contents, and they are: residential
zone, zone with high traffic volume, central city
zone, industrial zone, hospital zone, school zone
and recreation zone. Authoritative noise values
were compared to limit values based on time of
day and type of location in order to determine noise
level exceeding and to identify the places where
it’s necessary to harmonize the noise level to the
limit value, whereby the values of the authoritative
noise level were given for both day period (from 6
a.m. to 22 p.m.) and night period from 22 p.m. to 6
a.m.( Sl. Glasnik RS, br. 54/92-Official Gazette of
The Republic of Serbia, number 54/92). The final
result in this method is the analysis of exceeding
intensity in zones, observed with regard to maximum value of the authoritative noise level which
was noted at some of the measuring points, and
with regard to the average values for the period
2006-2010 for the specific zone, and the exceeding of the limit noise level was observed relative
and percentage. Besides that, the incidence of
exceeding the measured authoritative noise level
through measuring points inside the defined zones
was also observed.
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According to (Sl. Glasnik RS, br. 75/2010- Official Gazette of The Republic of Serbia, number
75/2010), the authoritative noise level in decibels
(dB[A]) is A-weighted equivalent level during a
defined time interval, to which the corrections are
added, due to noise characteristics (the presence of
tons, impulses, or other audio information), calculated using the following form:
L A e q = 10 l o g 10
1
Tm
t
2
∫
t1
p A2 ( t )
2
p0
Where is:
t1 – initial measurement time
t2 – final measurement time
Tm – integration time (t2 – t1)
pA(t) – current level of sound pressure weighted
by A-characteristic
P0 – referent sound pressure level
For the needs of this research we have used
the data from all 30 measuring points in Belgrade
for the period 2006-2010, which were obtained
by continuous monitoring of noise levels, that
is, the parameters LMAX (L1), L5, L10, L50, L90, L95
LMIN (L99), and also LAeq,15min, and LE during time
intervals of 15 minutes. Measuring equipment
was calibrated before and after the conducted
measurements using the device RION NC 74, and
extended measurements were made with modern
instruments for noise measuring RION NL18, so
that the authoritative noise level was obtained with
digital signal processing by implementing the following relation:
L A e q = 10 l o g
1
N
N
å 10
L A ( i ) /10
i =1
Where the sampling time is 10 ms, and N is the
number of sampling.
Unlike the period when three measurings were
made during day period and two during night period, the implemented procedure of continuous- all
day measuring provided exact calculation of LAeq,
and not its estimation, which further enhanced the
accuracy of the results and validity of the conclusions.
486
4. Results and discussion
Noise level measuring in residential zone was
made at eight measuring points. The highest value
was measured in Ugrinovacka street, in Zemun,
when noise level of 75 dB[A] was recorded, which
is 20 dB[A] more than the limited noise level during day conditions for a city zone with a predominantly residential content. The street with the lowest measured noise level in day conditions is Bele
Bartoka street in Borca, where the allowable noise
level was exceeded only in 2009, and which is the
only one of eight measuring points whose results
are below the limited level when we observe the
average authoritative noise level in residential zone
for the period 2006-2010 (Table 1). Analyzing the
average measured noise levels at measuring points,
we come to the conclusion that the average level in
residential zone is 59.5 dB[A], which is 4.5 dB[A]
more than the limited value for day conditions.
During night period, which has a limited noise
level of 45 dB[A], exceedings were recorded at
all measuring points, except the measuring point
in Radojke Lakic street during the year 2006, and
the largest deviation was recorded at Ugrinovacka
street in Zemun (Table 1), where the maximum
value of 70 dB[A] was recorded in 2006. Bele
Bartoka street in Borca is the place least polluted by noise. Analyzing the average authoritative
noise levels we were able to determine that the average authoritative noise level for night conditions
in resident zone is 54.9 dB[A].
Noise measuring in city zone with high traffic
volume was made at ten measuring points (Table 2),
and the highest value of authoritative noise level of
82 dB[A] was recorded in Bulevar Despota Stefana
in 2010. If we observe the whole period of five years,
we can see that Krivolacka street had the highest average noise level of 74.2 dB[A]. Zahumska street is
the measuring point where the lowest noise level during day conditions was recorded, and the exceeding
of the limited level was recorded only once during
the period of five years, and it was in the year 2010.
Also, Zahumska street is the only one of ten measuring points whose results are below the limited level
when we observe the average authoritative noise level in residential zone for the period 2006-2010. The
average authoritative noise level in zone with high
traffic volume is 68.1 dB[A] for day conditions.
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technics technologies education management
Table 1. Authoritative noise level* in residential zone in Belgrade (dB[A])
Measuring point
Average
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
Day Night Day Night Day Night Day Night Day Night Day Night
Blagoja Parovica
65.8
60.0
67
59
65
59
66
60
65
60
66
62
Borca, Bele Bartoka 54.8** 49.0 54**
46
55** 50 54** 49
56
50 55** 50
Jurija Gagarina
61.0
55.4
60
54
61
56
61
55
63
57
60
55
Perside Milenkovic
53.4
51.8 55**
47
56
50 55** 48 50** 64 51** 50
Pohorska
62.6
56.4
59
55
64
54
65
58
59
56
66
59
Radojke Lakic
55.6
49.6
57
45**
56
47
60
52 50** 56 55** 48
Stevana Filipovica
56.2
54.8
57
52
61
52
58
55 49** 66
56
49
Zemun, Ugrinovacka 66.8
62.2 75*** 70*** 60
54
66
61
67
65
66
61
Limited level
55
45
55
45
55
45
55
45
55
45
55
45
*(Source: Ecological Bulletin, Belgrade City Government - Secretariat for Environmental Protection. Volume 22, February 2011)
**(Authoritative noise level value bellow limited noise level)
***(Authoritative noise level maximum value)
Table 2. Authoritative noise level* in zone with high traffic volume in Belgrade (dB[A])
Average
Measuring point
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
Day Night Day Night Day Night Day Night Day Night Day Night
Bul. Despota Stefana
69.8
65.4 65** 59
68
65
66
63
68
64 82*** 76***
Arsenija Carnojevica
67.8
64.2
67
64
68
64
70
67
68
65
66
61
Bul. Kralja Aleksandra 65.4
60.0 63** 60 64** 60 62** 54** 69
66
69
60
Goce Delceva
66.0
60.0 63** 57
67
62
70
65
70
66 60** 50**
Karadjordjeva
72.0
67.4 63** 58
75
70
75
71
74
69
73
69
Krivolacka
74.2
70.2
73
69
75
71
74
70
75
71
74
70
Zahumska
60.6** 58.8 65** 61 58** 49** 58** 50** 55** 69
67
65
Vojvode Stepe
66.2
63.2 58** 49** 68
63 65** 60 65** 73
75
71
Vojvode Misica
68.6
61.6
68
63
71
68
73
70
70
56 61** 51**
Zemun, Glavna
70.2
65.0 57** 50** 75
70
73
68
73
69
73
68
Limited level
65
55
65
55
65
55
65
55
65
55
65
55
*(Source: Ecological Bulletin, Belgrade City Government - Secretariat for Environmental Protection. Volume 22, February 2011)
**(Authoritative noise level value bellow limited noise level)
***(Authoritative noise level maximum value)
Table 3. Authoritative noise level* in central city zone in Belgrade (dB[A])
Measuring
point
Average
Day Night
dalmatinska
64.6
56.6
Zeleni venac
72.4
67.4
Narodnog fronta 65.6
63.2
Nemanjina
69.6
63.6
Uzun Mirkova
63.4** 59.2
Limited level
65
55
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
Day Night Day Night Day Night Day Night Day Night
63**
56
64**
57
63** 54** 68
57 65**
59
72
68 73*** 70*** 73*** 70*** 72
68
72
61
66
60
67
63
67
64
62
65
66
64
70
64
71
66
70
66
67
56
70
66
63**
57
65**
61
65**
60 60** 58 64**
60
65
55
65
55
65
55
65
55
65
55
*(Source: Ecological Bulletin, Belgrade City Government - Secretariat for Environmental Protection. Volume 22, February 2011)
**(Authoritative noise level value bellow limited noise level)
***(Authoritative noise level maximum value)
As in day conditions, the street with the largest
deviation in night conditions is Bulevar Despota
Stefana (76 dB[A]), and Zahumska street has the
lowest deviation compared to the limited level (49
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dB[A]). The average authoritative noise level in
zone with high traffic volume for the period 20062010, in night conditions, is higher than the limited noise level at all measuring points (Table 2),
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and Krivolacka street is the measuring place with
the highest average (70.2 dB[A]). In zone with
high traffic the average authoritative noise level in
night conditions is 63.6 dB[A].
As representative places of central city zone
in Belgrade, five locations were chosen (Table 3).
Uzun Mirkova street is a measuring point where
the recorded noise level in day conditions did
not exceed the limited value, and in Dalmatinska
street the exceeding was recorded only in 2009.
The largest exceeding was recorded at Zeleni
venac (73 dB[A]), and the average authoritative
noise level for central city zone is 67.1 dB[A].
In night periods at all measuring points the limited noise level was exceeded, except during 2008, in
Dalmatinska street (Table 3). Similar to day period,
for the observed five-year time, the largest deviation
in night conditions was recorded at Zeleni Venac,
whereas the lowest values were recorded at Dalmatinska street. The average value of the authoritative
noise level in central city zone is 62 dB[A].
Maximum allowable noise values in industrial
zone vary depending on the border zone of the
mentioned industrial zone. The noise in industrial zone mostly comes from industrial plants and
working machines, and protection policy from the
industrial noise starts with feasibility study where
the influence of noise on neighbour zones and
environment is estimated. At measuring points
in industrial zone (Table 4) the highest measured
noise level in day periods was recorded at Kraljice
Jelene street (69 dB[A]), the lowest in Gandijeva
street (50 dB[A]), and the average authoritative
noise level in day periods in industrial zones during the observed period was 60.4 dB[A].
During the night periods in industrial zones
(Table 4) the largest measured noise level was in
Ustanicka street and is 67 dB[A], which exceeds
the limited value of noise independently of the
neighbour city zone, because in the night conditions the maximum limited noise level is 55 dB[A]
in city centre zone, in craft, commercial, administrative and administrative area with apartments
zone, and in the zone along the roads, highways
and city streets. The measuring point with the
lowest noise level in industrial zone during the observed period is Gandijeva street (45 dB[A]), and
the calculated average authoritative noise level in
night conditions in industrial zone during the observed period was 54.9 dB[A].
Measuring point in Visegradska street represents
a hospital zone (Table 5) where Clinical center and
a number of specialized hospitals are situated. Maximum allowable noise level in hospital zones is 50
Table 4. Authoritative noise level* in industrial zone in Belgrade (dB[A])
Measuring point
Gandijeva
Kraljice Jelene
Ustanicka
Ford – Grmec
Limited level****
Average
Day
54.8
63.8
65.2
57.6
2006
Night
48.2**
56.4
60.4
54.4**
55
2007
2008
2009
2010
Day Night Day Night Day Night Day Night Day Night
52 45** 56 49**
50
46** 50 47** 66 54**
61 55** 63
56 69*** 57
62
57
64
57
67
59
67
61
66
60
60 65*** 66
57
60 54** 54 54**
57
53** 58 54** 59
57
55
55
55
55
55
*(Source: Ecological Bulletin, Belgrade City Government - Secretariat for Environmental Protection. Volume 22, February 2011)
**(Authoritative noise level value bellow limited noise level)
***(Authoritative noise level maximum value)
****(Limited level for day conditions is not precisely defined by the law, because it depends on the type of the neighbour zone
and the researches conducted in feasibility study, and as for the night periods, the maximum allowable level in city conditions of
55 dB[A] was taken.)
Table 5. Authoritative noise level* in hospital zone in Belgrade (dB[A])
Measuring
point
Visegradska
Limited level
Average
2006
Day Night Day Night Day
56.4 49.0
57
48
57
50
40
50
40
50
2007
Night
50***
40
2008
Day Night Day
56
48
54
50
40
50
2009
Night
49
40
2010
Day
58***
50
Night
50***
40
*(Source: Ecological Bulletin, Belgrade City Government - Secretariat for Environmental Protection. Volume 22, February 2011)
***(Authoritative noise level maximum value)
488
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dB[A] for day conditions and 40 dB[A] during night
periods, and the average authoritative noise level
during the observed period had the value of 56.4
db[A] for day and 49 dB[A] for night conditions.
During the observed five year time the limited noise
level was constantly exceeded, whereby during day
periods the largest exceeding (of 8 dB[A]) was recorded in 2008. In night conditions the largest noise
level (50 dB[A]) was recorded in 2007 and 2010.
As a measuring point in school zone (Table 6),
the location of Gimnazija (High school) in Zemun
was chosen. During the observed period the limited
noise level was mostly exceeded, exept in 2009 during day period, whereby the maximum measured
authoritative noise value of 73 dB[A] was recorded
in both day and night conditions. In school zone,
the average measured authoritative noise level during the observed period in day conditions was 61.2
db[A], and 61 dB[A] in night conditions.
Values of the authoritative noise level in recreation zones (Table 7) in the observed period were
above limited values all the time. In day conditions
maximum value of 58 dB[A] was recorded in 2009,
and the average value in five-year time was 54.6
dB[A]. Maximum value in night conditions of 54
dB[A] was recorded in 2006, and the average value
in five-year time in night conditions was 49.6 dB[A].
Exceeding intensity in the zones was observed
with regard to the maximum noise level (MAX)
which was noted at some of the measuring points,
and compared to the average during the period
2006-2010 (AVG) for a specified zone, and relative and percentage exceeding of the limited
noise level (LIM) was also observed (Table 8). In
all zones, except the industrial zone during night
periods, the values of the measured authoritative
level were above the maximum allowable noise
level.
Table 6. Authoritative noise level* in school zone in Belgrade (dB[A])
Average
Measuring point
2006
2007
2008
Day Night Day Night Day Night Day Night
Gimnazija Zemun 61.2 61.0
71
68
57
50
56
46
Limited level
50
40
50
40
50
40
50
40
2009
Day
49**
50
Night
73***
40
2010
Day
73***
50
Night
68
40
*(Source: Ecological Bulletin, Belgrade City Government - Secretariat for Environmental Protection. Volume 22, February 2011)
**(Authoritative noise level value bellow limited noise level)
***(Authoritative noise level maximum value)
Table 7. Authoritative noise level* in recreation zone in Belgrade (dB[A])
Average
Measuring point
2006
2007
2008
Day Night Day Night Day Night Day
54.6 49.6
53 54*** 55
51
53
50
40
50
40
50
40
50
Kalemegdan
Limited level
Night
50
40
2009
2010
Day Night Day Night
58***
47
54
46
50
40
50
40
*(Source: Ecological Bulletin, Belgrade City Government - Secretariat for Environmental Protection. Volume 22, February 2011)
***(Authoritative noise level maximum value)
Table 8. The intensity of limited noise level exceeding in Belgrade through zones
Zone
Residential
High traffic
Central
Industrial
Hospital
School
Recreation
Max
Db[a]
Day
75
82
73
69
58
73
58
Night
70
76
70
65
50
73
54
Max–lim
Db[a]
Day
20
17
8
*
8
23
8
Night
25
21
15
10
10
33
14
Max–lim
∆%
Day
36.4
26.2
12.3
*
16.0
46.0
16.0
Night
55.6
38.2
27.3
18.2
20.0
82.5
35.0
Avg
Db[a]
Day
59.5
68.1
67.1
60.4
56.4
61.2
54.6
Night
54.9
63.6
60.4
54.9
49.0
61.0
49.6
Avg–lim
Db[a]
Day
4.5
3.1
2.1
*
6.4
11.2
4.6
Night
19.9
8.6
5.4
0
9
21.0
9.6
Avg–lim
∆%
Day
8.2
4.8
3.2
*
12.8
22.4
9.2
Night
44.2
15.6
10.8
0
22.5
52.5
24.0
*(Limited level for day conditions in industrial zone is not precisely defined by the law, because it depends on the type of the
neighbour zone and the researches conducted in feasibility study, and as for the night periods, the maximum allowable level in
city conditions of 55 dB[A] was taken.)
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The largest exceeding of the maximum measured authoritative noise level value was recorded in school zone, where the exceeding in night
conditions was 82.5% bigger than the allowable
value, and in second place is the exceeding in
residential zone which is 55.6% larger than the allowable value (Table 8). If we observe the average
values of the measured authoritative noise levels
for the period 2006-2010, through zones, we can
see that noise vulnerability sequence is identical,
because in the first place is school zone where the
exceeding in night conditions is 52.5 %, and then
residential zone where the exceeding, also in night
conditions, is 44.2 % (Table 8).
Observing the exceeding distribution at measuring points, we realize that in all zones there is a significant noise level exceeding. All data from measuring points concerning the measured authoritative
noise levels through years were above the limited
values in hospital and recreation zone, and also in
school zone during night conditions (Table 9). In
residential zone during night conditions in 97.5%
of cases the date from measuring points were above
the limited values, and with regard to noise vulnerability, the next one is central city zone where the
exceeding happens in 96% of cases.
Table 9. Exceeding of the limited noise level distribution in Belgrade through zones
Zone
% Measuring points with exceedings
Residental
High traffic
Central
Industrial
Hospital
School
Recreation
Day
72.5
68.0
64.0
*
100.0
80.0
100.0
Night
97.5
86.0
96.0
40.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
*(Limited level for day conditions in industrial zone is not
precisely defined by the law, because it depends on the type of
the neighbour zone and the researches conducted in feasibility study, and as for the night periods, the maximum allowable
level in city conditions of 55 dB[A] was taken.)
5. Conclusion
The measuring method of communal, that is,
traffic noise, shown in this work, is harmonized
with EU Directive (2002/49/EC), which is, on
the other hand, implemented in the Rule book
490
(Sl. Glasnik RS, br. 75/2010- Official Gazette,
no 75/2010). Implementing the noise measuring
method and analyzing the noise level in specific
zones in Belgrade, it was concluded that the population is endangered by the noise in all zones, no
matter whether it’s a residential or industrial zone.
Namely, noise measuring methodology implemented in this research and presented in this work,
has shown that allowable noise levels were exceeded in all zones. As an example of measuring
results, if we observe the average noise value for
the observed period, noise level exceeding goes
from 2,1 dB[A] in central city zone, to 11,2 dB[A]
in school zones during day periods, and from 5,4
dB[A] in central city zone during night period, to
21 dB[A] in school zones. Beside the fact that allowable noise level exceeding was registered in
all zones in Belgrade, noise is also widely spread,
that is, at large number of measuring points allowable noise level exceeding was registered (in 40%
to 100% of cases at measuring points allowable
noise level exceeding was registered).
Such an alarming situation concerning environmental pollution by noise demands strategic
planning and systematic work of all stakeholders
towards achieving the goals, that is towards reaching the statutory noise levels, because an excessive
exposure to noise affects both human health and
population productivity, and therefore it affects
life quality. Having in mind that traffic noise has
the largest influence on creating communal noise,
the first thing that should be done is to propose
measures directed towards traffic regulation and
control. Some of the possible measures directed
towards noise deceasing might be:
–– Noise control, that is, noise decreasing at its
very source, through control of the vehicle
systems correctness (technical inspection);
–– Noise emission monitoring and determining
endangered city zones, making noise maps
(noise mapping) where different noise levels
at city territory would be marked by different
colors. This would enable easy identification
of zones of increased noise emission;
–– Systematic planning, design and construction
of roads;
–– Speed limit in residential zones, movement
prohibition for certain vehicle categories
during certain time intervals in certain zones,
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to divert transit traffic, to design traffic
signals and use intelligent system for traffic
regulation, to ban vehicles the use of sirens;
–– Promoting the use and import of environmentally friendly vehicles;
–– The use of low-noise pavement surfaces and
tires of optimal parameters;
–– Adding greenery to the zone is a measure
that can be implemented in every zone
independently of its content, and especially
in recreation, residential, hospital and school
zones. This would lead to air pollution
reducing and improve the microclimate of
the city.
As the direction of further, more detailed research, and in purpose of a more precise defining
of measures for traffic noise reducing, it is necessary to bear in mind both absolute dimensions of
noise intensity and other indicators such as traffic
flow, vehicle speed, traffic flow structure, etc.
Acknowledgements
This paper is based on the project TR36027:
"Software development and national database for
strategic management and development of transportation means and infrastructure in road, rail, air
and inland waterways transport using the European transport network models" which is supported
by the Ministry of science and technological development of Republic of Serbia (2011-2014).
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Corresponding Author
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The Faculty of Transport and Traffic Engineering,
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Effect of stretcher position on strength and
stiffness of the chair side frame
Izet Horman, Seid Hajdarevic, Nikola Vukas, Sandra Martinovic, Stefo Sorn
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Sarajevo Bosnia and Herzegovina
Abstract
This paper presents the analysis of stiffness
and strength of chair side frame that is carried out
by analytical and numerical method. The force
method is used in analytical consideration of the
problem. In numerical analysis, the equations for
momentum balance are discretized by the finite
volume technique. The accuracy of the analytical
method is confirmed by comparing the calculated
results with data numerically obtained. The results
have showed that the stiffness and strength of the
chairs side frame are affected by the position and
geometric characteristics of stretcher cross section, which allows selection of its optimal size and
position.
Key words: chair, stress, strain, force method,
finite volume method
1. Introduction
Constructive solutions of some wood products
can be defined as a plane frame or spatial frame
with a closed contour, i.e. additional stretcher use
in the chair construction. These structures are internal statically indeterminate. Frame in the plane
with a closed contour is three times internal statically indeterminate, while the spatial frame with
one closed contour is six times internal statically
indeterminate. Consideration of strength and stiffness such problems are computationally complex
and because of the extensive calculation were impractical until computer technology and numerical
methods utilization.
This paper presents consideration of the stretcher position and geometric characteristics effect
on stiffness and strength of the chair side frame.
The study was conducted in order to provide better understanding of these issues and to define the
accuracy of analytical method that has been used,
which contributes to the rational design of wood
made structures.
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2. Physical and mathematical model
Physical model of a chair side frame is shown
in Figure 1. Chair frame was exposed to mechanical load in a way to describe the chair tilting back
when the front leg is slid along the ground. Load
shown in Figure 1 was used only in order to illustrate calculation and does not represent a recommended load for sizing and it is not the only load
which the chair structure is exposed to during the
exploitation [1].
l = 400 mm
c = 400 mm
h = 800 mm
F
l
F1 =
h
Cross section dimensions:
- front and back leg – back post 30x25 mm,
- side rail 50x25 mm.
Figure 1. Scheme of chair construction loading
and its dimensions
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In an analytical solving of statically indeterminate problems, additional requirements are introduced which are being defined based on the conditions of deformation structures. Those conditions
depend on the applied methods.
Additional condition for force method [2] used is:
n
d i = å a i j Q j + d i F = 0 i = 1,2,..., n ....... (1)
j =1
where is Q j - generalized forces, aij - influential coefficient of elasticity (aij Qj - displacement
in the direction of force Qi, caused by a force Qj) i
diF - displacement point i in the direction of force
Qj due to the default load.
Expression (1) is reduced to a system of canonical equations
a 11 Q 1 + a 13 Q 3 = - d 1 F
a 22 Q2 = -d 2F
Analytical solution was obtained by using the
MATLAB software package.
In numerical modeling of stress and strain certain assumptions were provided:
–– the material is isotropic,
–– joints are ideal rigid.
Distribution of stress and strain in solid-body
exposed to mechanical stress is described by momentum balance equation for the steady state [3].
∂s i j
∂xj
where is s ij - stress tensor, x j - Cartesian spatial coordinates, and f i - volume forces.
Constitutive relation is given by Hooke’s Law
. ................... (2)
s i j = l e k k d i j + 2 G e i j ,................... (5)
a 31 Q 1 + a 33 Q 3 = - d 3 F
because is a12 = a21 =0, a23 = a32 = 0.
In Figure 1 are shown internal forces obtained
by solving the system of equations (2).
Defined point displacement of the structure exposed to bending moment, normal and transverse
force are calculated on the basis of expression
n
fi =å
∫
i =1 l
1
MxMx
EIx
n
d z +å
∫
i =1 l
1
Fz Fz
EA
n
d z+ å
∫χ
i =1 l
1
Fy Fy
y
GA
where is M x , Fz and Fy - internal force due to
the default load, M x , Fz and Fy - internal force
due to the unit load which is acting at the section
required displacement, E - modulus of elasticity,
G - shear modulus, I x and A - axial moment of
inertia and cross sectional area and χ = 1,2 - shear
coefficient for rectangular cross section.
Structural deformation resistance of chair
frame was tested by Verešcagin method. According to this method, Maxwell-Mohr integrals (3)
are calculated based on the diagrams that are constructed separately for the internal force due to the
default load and internal force due to the unit load
at the point where displacement is required.
494
where is
1 ∂ui ∂u j
+
2 ∂ x j ∂ x i
,.................... (6)
eij =
l and G are Lame’s constants, and d ij is Kro-
necker delta.
dz
........................................ (3)
+ f i = 0 ,............................ (4)
l=
1, i = j
,G = E , d i j =
(1 + n )(1 - 2n )
0, i ≠ j
1 +n
........................................ (7)
nE
In the above expressions u i are the components of displacement, E is Young’s modulus and
n is Poisson’s ratio.
Boundary conditions must be specified in order
to complete the mathematical model. That can be
either displacements or stresses, i.e.:
u i (x g ) = u 0 ,
........................................ (8)
sij nj = si
,
(
)
gr
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where is n j - a component of normal vector on
the surface edge, and displacement u 0 is zero at
the fixed support.
Governing equations (4) combined with the
constitutive relations (5) are solved by the numerical method based on the final volumes. For calculations software package CATIA is used.
3. Results and discussion
Three constructive solutions chair side frame
are analyzed. Differences between these three examples are only in relation to the dimensions of
stretchers cross section, which are shown in Table
1. For all three cases influence of the distance between stretcher and side rail on the bending moment and on the normal stress in the zone of joining side rail and back leg, stretcher and back leg
as well as in sections on half the length of side rail
and stretcher are analyzed. Previously, in order to
complete the analysis and mutual comparison of
used methods, horizontal displacement of the back
end point is determined.
Table 1. Geometrical characteristics of stretchers
cross section
Example
Cross
section
area
Cross section
moment of
inertia
I
II
III
mm2
50x25
25x15
20x10
cm4
26,04
1,95
0,66
Moment
of inertia
ratio
1
13,33
39,06
For the purpose of calculation, the elastic modulus and Poisson ratio were used for isotropic material, E=14,010 GPa, which corresponds to the
longitudinal modulus of elasticity of beech wood,
and n = 0,3 [4]. Chair frame was loaded with a
vertical concentrated force of 600 N at the point
B and with a horizontal concentrated force at the
F
l
point E with intensity F1 =
. Dimensions of the
h
frame that did not change are shown in Figure 1.
Figure 2. Displacement of the point E – stiffness
of chair side frame
Figure 2 shows the horizontal displacements of
the chair back end point (point E in Figure 1) obtained by analytical and numerical means. A good
agreement between analytical values and numerical results can be noticed, as expected. Agreement
of the results is less for examples where the stiffness of stretcher, particularly bending, are lower
and in the case of its smaller distance from the
side rail (length b). The highest relative error is
about 5% and applies to the example in which the
stretcher is 5 cm away from the side rail and for
stretcher cross section 20x10mm.
The rigidity of the chair side frame depends
on the position of stretcher. The rigidity of the
structure increases with distance increasing between the stretcher and side rail. Also influence
of stretcher cross-section on stiffness is notable.
Position of stretcher at a maximum stiffness is different for the three analyzed examples. In the case
of stretcher 50x25mm, distance b is about 70% of
the leg length while stretcher 20x10 mm occupies
the lower position.
Figure 3. Bending moment in the back leg joint
with the side rail
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Figure 3 shows bending moment in the back
leg joint with the side rail (point C in Figure 1).
Bending moment increases with distance increase
between stretcher and side rail for all three cases
and maximum value occurs at the extreme lower
stretcher position. Effect of stretcher position on
bending moment is the greatest for the stretcher
50x25mm.
in Figure 5. Total normal stress was obtained by
superposition the normal stress due to axial force
and bending moment in the analyzed section. It
can be obtained that the maximum stress occurs
in the case of final lower position of the stretcher.
The minimum value of stress is for the stretcher
50x25 with lowest distance b, while distance b is
about 30% of leg length for two other examples.
Figure 4. Bending moment in the back leg joint
with the stretcher
Figure 6. Normal stress in the back leg joint with
the stretcher
Figure 4 shows bending moment in the back
leg joint with the stretcher (point D in Figure 1).
Bending moment decreases with distance increase
between the stretcher and the side rail for example
the first and the minimum value occurs at the extreme lower position stretcher. Effect of the position on stretcher bending moment is the greatest
for that example. Minimum bending moment for
the other two cases occurs at the smallest distance
b. The highest value is when the distance b is about
50% of the leg length for the second example, and
70% for the third.
The intensity of the normal stress depending on
the distance between the stretcher and the side rail
in the back leg joint with the stretcher is shown
in Figure 6. Normal stress decreases linearly with
distance b increase for example the first and it is
lowest at the extreme lower position stretcher. It
can be obtained lower normal stress in the case of
the final upper or final lower position stretcher for
two other examples. Also the influence of the cross
section geometry on the stress intensity is visible,
which is important from the standpoint of proper
selection of stretcher sizes and joint between the
stretcher and the back leg.
Figure 7a shows the bending moment in cross
section at half length of side rail. Bending moment increases with increasing distance between
the stretcher and the side rail for all three cases and
maximum value occurs at the extreme lower position stretcher. There has been little influence of the
stretcher cross-section geometry on the bending
moment in cross section at half length of side rail.
On the other hand, this effect is significant when
analyzing the cross-section at half length of the
stretcher, Figure 7b. Negative values of bending
moment in the case of stretcher distances up to 85%
leg length show that the bending moment Q3 is in
opposite direction from the one that is presented in
Figure 1. For all three cases, the minimum value of
Figure 5. Normal stress in the back leg joint with
the side rail
The intensity of normal stress depending on
the distance between the stretcher and the side rail
in the back leg joint with the side rail is shown
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bending moment occurs when the distance between
the stretcher and the side rail is 85% leg length.
a)
b)
Figure 7. Bending moment in cross section: a)
half length of side rail, b) half length of stretcher
a)
b)
Figure 8. Normal stress in cross section: a) half
length of side rail, b) half length of stretcher
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The intensity of the normal stresses in the cross
section at half length of side rail depending on the
distance between the stretcher and the side rail is
shown in Figure 8a. It can be obtained that the maximum stress occurs in the case of the final lower position of the stretcher. For all examples, minimum
stress value is when distance b is about 22.5% of
leg length. Normal stress in the cross section at half
length of stretcher decreases with distance b increase
and the smallest value is in a case where the distance
between the stretcher and the side rail is 85% leg
length. In this case, the normal stress is a result of the
axial force in the stretcher only. Also, the influence
of the cross section geometry on the stress intensity
is visible, especially when stretcher is in the final top
position. Intensities of bending moment and normal
stress in these cross section are much smaller than in
the cross sections of connecting horizontal and vertical elements of the structure which shows that joints
are critical places of chairs side frame [5, 6, 7].
4. Conclusions
The analysis enables to determine the effect of
stretcher position on strength and stiffness of the
chairs side frame, namely: determining the optimal location and geometric characteristics of the
stretcher cross-section and its effect on the stiffness and strength of construction and its joints.
The analysis has shown that:
–– highest stiffness of the structure is at the
extreme lower position stretcher,
–– bending moment is growing in the back leg
joint with the side rail at increasing distances
between side rail and stretcher, while in the
back leg joint with the stretcher decreasing,
–– normal stress has a minimum value in the
back leg joint with the side rail if the distance
is less than 30% of leg length,
–– the lowest values of normal stress occur in
the back leg joint with the stretcher if the
stretcher holds the final lower positions or
depending on the cross-section stretcher
upper end position.
Developed analytical model allows a fast and
flexible analysis, design and the establishment of
accepted constructive solution chair side frame
justification.
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5. References
1. Eckelman, C. A. Textbook of Product Engineering
and Strength Design of Furniture, West Lafayete,
Indiana, 2003.
2. Dolecek, V.; Karabegovic, I.; Martinovic, D.;
Jurkovic, M.; Blagojevic, D.; Bogdan, Š.; Bijelonja,
I. Elastostaika II dio, Tehnicki fakultet Bihac, Bihac,
2004.
3. Chung, T. J. Applied Continuum Mechanics, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1996.
4. Bodig, J.; Jayne, B. A. Mechanics of Wood and Wood
Composites, Krieger Publ. Comp. Malabar, Florida,
1993.
5. Horman I.; Hajdarevic S.; Martinovic S. and Vukas
N.; 2010. Numerical Analysis of Stress and Strain in a
Wooden Chair, Drvna industrija 61 (3) 151-158, ISSN
0012-6772
6. Horman I.; Hajdarevic S.; Martinovic S. and Vukas N.;
2010. Stiffness and strenght analysis of corner joint,
TTEM, Vol.5, No.1, pp. 48-53 ISSN 1840-1503
7. Horman I.; Martinovic D.; Hajdarevic S.; 2009. Finite volume method for analysis of stress and strain in
wood, Drvna industrija 60 (1) 27-32, ISSN 0012-6772
Corresponding Author
Izet Horman,
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering,
University of Sarajevo,
Bosnia and Herzegovina,
E-mail: horman@mef.unsa.ba
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Statistical analysis of the product of two sums
of Ricean distributed variables and some of
its applications
Fatih Destovic1, Ismet Kalco2
1
2
Pedagogical faculty Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina,
Technical school Zenica, Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Abstract
We present novel exact closed form expressions for the first order statistics, i.e. probability
density function (PDF) and cumulative distribution function (CDF) and accurate closed-form
approximations for the second order statistics,
i.e. level crossing rate (LCR) and average fade
duration (AFD) of the double random process of
two sums of Ricean distributed variables. These
results are then used to study the performances of
multiple input multiple output (MIMO) keyhole
fading channels with space-time block coding.
Numerical results are graphically presented in order to discuss the influence of various system parameters on the performance measures.
Key words: distributed variables, statistical
analysis, fading channels
1. Introduction
. The result-
and
ing PDF then is, according [2],
In probability theory, the Rice distribution or
Rician distribution is the probability distribution
of an absolute value of a circular bivariate normal
random variable with potentially non-zero mean.
It was named after Stephen O. Rice [1]. The probability density function is given with
. .......... (1)
where I0(z) is the modified Bessel function
of the first kind with order zero. When v = 0, the
distribution reduces to a Rayleigh distribution. r
has a Rice distribution if
as a stochastic model for radio propagation anomaly
caused by partial cancellation of a radio signal by itself: the signal arrives at the receiver by two di erent
paths (hence exhibiting multipath interference), and
at least one of the paths is changing (lengthening or
shortening). Rician fading occurs when one of the
paths, typically a line of sight signal, is much stronger than the others. In Rician fading, the amplitude gain is characterized by a Rician distribution.
A Ricean fading channel can be described by two
parameters: K and Ω. K is the ratio between the
power in the direct path and the power in the other,
scattered, paths. Ω is the power in the direct path,
and acts as a scaling factor to the distribution. The
received signal amplitude (not the received signal
power) r is then Rice distributed with parameters
, where
and
are
statistically independent normal random variables
........................................ (2)
In telecommunication systems, a well known
method that can be used to improve the quality and reliability of a wireless link is combining
(adding) several signals received from di erent
be statistically indepenantennas. Let
dent envelopes of the faded signals received with
L branches (receive antennas). The resulting pdf
of the instantaneous envelope R, at the output of
the combiner
is given in the literature ( see, for instance, [3] ) in the form of
and is any real number. Rician fading can be used
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......... (3)
with
denoting the Ricean factor, defined
as the ratio of power in the specular and scattered
components.
Capitalizing on previous distribution, we will
present in this paper analytical closed-form expressions for the complete first order (i.e PDF,
CDF), and second order statistics (i.e LCR), of the
multiplicative fading process modelled by a product of two combinations of statisticaly independent Rician random variables from Eq.(3).
Multiplicative fading models have been given
special attention for some time, be-cause they
have been used for keyhole channel modeling of
MIMO systems. The first order statistical properties of the double Nakagami-m fading model has
been considered in [4], where the fading between
each pair of transmit and receive antennas in presence of the ”keyhole” is characterized as Nakagami-m fading. In analytical solutions for level
crossing rate (LCR) and average fade duration
(AFD) for the double Nakagami-m model have
been determined, and results are applied to study
the second order statistics of the keyhole channels applicable to MIMO systems with space-time
block coding (STBC), operating in rich-scattering
environments. Moreover to the best of author’s
knowledge, no analytical study of double statistical process modelled by a product of two combinations of statisticaly independent Rician random
variables has been reported in the literature.
2. First order statistic of the product of two
sums of Ricean distributed variables
Let the product of two combinations of statisticaly independent Rician random processes be
defined as
Z = XY ................................. (4)
where X(t) and Y (t) are a pair of combinations
of statisticaly independent Ricean distributed RVs
with probability distribution functions (PDFs):
500
. ....... (5)
and
. ..... (6)
The conditional PDF of Z for some fixed value
of x =X,
is determined by the transfor-
mation of random variables
. Now,the equivalent PDF can be determined from
............... (7)
After substituting (5) and (6) into (7), with respect to [5]:
.............. (8)
we obtain
........................................ (9)
By using the well-known expression [6]:
....................................... (11)
Previous PDF expression can be rewritten in
the form of
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............ (12)
denotes the modified Bessell
where
function of second kind.
PDF of the product of two sums of Ricean distributed variables for various values of distribution
parameters is presented at Fig. 1. The nested infinite sum in (12) converges rapidly for any value of
parameters
In Table 1 terms need to be summed in Eq. (12)
to achieve a desired accuracy are depicted. Let’s
denote the cumulative distribution function (CDF)
of random variable Z as
. ................... (13)
After substituting (12), with respect to [7]:
............... (14)
Table 1. Number of terms need to be summed in
infinite series of (12) to achieve accuracy at the
significant digit presented in the brackets
Kx=1;
Ky=1
Lx = 2
Lx = 3
Lx = 4
Kx=2;
Ly = 2
Ly = 3
Ly = 4
Ky=2
Lx = 2
Lx = 3
Lx = 4
Ly = 2
Ly = 3
Ly = 4
z=0.1
(5th)
9
12
12
z=0.1
(5th)
14
16
20
z=1
(5th)
10
13
13
z=1
(5th)
14
17
21
z=10
(5th)
17
19
20
z=10
(5th)
23
28
29
3. Second order statistic of the product of
two sums of Ricean distributed variables
The level crossing rate (LCR) of Z at threshold
z is defined as rate at which the random process
crosses level z in the negative direction. To extract
LCR, we need to determine the joint PDF of Z and
,
and apply the Rice's formula
. .............. (17)
And by using the well-known relation for the
definite integration of Meijer G function [8]:
The above expression can be rewritten as
...................................... (15)
...................................... (18)
previous CDF expression can be rewritten in
the form of
is the conditional PDF of
Where
conditioned on Z and X. This conditional PDF can
be determined by finding the time derivative of
both sides of (4)
...................................... (19)
...................................... (16)
If X(t) and Y (t) are signal envelopes in some
scattering radio channel exposed to the Doppler
eff ect due to stations relative mobility, then X(t)
and Y (t) are time-correlated random processes.
Considering a fixed-to-mobile channel, each scattered component of X(t) and Y (t) has some resulting Doppler spectra with maximum Doppler
frequency shift
and
, respectively. It was
shown that, under such conditions, the envelopes
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time derivatives and are independent from
their respective envelopes, while following zeromean Gaussian PDFs with respective variances
,
Now, the bracketed integral in (18) can be solved as
lute minimum ( known as the interior critical point
of f(x)). Note, that f ''(x) denotes the second derivative of f(x) respect to x. Comparing (23) and
(24), these functions are set as
...................................... (25)
............. (20)
Substituting (20) into (18), with respect to (19),
expression for the LCR, can be written in the form of
and
................. (26)
........... (21)
The critical point of f(x) is determining as the
or
value of x for which
...................................... (22)
After some algebraic manipulations we obtain
the exact solution for the LCR as
...................................... (27)
whereas 𝜆=1 and the second derivative of the
former is
...................................... (28)
..... (23)
In order to to obtain a highly accurate closedform solution of (23), the Laplace approximation
is obtained, as presented in the following lines.
By using [9], the Laplace type integral can be approximated as
...................................... (24)
In (24), f(x) and g(x) are real-valuted functions
of x and
502
Using (24)-(28), the approximate closed-form
solutions for the LCR is obtained as
... (29)
Average fade duration (AFD) of the random
variable Z is defined as the average time that described process remains below level z after crossing that level in negative direction
is the point at which f(x) has an absoVolume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
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. ........................ (30)
where
denotes the CDF of Z.
4. Conclusion
An approach to the performance analysis of
multiple input multiple output keyhole fading
channels with space-time block coding is presented in this paper. First and second order statistics
of the instantaneous output SNR, i.e. PDF, CDF,
LCR and AFD, are given in the infinite series expressions form. Numerically obtained results were
graphically presented and discussed in order to
point out the e ects of fading severity and number
of transmit/receive antennas on the overall system’s performances.
References
1. S. O. Rice. ‘Mathematical Analysis of Random
Noise’. Bell System Technical Journal 24 (1945),
46–156.
9. R. Wong. Asymptotic Approximations of Integrals
(SIAM: Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics, New edition, 2001).
10. E. Biglieri, R.Calderbank, A.Constantinides,
A.Goldsmith, H. and Poor. MIMO Wireless Communications (Cambrage University press, New
York, 2007).
11. D. Gesbert, H. Bolcskei, D. A. Gore, and A. J.
Paulraj. ‘Mimo wireless channels: Capacity and
performance prediction’. Proc. GLOBECOM 2000,
2, 1083–1088.
12. D. Chizhik, G. J. Foschini, M. J. Gans, and R. A.
Valenzuela. ‘Keyholes, cor-relations, and capacities of multielement transmit and receive antennas’. IEEE Trans. Wireless Commun. 1 (2) (2001),
361–368.
13. N. Sidiropoulos. Space-time processing for MIMO
communications (John Wiley and Sons, 2005)
Corresponding Author
Fatih Destovic,
Pedagogical faculty Sarajevo,
Sarajevo,
Bosnia and Herzegovina,
E-mail: fatih_d@msn.com
2. A. Abdi, C. Tepedelenlioglu, M. Kaveh, and G. Giannakis. ‘On the estimation of the K parameter for
the Rice fading distribution’. IEEE Communications
Letters, March 2001, 92–94.
3. M. Schwartz, W.R. Bennett, and S. Stein. Communication Systems and Tech-niques (McGraw-Hill, New
York, 1966).
4. H. Shin and J. H. Lee. ‘Performance analysis of
space-time block codes over key-hole Nakagami-m
fading channels’. IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol. 53 (2)
(2004), 351–362,
5. M. Abramowitz and I. Stegun. Handbook of Mathematical Functions (National Bureau of Standards,
1964; reprinted Dover Publications, 1965), ISBN
0-486-61272-4.
6. I. Gradshteyn and I. Ryzhik. Tables of Integrals, Series, and Products (Aca-demic Press, 1980).
7. A. P. Prudnikov, O. I. Marichev, and A. Brychkov.
Integrals and Series, Volume 3, More Special Functions (Newark, NJ, Gordon and Breach, 1990), ISBN
2881246826.
8. F.Destovic. R.Vugdalic, I.Kalco „ Some features of
dialectical probability under standard vector space“,
TTEM, Volume 6 Number 4, 2011. ISSN 1840-1503,
1133-1138.
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Java technology in the design and
implementation of web applications
Sead Masovic1, Muzafer Saracevic1, Hamza Kamberovic1, Mensura Kudumovic2
1
2
Faculty of Science and Mathematics, University of Niš, Serbia,
University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Hercegovina.
Abstract
This paper reviews the development of Web
applications in the Java programming language,
namely the creation of a Web application through
three-layer architecture using Java Servlet technology and JavaServerPages. The advantages that
we specified in this paper are the development of
web applications applying Java technology. Motivated by the current popularity of this technology,
our aim was to introduce a way of developing web
applications that will become a trend in the future.
Primary goal of this paper is to present the most
appropriate methods of developing web applications. Conclusions from our study are that the Java
is programming language with exceptional opportunities when it comes to web development in
terms of simplicity of implementation and speed
of execution of the final product.
Key words: Internet, Java, Java Servlet, JavaServerPages.
1. Introduction
This paper shows the development of Web
applications in the Java programming language.
Web applications are used in order to respond to
the users’ requests, i.e. generate Web pages on the
client's request. The applications are stored on the
server and operate on the principle of client-server
connection, i.e. client sends a server request, when
the server fulfills the request, it sends a response to
the client. Web applications are by nature distributed applications, meaning that they are programs
that run on more than one computer and communicate through a network or server. Specifically,
web applications are accessed with a web browser
and are popular because of the ease of using the
browser as a user client.
In the Java platform, web components provide
the dynamic extension capabilities for a web serv504
er. Web components are either Java servlets or JSP
pages. Java Servlets are Java classes that extend
the functionality of the server. They are executed
on a Web server and act as a connection between
the client and the server and their life cycle lasts
for as long as there is a connection between the
client and the server. JSP technology is a mixture
of HTML and Java. It is used to display text on the
Web, but has full functionality of Java.
The application is created in the three-layer architecture. It is divided into three layers - presentation, business and data layer. Three-layer architecture is used because the applications built into
it are easy to transfer and layers are independent.
In one part of this paper we present analysis of
the popularity of programming languages for web
development in order to prove that Java is a leader
in this field. The paper also gives an example of a
simple Web application designed using three-layer
architecture.
2. Related Work
The advantages of Java over other programming languages are numerous. First of all, programming in the Java programming language is
one of the highest degree of programming. These
written programs are easily portable from one
platform to another. This means that the same program can run on computers that are running different operating systems, and PDAs, and even on
mobile phones.
Below are some similar themes and papers that
we compare with our technologies and techniques
in this field. The paper [18] is referred to the implementation of web services using Java technology. Listed is an example of the implementation of
web services. The paper [10] has given a concrete
example of the online Web shop that designed and
implemented through the Java programming lanVolume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
technics technologies education management
guage. In paper [2] authors research field is survey
method since the aim of the research is to put forward the tendencies of the students in University
towards web-based technology education. Authors of paper [19] present the implemented solution based on universal model of web application
that support an auction of any product or service.
In the papers [9,13] authors gives a way of development of advanced Java web application and
referred to the web application development using
open source and Java technologies. Paper [6] provides a comparative overview and comparison of
the implementation of web services, Java RMI and
CORBA services. The paper [4] presented testing
the Java web services. The authors of papers [12,17]
have provided some Java technologies for web application. In the paper [7] is given implementation
of presentation service using Java Web services.
Authors of paper [14] compares and evaluates
the ease of application development and the performance of the three design models by building three
versions of an online store application using each of
the three design models, respectively. The Servlet
technology has been the most widely used technology for building scalable Web applications.
Paper [15] presents empirical study detailing
software maintenance for Web-based Java applications to aid in understanding and predicting the
software maintenance category and effort. The
specific application described is a Java Web-based
administrative application in the e-Government
arena. This study finds that the Web-based Java
application is similar to the distribution in software maintenance studies, which analyzed non
object-oriented and non Web-based applications.
In paper [20] authors describes various Web
application frameworks and related emerging
technologies pertinent to the Java EE model from
a technical perspective. The value proposition of a
Web application framework is presented to illustrate how a framework can improve the application development productivity and quality.
The authors of paper [22] discusses how the
Web and Java mark the death of fatware and the
birth of dynamic computing built on rented components. The real paradigm shift will be the replacement of purchased software packages with
transaction-oriented rental of Java applets attached
to Web pages.
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
Paper [5] shows how compositional and coordination paradigms can be successfully applied to design cooperative Java applications with multimedia
data exchange. Authors present the development of
collaborative multimedia applications and also designate a Web-based distributed platform that supports inter-component communication.
In paper [16] authors analyzed the characteristics
and constraints of a typical academic environment
for web application development. A set of Javabased web technologies and tools are introduced and
reviewed for such an environment. The motivation
behind this work is to provide comprehensive resource for university faculty members and students
about emerging technologies and available tools to
facilitate rapid development of web applications.
3. Adventages of Java technologies in development of web applications
Web applications are applications that are created
on request by dynamic web pages, and shall be executed on the platform provided by the Web server.
Java is a programming language whose major
characteristic is a complete independence from
the physical platform on the level of translated
code. Java programs, in the form of applets, can
be embedded in Web pages and thus distributed
to users [21]. The consequence of this is the possibility of automatic distribution and installation
of client applications on the network, regardless of
the client’s actual physical platform - Web browser with support for Java is enough for this. The
combination of WWW and Java technology has
enabled the implementation of client-server information systems which, unlike traditional systems,
are characterized with the following features:
–– simple and widely accepted form of user
interface (Web browser);
–– automatic distribution and installation of
client applications;
–– simpler maintenance, especially in
heterogeneous networks.
3.1 Popularity of Java technology in
development of Web application
In this part of paper we present a few reasons
why we chose the Java programming language.
We also did a comparative analysis with other pro505
technics technologies education management
gramming languages. The research was conducted
using the Tiobe1 portal which ranks programming
languages based on share in the programming
of commercial web applications. Tiobe bases its
rankings on world-wide availability of skilled engineers, courses and third party vendors.
Tiobe uses Google, Bing and Yahoo search engines to measure the Web “chatter” and hence the
popularity of each programming language.
Table 1. Ranking for web programming languages
Position
Dec2011
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Position
Jan 2011
1
2
6
3
8
5
7
4
10
9
Programming
Language
Java
C
C#
C++
Objective-C
PHP
(Visual) Basic
Python
Perl
JavaScript
Ratings
(%)
17.05
16.52
8.65
7.85
7.06
5.64
4.31
3.15
2.93
2.47
Java is a winner in this category and by the researches of other portals. According to research
portal Dice.com2, has a part of 35.7%, while according to some information of Evans Data3, it is
estimated that Java reaches up to 45% in programming web applications.
In the following table we present ranking of
programming languages in web development for
previous period.
Table 2. Ranking for previous period
Programming
Language
Java
C
C#
C++
Objective-C
PHP
(Visual) Basic
Python
Perl
JavaScript
Position
Dec 2011
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
1 www.tiobe.com
2 www.dice.com
3 www.evansdata.com
506
Position
Feb 2007
1
2
8
3
44
4
5
7
6
9
Position
Feb 1997
4
1
/
2
/
/
6
27
5
25
3.2. Description of two Java technologies
(Java Servlet and JavaServerPages)
Web applications in the Java programming
language can be implemented using two technologies: Java Servlets and Java Server Pages (JSP)
[11]. The optimal result is achieved by a combination of both technologies, as described below.
Servlets are Java objects that dynamically process requests and generate responses. Generated
response is usually in the form of HTML (HyperText Markup Language), but the data can be in another form, for example XML (Extensible Markup
Language) [3,8]. Servlets run on the server and the
program code is never disclosed outside the server,
only derived results are submitted. This way, the
author code is fully protected, as opposed to applications that run in a Web browser using the Java
Applet technology [1]. Another more advantage of
using Servlets is their portability. They can run on
different servers without changing the code [23].
After the client sends a request to a server, it
loads the servlet and creates a separate thread.
Each servlet has the methods doGet() or doPost(),
which are used to process the request. For each
request a separate thread is created, which makes
execution significantly faster than any other technology, in which, operating system must create a
new process for each request, initialize it, run it
and clean up after it, which is extremely slow. One
example of such technology is the the application
logic is "hardcoded" in the user interface.
These problems are solved by combining these
two technologies in order to split the Web application into layers. A typical division into three
layers: the business layer, presentation layer and
data layer. Business layer (business logic layer) is
a layer responsible for the application logic, and is
run through servlets.
Presentation layer deals with the presentation
of data and application state, using the JSP technology. It takes the results of the business layer using the map of attributes. Data layer is responsible
for the persistence of data. It takes care of storing
data in files or databases. Presentation layer must
communicate with data layer exclusively via the
business layer.
Code segment 1 shows a simple servlet that
takes care of application logic with example for
squaring numbers. Servlet takes the parameter
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technics technologies education management
number, processes it, the result is sent to the attributes of requests map and further sends it to the
file view.jsp on display by getRequestDispatcher()
and forward() methods. The servlet does not even
have a single HTML tag due to the fact that the
.jsp database takes care of the user interface, while
the servlet is used solely for calculating the results.
Code segment 1: An Example of application
logic layer
import java.io.IOException;
import javax.servlet.ServletException;
import javax.servlet.http.HttpServlet;
import javax.servlet.http.HttpServletRequest;
import javax.servlet.http.HttpServletResponse;
public class Controller extends
HttpServlet {@Override
protected void doGet(HttpServletRequest
req, HttpServletResponse resp)
throws ServletException, IOException {
String sNumber = (String)request.
getParameter("number");
Integer no = null;
Integer result = null;
if(sNumber!=null) {
try {
no = Integer.valueOf(sNumber);
result = no.intValue()*intValue();
}
catch(Exception ex) {}
}
else result = Integer.valueOf(0);
request.setAttribute("number", no);
request.setAttribute("result", result);
this.getServletContext().
getRequestDispatcher("view.jsp")
.forward(req, resp);
}
}
Architecture for the development of Web applications which combines two Java technologies
(Java Servlet i JSP) is presented on Figure 1.
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
Figure 1. Architecture for the development of
Web applications
4. Advantages of Web application in the
three-layer architecture
A three-layer architecture is traditionally used
when building web applications. It makes a logical separation between the presentation layer, the
business layer, and the data layer.
These are some of the advantages of a threelayer architecture:
–– it is easier to modify or replace any layer
without affecting the other layers,
–– separating the application and database
functionality means better load balancing,
–– adequate security policies can be enforced
within the server layers without hindering
the clients.
The main advantage of three-layer system is
that all business logic can be defined once within
the business layer and then shared by any number
of components within the presentation layer. Any
changes to business rules can therefore be made
in one place and be instantly available throughout
the whole application. It is possible to change the
contents of any one of layers without having to
make corresponding changes in any of the others.
The following example [Appendix 1,2,3] is a
simple application made in the three-layer architecture. It is used for the input of the student enrollment data to database through a Web form. HTML
language is used for creating the form. Through the
form, user accesses the application, which represents user interface and in the three-layer architecture is presentation layer. After the user enters data,
servlet (business layer) sends the data to the database, i.e. data layer, and generates a response which
is then sent back to the user browser to be viewed.
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technics technologies education management
4.1. Individual description of three-layer
architecture
Presentation layer is responsible for the user interface and shows information to the user by building HTML pages and receiving user input through
GET and POST requests. We are currently using
Servlet + Java Server Pages (JSP) combination.
The layer calls methods in managers of the
business layer to perform operations requested
by the user and to receive information to show in
the web page. The source code of the web form in
which the user enters information about the student is presented in Appendix 1.
The business layer calls servlet which sends the
data to the database. After entering data into the form
the user presses the button that calls servlet which
shown in the following code [view Appendix 2].
Servlet receives data entered by the user using
the methods of request.getParameter(). Then the
data is stored in a database that is implemented
in this application through class Database. Testing the data follows. If the user does not enter the
identification number and last name, then the user
is sent an appropriate message, and if the entry is
correct, the data that the user has entered can be
reviewed in the browser. Main part of the Servlet
is the doPost method. It receives data and generates a response to the user. The HttpServletRequest
class contains doPost method. Next to it, there is a
similar method doGet which is used when receiving only one item, which is not the case with this
application. The difference between them is that
the method doGet can receive data from a static
HTML document, while the doPost method can
receive data from JSP documents only.
The data layer in this case does not constitute
of a database, but a class that is used for data entry
[view Appendix 3].
Response that is needed to generate in the
servlet can be achieved in several ways. Here
it is made to call in the PrintWriter class and
with the method println directly print HTML
content into a Web browser. This is achieved
with the following command response.
setContentType("text/html").
Servlet makes it clear that the response is a
HTML file. The answer is to be achieved by a
servlet which calls in JSP file using the RequestDispatcher class. E.g.:
508
RequestDispatcher dispatcher =
getServletContext().
getRequestDispatcher(address);
dispatcher.forward(request, response);
The parameter address indicates the URL of the
JSP file that we want to use. JSP file itself has the
ability to access data from a servlet, but the aim of
the three-layer architecture is the separation of the
business layer from the presentation layer, therefore it is better that servlet sends the data received
into the JSP database, which receives it and then
processes. Data that we send to that database can
also be transferred in several ways. The first way
is by using the HttpServletRequest class which records the information we send to it by request.
setAttribute("key1", value1).
Where the key1 is name of the variable that the JSP database will receive by:
Type1 value1 = (Type1)request.
getAttribute("key1");
Data transfer is also possible using the JavaBean [23]. JavaBean is a class used for storing
many classes so that they actually all make a class
that can be transferred.
5. Conclusion and Further works
Development of a Web page today increasingly
requires very good organization of data. Since the
data increases, it is more and more difficult to create
Web pages. Instead of ordinary static HTML pages,
there are more dynamic Web pages that meet the demands of customers. The need to store large amounts
of data and their further processing requires the construction of complex Web applications. Web applications must serve the needs of users, and be easy
to use. Because of a number of different operating
systems, there is a need for changing the application.
Development of Web applications in the Java
programming language provides unlimited possibilities; this is why this technology is the right
choice for many serious projects. Using threelayer architecture for creating Web pages greatly
facilitates their maintenance because changes of
one layer do not require changing the other layers,
which makes the application easy to transfer.
In this paper we present the possibilities of Java
and provide a basis for further research. We have
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
technics technologies education management
presented an aspect which shows why Java is considered to be as the future of software development. Most of the mobile phones these days come
with built-in Java applications. Java is an extremely successful language even in the internet world
when it comes to developing web applications.
Programmers worldwide prefer Java to design
highly interactive web applications. Web design
also has seen great success when Java is implemented. The web applications run at a faster speed
saving time and cost to any company. Simply put,
this is one language that has a perfect balance between the software, mobile and the web world.
References
1. Applet documentation from the Java Tutorial, http://
java.sun.com/applets/ (December, 2011)
2. Çoşkun, G., Kakilli, A., (2011), Analysis of Tendencies in WEB Based Technology Education of Undergraduate Students in Turkey, Technics Technologies
Education Management-TTEM, ISSN 1840-1503,
Vol. 6 No. 2, pp. 1008-1015
3. Extensible Markup Language (XML) 1.0 (Fifth Edition),
http://www.w3.org/TR/REC-xml (December, 2011)
4. Fu, C., Ryder, B.G., Milanova, A., Wonnacott, D.,
(2004) Testing of Java web services for robustness.
In Proc. ACMSIGSOFT International Symposium on
Software Testing and Analysis,pages pp.23–34
5. Fuentes, L., Troya, J.M., (2002) A Java framework
for Web-based multimedia and collaborative applications, Internet Computing, IEEE, Issue:2, pp.55 – 64.
6. Gray, N.A.B., (2004) Comparison of Web Services,
Java-RMI, and CORBA service implementations, in
Proceedings of Fifth Australasian Workshop on Software and System Architectures, pp. 52-63.
7. Heo, T.W., Park, J.H., (2004) The implementation of
presentation service using Java Webservices, 12th
Int. Conf. on Geoinformatics − Geospatial Information Research
8. HTML 4.01 Specification, http://www.w3.org/TR/
REC-html40/ (December, 2011)
9. Jajaprakash, A., O’Neill, D., (2008) Developing Advanced Java Web Applications, ESRI Develpoer Summit
10. Janik,M.,(2007) Online Shop Web Tier in Java EE,
bachelor thesis, Masaryk university, Faculty of informatics
11. JavaServer Pages 2.0 Specification, http://jcp.org/
aboutJava/communityprocess/first/jsr152/index3.
html (December, 2011)
12. Kaegi, S.R., (2007) Modular java web applications,
Thesis,School of Computer Science , Carleton University Ottawa, Ontario
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13. Klimke, W.A., (1998) Web Application Development
Using Open Source and Java Technologies, Diplom-Bauingenieur, University of Stuttgart, Germany
14. Kurniawan B., Xue, J., (2004) A Comparative Study
of Web Application Design Models Using the Java
Technologies, Advanced web technologies and applications, Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Vol.
3007/2004, 711-721, DOI: 10.1007/978-3-54024655-877
15. Lee, M.G., Jefferson, T.L., (2005) An empirical study
of software maintenance of a Web-based Java application, Software Maintenance, ICSM'05. Proceedings of
the 21st IEEE International Conference on , pp.571 –
576, Northrop Grumman Mission Syst., USA
16. Mehra, R., Gandham, S.K., Wu, Z., Raghavan,
V.V., (2004) Configuring Java-Based Web Application Development Environment for an Academic
Setting, J.T. Yao, V.V. Raghvan, G.Y. Wang (Eds.):
WSS'04, pp.111-118.
17. Nourie, D., (2006) Java Technologies for Web Applications, http://java.sun.com/developer/technicalArticles/tools/webapps_1/
18. Pirnau, M., (2010) Implementing Web Services
Using Java Technology, International Journal of.
Computers Communications & Control, Vol.5, No.2
pp. 251-260.
19. Radulovic, B., Kazi, Z., Beres, K., (2011), Content
management system as a web auctions software,
Technics Technologies Education ManagementTTEM, ISSN 1840-1503, Vol. 6 No. 2, pp. 455-463
20. Valderrama J. T., Alvarez I., de la Torre A., Segura
J. C., Sainz M., Vargas J. L.: (2011), Educational
approach of a BAER recording system based on
experiential learning, Technics Technologies Education Management - TTEM, Volume 6, Number 4,
pp 876-889.
21. Shan, T.C., Hua, W.W., (2006) Taxonomy of Java
Web Application Frameworks, e-Business Engineering, ICEBE '06. IEEE International Conference
on , pp.378 – 385.
22. Vlajić, S. (2005) Napredni koncepti Jave i web programiranje u Javi, FON, Beograd.
23. Yourdon, E., (2002) Java, the Web, and software
development, IEEE Computer Society , USA Volume: 29 Issue:8 , pp. 25-30.
24. Zukowski, J.,(2004) Mastering Java 2 J2SE 1.4,
Kompjuter Biblioteka
Corresponding Author
Sead Masovic,
University of Niš,
Faculty of Sciences and Mathematics,
Serbia,
E-mail: sead.masovic@gmail.com
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Appendix 1 (Presentation layer)
<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML
4.0 Transitional//EN">
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE>Form</TITLE>
</HEAD>
<BODY BGCOLOR="#a9c9de">
<H1 ALIGN="CENTER">Students data</H1>
<H2 ALIGN="CENTER">Fill the form</H2>
<FORM ACTION="http://localhost:8080/
JAVA/servlet/Form"
METHOD="POST">
<LEFT>
First name:<BR>
<INPUT TYPE="TEXT" NAME="First_name"
VALUE="N/A"><BR>
Last name:<BR>
<INPUT TYPE="TEXT" NAME="Last_name"
VALUE="N/A"><BR>
JMBG:<BR>
<INPUT TYPE="TEXT" NAME="JMBG" VALUE="N/
A"><BR>
Phone:<BR>
<INPUT TYPE="TEXT" NAME="Tel" VALUE="N/
A"><P>
<DL>
<DT>Year of Study:
<DD><INPUT TYPE="RADIO"
NAME="YearOfStudy"
VALUE="N/A" CHECKED>
N/A
<DD><INPUT TYPE="RADIO"
NAME="YearOfStudy"
VALUE="1">
1
<DD><INPUT TYPE="RADIO"
NAME="YearOfStudy"
VALUE="2">
2
<DD><INPUT TYPE="RADIO"
NAME="YearOfStudy"
VALUE="3">
3
<DD><INPUT TYPE="RADIO"
NAME="YearOfStudy"
VALUE="4">
4
<DD><INPUT TYPE="RADIO"
NAME="YearOfStudy"
VALUE="5">
5
</DL>
510
<LEFT>
<P>
Note:<BR>
<TEXTAREA NAME="Note" VALUE="N/A" ROWS=5
COLS=30>N/A
</TEXTAREA>
<LEFT><BR>
<INPUT TYPE="SUBMIT">
</FORM>
</BODY>
</HTML>
Appendix 2 (Business layer)
import java.io.IOException;
import java.io.PrintWriter;
import javax.servlet.RequestDispatcher;
import javax.servlet.ServletException;
import javax.servlet.http.HttpServlet;
import javax.servlet.http.HttpServletRequest;
import javax.servlet.http.HttpServletResponse;
public final class Form1 extends
HttpServlet {
Database Base[] = new Database[100];
// constructor
public void init(){}
// Download parameters
public void doPost(HttpServletRequest
request,HttpServletResponse response)
throws ServletException,
IOException
{
String First_name = null;
String Last_name = null;
String JMBG = null;
String Phone = null;
String Note = null;
String YearOfStudy = null;
First_name = request.
getParameter("First_name");
Last_name = request.getParameter("Last_
name ");
JMBG = request.getParameter("JMBG");
Phone = request.getParameter("Phone");
Note = request.getParameter("Note");
YearOfStudy = request.
getParameter("YearOfStudy");
for(int i=0; i<100; i++)
if(Base[i]==null)
Base[i] = new Database(YearOfStudy,
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technics technologies education management
First_name,Last_name,JMBG,Phone,Note);
/*
* Generating page.
* Prints the given information (only if
they are correctly entered).
*/
response.setContentType("text/html");
PrintWriter writer = response.getWriter();
writer.println("<html>");
writer.println("<head>");
writer.println("<title>Answer</title>");
writer.println("</head>");
writer.println("<body
bgcolor=#ff9966>");
writer.println("<h1> Thank you for using
my
application!</h1>");
writer.println("<br> This page was generated by Servlet
Form.<br>");
if(Last_name.equals("N/A") || JMBG.
equals("N/A"))
{
writer.println("<br> You have not entered correctly
data!");
writer.println("<br>");
writer.println("Enter ID number and last
name!<br>");
writer.println("<A
HREF=\"http://localhost:8080/JAVA/Form.
jsp\">
Back</A>");
}
else
{
writer.println("<br> You have entered a
data:");
if(!JMBG.equals("N/A"))
writer.println(" <th align=\"right\">" +
JMBG + "</th>");
if(!Last_name.equals("N/A"))
writer.println(" <th align=\"right\">" +
Last_name + "</th>");
if(!First_name.equals("N/A"))
writer.println(" <th align=\"right\">" +
First_name +"</th>");
if(!Phone.equals("N/A"))
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
{
writer.println("<br>Phone:");
writer.println(" <th align=\"right\">" +
Phone + "</th>");
}
if(YearOfStudy.equals("1") ||
YearOfStudy.equals("2") ||
YearOfStudy.equals("3") ||
YearOfStudy.equals("4") ||
YearOfStudy.equals("5"))
{
writer.println("<br>YearOfStudy:");
writer.println(" <th align=\"right\">" +
YearOfStudy + "</th>");
}
if(!Note.equals("N/A"))
{
writer.println("<br>Note:");
writer.println(" <th align=\"right\">" +
Note + "</th>");
}
writer.println("</tr>");
writer.println("<br><A HREF=
\"http://localhost:8080/JAVA/Form.jsp\">
Back</A>");
writer.println("</table>");
}
writer.println("</body>");
writer.println("</html>");
}
}
Appendix 3 (Data layer)
//Class Database present data layer applications.
public class Database {
// Improvised Database
protected
protected
protected
protected
protected
protected
String
String
String
String
String
String
YearOfStudy;
First_name;
Last_name;
JMBG;
Phone;
Notea;
//Constructor
public Database (String YearOfStudy,
String First_name, String
Last_name, String JMBG, String Phone,
String Note)
{
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technics technologies education management
this.YearOfStudy = YearOfStudy;
this.First_name = First_name;
this.Last_name = Last_name;
this.JMBG = JMBG;
this.Phone = Phone;
this.Note = Note;
}
String getYearOfStudy (){return YearOfStudy;}
String getFirst_name (){return First_
name;}
String getLast_name (){return Last_
name;}
String getJMBG (){return JMBG;}
String getPhone (){return Phone;}
String getNote (){return Note;}
void changeYearOfStudy (String
YearOfStudy){this.YearOfStudy = YearOfStudy;}
void changeFirst_name (String First_
name){this.First_name = First_name;}
void changeLast_name (String Last_name)
{this.Last_name = Last_name;}
void changeJMBG (String JMBG){this.JMBG
= JMBG;}
void changePhone (String Phone){this.
Phone = Phone;}
void changeNote (String Note){this.Note
= Note;}
}
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technics technologies education management
Analysis of insurance sector with special
review on bankassurance
Miroslav Miskic1, Rado Maksimovic2
1
2
Jahorina osiguranje, Bosnia and Herzegovina,
University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Technical Sciences, Novi Sad, Serbia.
Abstract
This work is an analysis of the insurance market
status in Central and Eastern Europe region (CEE),
and it is intended to point out the insufficient development of such market, in a way to identify development opportunities in that state but not only the
problems. The low level of premium per capita is
basic parameter indicating the undeveloped insurance market in CEE, and development is possible to
be achieved, besides development of new insurance
products and through new sales channels of insurance products, where one of them is the sales channel in cooperation with banks. This work offers results of comparative market analysis of certain CEE
states from which could be seen that the observed
region has a large potential for development of new
sales channels of existing and new insurance products, regardless to global economic crisis.
Key words: insurance, bankassurance, market,
premium, bank
1. Insurance market in central Eastern
Europe
Discussions on value, efficiency and especially
on the future of certain sales channels of insurance
products have become more often in insurance community. Interest for this topic is objectively conditioned, because currently dominant sales channels
– own sales network and agents, are getting a competition in agencies and representing companies,
and conditionally in bank sales channel of insurance products as well. In future this will be, if not an
equal, than for sure very strong competition.
It is known that each insurance company is
valuable as much as its sales network and this fact
becomes prominent especially in crisis periods,
because the sale is an initiator of insurance activity. Crisis conditions exposed the sale network to
strong pressure and larger expectations, and in
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this way increased its liability. This is especially
noticeable in insurance companies which are oriented to higher share of their own sales network.
Companies with several sales channels have easily adjusted to crisis conditions.
Insurance as a specific product, requires a direct
contact with potential beneficiaries, and establishing of trust towards products and a company offering it, what practically enables that agent will
remain the main selling force in insurance for a
long time. However, the economic crisis has contributed to awareness that companies should have
the alternative channels as well, like the insurance
sales channel through the banks.
Mutual connection of financial institutions such
as banks and insurance companies gives special
quality to financial sector in each state. It is clear
that the synergy on the market between banking
sector and insurance companies on developed
markets is a natural process resulting in decrease
of operational risk, increase of power in entering
the market and achievement of better profitability in business activities. In CEE states, especially
in recent time, the need for common products of
banks and insurance companies is more and more
expressed, such as insurance of all types of loans,
sale of life insurance over the counters of banks,
various facilities of banks' clients in the form of
acquiring the rights on various types of insurance,
possibility of the insurance companies' clients to
get benefits at taking out a loans with strategic
commercial banks, etc.
1.1. The insurance market status in CEE
This work analyzes the insurance market in
CEE, because this market is at much lower development level than in the European Union, and
markets of individual CEE states are small and
their analysis would not provide objective and reliable results for conclusions.
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Analysis has been made on basis of available information for the first half of 2010 and entire 2009.
Total gross premium in states in the observed
market (Primm, 2010) is presented in table 1.
Table 1. Total gross premium in CEE
Total gross premium
State
Ratio
Regional market share
I-VI 2010 I-VI 2009
Population
Premium
I-VI 2010
I-VI 2009
2010/2009
(mil €)
28,97
(mil €)
30,97
(%)
-6,46
(%)
0,18
(%)
0,20
117,39
4,24
0,75
0,77
3,9
31,38
305,09
429,03
708,08
2.731,62
165,85
1.498,36
197,34
214,04
48,85
32,00
5.486,53
1.085,36
1.049,16
1.112,84
33,10
15.245,61
-5,89
-3,44
-0,85
8,90
31,78
3,38
-31,37
-27,67
2,76
-5,53
14,96
-3,88
0,49
0,80
5,14
6,45
1,77
2,55
4,33
18,33
1,35
9,54
0,83
0,95
0,31
0,19
38,86
6,43
6,50
6,91
0,21
100,00
2,00
2,81
4,64
17,92
1,09
9,83
1,29
1,40
0,32
0,21
35,99
7,12
6,88
7,30
0,22
100,00
7,4
7,5
4,4
10,4
1,3
10
2,3
3,4
2,1
0,6
38
21,4
5,4
2
1,8
125
38,80
55,24
159,56
286,04
168,11
154,90
58,88
45,53
23,90
50,39
165,98
48,75
195,23
560,87
19,33
129,58
Albania
Bosnia and
122,37
Herzegovina
Serbia
287,13
Bulgaria
414,29
Croatia
702,07
Czech Republic
2.974,83
Estonia
218,55
Hungary
1.549,02
Latvia
135,43
Lithuania
154,82
Macedonia
50,20
Montenegro
30,23
Poland
6.307,28
Romania
1.043,23
Slovakia
1.054,25
Slovenia
1.121,74
Kosovo
34,80
CEE REGION 16.229,21
(mil)
€/per capita
3,1
9,34
Table 2. Gross premium in CEE – non-life insurance
Gross premium non-life
State
Albania
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Serbia
Bulgaria
Croatia
Czech Republic
Estonia
Hungary
Latvia
Lithuania
Macedonia
Montenegro
Poland
Romania
Slovakia
Slovenia
Kosovo
CEE REGION
514
I-VI 2010
I-VI 2009
(mil €)
26,29
103,92
246,48
352,00
539,89
1.647,09
124,35
743,22
115,79
120,28
47,63
26,39
2.669,62
848,12
505,77
799,31
33,76
8.949,91
(mil €)
28,38
100,24
265,14
370,81
546,92
1.646,74
107,97
801,08
179,46
158,41
46,67
28,00
2.375,74
898,29
529,50
802,72
32,11
8.918,18
Share in total
gross premium
(%)
Ratio
2010/2009
90,74
84,92
85,84
84,96
76,90
55,37
56,90
47,98
85,50
77,69
94,88
87,30
42,33
81,30
47,97
71,26
97,00
55,07
-7,36
3,67
-7,04
-5,07
-1,29
0,02
15,17
-7,22
-35,48
-24,07
2,06
-5,75
12,37
-5,59
-4,48
-0,42
5,14
0,36
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When total realization on the CEE market is
observed separately for life and non-life insurance, obtained results (Primm, 2010) are presented in tables 2 and 3.
From tables 2 and 3 it can be seen that share
of life and non-life insurance in total premium is
different, which talks itself about the development
of insurance in each of the observed states. In addition, premium per capita is a good indicator of
development of insurance as a business activity,
but also cultural habits, needs and preferences to
have insurance policy as the safety instrument.
It could be concluded that there are huge reserves
on observed market for development of insurance
because the average of CEE region significantly
falls behind the average on Western Europe market,
the rank of the first 10 companies in life and nonlife insurance (www.top100.seenews.com – June
30, 2010) is presented in tables 4 and 5.
It could be concluded that in life insurance
sector the biggest share have the companies from
Czech Republic and Poland mostly, that is markets which are more developed for many reasons
out of which the primary one is a large number of
Table 3. Gross premium in CEE – life insurance
Gross premium life
State
Albania
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Serbia
Bulgaria
Croatia
Czech Republic
Estonia
Hungary
Latvia
Lithuania
Macedonia
Montenegro
Poland
Romania
Slovakia
Slovenia
Kosovo
CEE REGION
I-VI 2010
I-VI 2009
(mil €)
2,68
18,45
40,65
62,29
162,18
1327,74
94,20
805,80
19,64
34,54
2,57
3,84
3637,66
195,11
548,48
322,43
1,04
7279,30
(mil €)
2,60
17,15
39,94
58,22
161,16
1084,88
57,87
697,28
17,88
55,63
2,17
4,00
3110,79
187,07
519,66
310,12
0,99
6327,41
Share in total
gross premium
(%)
Ratio
2010/2009
9,26
15,08
14,16
15,04
23,10
44,63
43,10
52,02
14,50
22,31
5,12
12,70
57,67
18,70
52,03
28,74
3,00
44,93
3,08
7,58
1,78
6,99
0,63
22,39
62,78
15,56
9,84
-37,91
18,43
-4,00
16,94
4,30
5,55
3,97
5,05
15,04
Table 4. Non-life insurance – the first 10 insurance companies in CEE region
No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
State
PL
CZ
CZ
SL
PL
PL
HU
HR
PL
SK
Rank in own country
1
1
2
1
2
3
1
1
4
1
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Company
PZU SA
KOOPERATIVA Pojistovna VIG
CESKA Pojistovna
TRIGLAV
STU ERGO HESTIA
TuiR WARTA
ALLIANZ
CROATIA
TUiR ALLIANZ POLSKA
ALLIANZ - Slovenska
Total gross premium (mil €)
975.37
467.08
458.63
305.59
279.85
238.67
235.50
230.20
207.72
196.36
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population in those states. The similar is with nonlife insurance.
In the following two tables 6 and 7 review of
premium by companies in Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Republic of Srpska is given for the first
3 quarters of 2010 (www.azors.org – September
30, 2010). It can be observed from the table that
insurance market of Bosnia and Herzegovina is
one of smaller markets in CEE at the moment, and
that is undeveloped market, but because of this it
has a potential for large growth which, for the first
months of 2010 was 10% and was significantly
bigger than growth in neighboring countries.
Development of this market is possible to
achieve with new sales channels of insurance
products out of which bank-channel could be one
of the main factors of development.
2. Bankassurance
Bankassurance presents a presentation and sales
of insurance products through sales network of the
Table 5. Life insurance – the first 10 insurance companies in CEE region
No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
State
PL
PL
PL
CZ
PL
PL
PL
PL
CZ
CZ
Rank in own country
1
2
3
1
4
5
6
7
2
3
Company
PZU ŽYCIE SA
TUnŽ EUROPA
TunŽ WARTA
CESKA Pojistovna
ING TUnŽ
TuiR ALLIANZ ŽYCIE POLSKA
AVIVA TUnŽ
NORDEA POLSKA TU na ŽYCIE
KOMERCNI Pojistovna
Pojistovna CESKE sporitelny
Total gross premium (mil €)
897.85
658.28
294.79
253.71
244.01
210.43
207.90
206.58
200.73
161.66
Table 6. Total gross premium – first 10 insurance companies in BH
No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Company
Sarajevo
Bosna-Sunce
Euroherc
Croatia
Uniqa
Triglav BH
VGT
Jahorina
Grawe FBiH
Merkur BH
Premium (KM)
44.636.704
36.522.054
30.457.814
28.576.711
25.947.570
24.861.263
20.429.610
18.598.872
13.984.841
13.939.559
Rank
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
(%)
12,49%
10,22%
8,52%
8,00%
7,26%
6,96%
5,72%
5,20%
3,91%
3,90%
Premium (KM)
Rank
(%)
18.598.872
12.434.112
11.995.538
9.739.636
8.828.265
8.543.008
6.935.587
5.818.442
4.971.106
2.527.733
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
17,82%
11,91%
11,49%
9,33%
8,46%
8,18%
6,64%
5,57%
4,76%
2,42%
Table 7. Total gross premium – first 10 insurance companies in RS
No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
516
Company
Jahorina
Kosig Dunav
Bobar
Drina
Brčko gas
Nešković
Triglav
Grawe RS
Krajina
VGT
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bank with which insurance company – a partner
has concluded contract on agency/sales of insurance products. Bank sales channel is a new, very
modern, specific and sophisticated way of the insurance products sale, resulted as a need to provide
to potential insured, along with internet banking,
contracting of insurance in any time on any place.
It is based on that the bank is already familiar with
needs, possibilities and wishes of its own client, especially after introduction of ”personal bankers“,
so in cooperation with insurance companies can develop products for certain aimed groups depending
on their needs. In this way products and bank services and insurance products are being integrated
with and an offer which, together with educated and
motivated sales personnel, has real chances for success. So, this is about the model of connecting of
banking and insurance sector where common interest is more complete service and higher profit. General estimation is that the time of bankassurance in
CEE region is just to come.
Bankassurance is an activity where the client is,
along with bank services, offered also with insurance services. In this process clients can conclude
a policy directly on the bank's window or with personal banker in the bank who provides them with
professional support in selection of optimal form
of insurance at that moment – which response the
best to their individual needs and financial capacities. In this way, concluding of insurance policy in
the bank saves time and money following the principle everything at one place. In the banks dealing with this activity seriously, the life insurance
policy replaces guarantor or collateral. In case of
a credit, a policy is always transferred in the benefit of the bank, but after expiration of payment
period, contracted and paid sum, together with
profit, remains to the insured. The idea is to have
in bank-sales channel a possibility to conclude an
insurance policy for accident, property, credit...
In Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Republic of
Srpska development is just expected. Legal basis
exist in the Law on Agencies (”Official Gazette
of RS“ number 106/2009). Pursuant to this Law
banks should establish a department for sale of insurance and have licensed employees. Obstacles
for development of bankassurance are that insurance culture of population comes down to the habit that agent brings policy to the home address and
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explain all conditions (MTPL), that bank offers
one type of service and insurer absolutely different or, according to the present situation in Bosnia and Herzegovina, that is still impossible to get
insurance service in banks. Insurance companies
want to have the situation changed and they offer cooperation to banks, believing that the clients
will understand that is in their interest to meet the
insurance needs in the bank they visit every day.
Benefits of bankassurance for the bank and insurance company are mutual. Bank reaches additional income and insurance company cheaper and
simpler sales network. When it is about insurance
companies, growing competition, insufficient demand for life insurance in CEE and decrease of
such demand in Western Europe, additionally impose a need for improvement of services and new
models in meeting the insured needs. Banks and
insurance companies, regardless to certain functional differences, gets close to the aspiration for
increase of profit as well as meeting of needs of
current and future users. Institution bankassurance, strengthens possibility of monitoring and
decrease of number of business risks to which
these financial institutions are constantly exposed,
by merging services into one financial group.
2.1. Types – models of bankassurance
There are various models in practice on which
the cooperation of banks and insurance companies
is based on, but there are four elementary models of
bank assurance standing out (Prga, Segedi, 2003):
1. Bank manages the insurance company,
where it has majority ownership,
2. Bank and insurance company form joint
dependant company,
3. Bank and insurance company enter into
contract on providing of insurance services or
4. Insurance company can establish or takeover
the bank.
2.2. Short history of bankassurance
development
Connection between banking and insurance
operations dated from a thousand year BC, when
in ancient Babylon ship-owners borrowed money
from banks in order to initiate sea commercial
ventures, giving the ship as guarantee that the loan
is to be paid with high interest. Borrowed money
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would not be paid off in case if cargo and ship are
destroyed.
In the seventeenth century professor Johan fon
Just from Vienna was supporting the connection
of insurers for protection against fire and banks
approving long-term loans for investments.
Beginnings of modern bankassurance are
linked to legal changes in France from 1984 allowing banks to spread on insurance market as well.
The sample of bankassurance has been spread
very quickly. Aspiration towards transfer from
operations with low profit rates to more profitable
business activities additionally directed banks in
insurance industry. A short review of bankassurance development in Europe is as follows:
–– In 1980 – in France banks sell life insurance;
–– In the late eighties of last century – unit
linked policies appeared for the first time
(insurance policy connected with investment
funds) and investment linked policies (policy
where the part of premium is connected with
investments);
–– At the beginning of eighties of last century
– banks started with more intensive sale of
life insurance;
–– In 1990 – the European Union adopted the
first directive on sale of non-life insurance
through bank sales channel.
2.3. Experiences and presence of bankassurance
Observed in its entirety, joining of banks and
insurers in joint operations of insurance services
sales through widely spread network of banks, has
given good results. These results are different in
different states considering different demographic, legal and economic environment.
Relevant data show (Marchitelli, 2010) that
significance of bankassurance is different in various countries. This, for example, on Western European area is in France (where this institution has
been originated), than in Spain and Belgium. In
addition, it could be concluded that the part of total
life insurance sold through banks is continuously
growing in all countries, while the share of nonlife insurance concluded in this way is irrelevant
– approximately 5%. Likewise, it can be observed
that in Great Britain, as leading global market of
insurance and reinsurance, the significant penetration of institution bankassurance has not happened
and the main reason for that is that consumers in
Great Britain are suspicious and more distrustful
towards the banks than in other European countries. It is also important to mention that legislation
in Great Britain, and in Germany as well, presents
a significant obstacle in development of these operations in contrast to other European countries.
2.4. Experiences and presence of
bankassurance in certain countries
Observing in general the bankassurance operations are more developed in Europe than in
America. Experiences in utilization of a bank as
a sales channel are different even if the countries
with the same development level are in question.
In Europe, as presented in figure 1 and table 8,
leaders are Spain, France, Italy, the Nederland and
then Germany, Austria and Britain (SWISS RE /
Statistics, 2008).
Figure 1. Presence of new sales channels in the
European Union
This channel started to develop in CEE just
some 5-6 years ago. The large development, thanks
to this sales channel, has been achieved by Polish
PZU and Czech Pojistovna. States of former Yugoslavia have a different experience. In Croatia it is al-
Table 8. Presence of certain sales channels in European Union by years
Year
2006
2005
2004
518
Agent
27,8
27,1
33,2
Brokers and independent agents
29,0
32,4
28,0
Direct sale
6,5
5,5
3,6
Banks
26,3
24,8
25,9
Pyramidal structures
6,7
7,0
6,2
Others
3,7
3,2
3,1
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lowed by law that insurer may have only one bank,
and this brings to the situation that clients of one
bank have limited possibility in selection among
various offers, but this has been changed. In Serbia
products of one insurance company could be sold
in all banks with which the insurer concluded the
contract on agency and employees in the bank have
to have license issued by the National Bank of Serbia. In Macedonia in initial phase there was a real
boom in development of bank-channels. However,
this is a consequence of the regulator’s prohibition
of the sale of car-insurance on technical checkups,
so, development was supported artificially.
3. Analysis of bank channels presence in
Croatia
Pictures 2, 3, 4 present presence of a bank as a
sales channel in the Republic of Croatia (www.Hanfa.HR/Statistika), where this channel, after Slovenia,
in the countries of former Yugoslavia, is the most
developed. It is observed that the presence of bank
channels is on level of 5-6%, what is a little and a lot
depending with whom it is being compared.
Figure 4. Share of bank channels in total gross
sales by type of insurance in the Republic of
Croatia
It is estimated that incomes of banks on basis
of commissions for sales of insurance products
in Croatia are on the level of approximately 15
million EUR annually, what is the significant income considering the fact that it is achieved with
the same number of employees. From data for the
first six months of 2010 (Svijet osiguranja, 2010),
income of banks on commission basis for sale of
insurance products is presented in table 9.
Table 9. Income of banks in Croatia from commission for sales of insurance products
Croatia
Total premium
Bank channel share
Average commission
Figure 2. Gross premium in the Republic of Croatia
I – VI 2010
702 mill €
5,5% ili 38,5 mill €
15% ili cca 6 mill €
If parameters from example for Croatia are applied to Bosnia and Herzegovina, from a hypothetic point of view the income of banks would,
on the level of the first six months of 2010 (according to information for premium in Bosnia and
Herzegovina) achieve approximately 1 million
EUR (table 10).
Table 10. Bosnia and Herzegovina – projection of
incomes from sales of insurance products
Bosnia and Herzegovina -RS
I – VI 2010
Total premium
122,37 mil €
Bank channels share
5,5% or 6,7 mil €
Average commission
15% or approx. 1 mil €
Figure 3. Allocation of gross premium by sales
channels in the Republic of Croatia
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4. Advantages of bankassurance
From viewpoint of the banks the advantages of
introduction of bankassurance (SWISS RE, 2008)
are as follows:
–– Providing the permanent inflow and incomes
by enlargement of operations in insurance
sector, by which the dependence from
fluctuation of interest rates and interests
rates as a main income position is decreased,
–– Offer of a wider scope of services which
strengthen connection with clients and their
loyalty,
–– The same level of incomes is provided with
less risk capital,
–– Complete palette of financial services
appropriate to the clients needs,
–– Providing the money funds which otherwise
would be found at insurers.
Advantages of cooperation of insurance companies in sales of insurance with banks are also
convincing. Approach to large number of the bank
clients, as potential insured, presents a great incentive. Decrease of high insurance acquisition costs
through own agency network also presents the
advantage and in certain cases cooperation with a
strong bank may help in financing new operation
and to intensify confidence in the insurer. Observing this as a whole, the most important advantages
for insurer are:
–– Joining the extremely large circle of bank's
clients,
–– By enlargement of sales channels dependence
on insurance agents is decreased,
–– Joint sharing, i.e. utilization of services with
banks,
–– More successful development of money
products, that is services in cooperation with
new business partner,
–– Fast development of approach to the new
markets without necessity for creation of
network of agents.
Observed as a whole (Žarković, 2006) it may
be stated that advantages of bank channels for
sales of insurance are as follows:
–– Low costs of sale,
–– Control of sales network (bank employees),
520
–– ”crosseling“ with other banking products,
–– Decrease of placement (credits) risk,
–– Use of potential network of the bank branch
offices (subsidiaries),
–– Use of the bank clients base,
–– Realization of additional income for bank
(commission),
–– Synergy between banking and insurance
products,
–– ”customer-centric“ approach to sale,
–– Joint selling campaigns,
–– Joint marketing approach on the market –
creation of brand
There is a certain number of conditions which
have to be met by the bank in order to initiate sales
of various types of insurance and create the selling
culture with employees, and these are:
Transformation of bank employee into insurance seller
This may be achieved by training for sales of
insurance, elaboration of detailed instructions or
manuals for sale, construction of a system for
stimulation of sale and by providing IT network.
Stimulation of bank employee as advisor of
clients
The best stimulation, on basis of set selling
goals, may be created by introduction and development of appropriate, changeable system of rewarding.
Continuous communication with buyers of
insurance services
Providing of support at answering on questions
asked by potential policy holders, monitoring of
competition, preparation of incentive advertising,
implementation of the marketing based on utilization of data base of the bank clients.
Equal approach to bank and insurance services
Success in sales of insurance policies in the bank
may be achieved only by balancing of both types of
services and by erasing borders between them.
Insurance company also has to adjust to the
banking partner and such adjustment is based on
following:
Creation of simple, understandable and to
the bank appropriate insurance services
Classic life insurance fits in the propositions of
bankassurance, due to its saving character, but it
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has to be as much as simple and balanced in order
that bank employee could sell it successfully.
When it is about non-life insurance, only simple products are taken into consideration where
consultation of potential clients for insurance is
eased. Thus health insurance, due to its complexity and need of large consultations, is considered
(Mr. Antonio Marchitelli, 2010) as unsuitable to
be sold by bankassurance.
Focusing on sales channels of bank
Banks sell their services by direct channels
considerably cheaper than on counters and insurers should act according to these thinking as well.
Training of bank employees
Training program is designed and prepared by
insurance companies and banks but realized by the
bank.
Creation of selling culture for sales of insurance in the bank
The full motivation of banking employees is understood, removal of their indifferent relation during
the sales, prompt incorporation of insurance services into bank offer, ability for clients evaluation, their
requirements, preferences, whishes and needs.
IT support to insurance processes installed
in the bank
Unique IT support to banking and insurance
processes enable bank employee to meet advisory
requirements set by client and to conclude insurance contract successfully. In this sense IT support
to sales of insurance is based on existing equipment in the bank.
Appropriate marketing approach:
There are three possibilities of market approach in promotion of the new sales channel such
as bankassurance:
–– With the name of insurance company (its
reputation on the market is being used and
existing policies are just forwarded to the
bank for sale),
–– With name of bank (use of already existing
brand under which the bank acts and which
understands achieved level of quality of
services and in this way additional marketing
costs are eliminated),
–– With new name, where absolutely new
identity of brand is created and enables new
start of operations without possible bad
tracks from the past where arise deficiency
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in the form of high cots for penetration
of new market brand, and new products
possibly would not achieve attraction of the
both bank's or insurance company's name.
Customer center appropriate to the bank
clients
Customer centers offering support and information (telephone or internet system) have to be
constantly available.
Pricing on the bank services level
Prices of insurance services should correspond
proportionally to the level of basic bank services.
5. Basic conditions for success and circumstances for failure
To have bankassurance channel functioning it
is necessary to establish principles of operation in
both the bank and insurance company, and also to
have unity and harmonization between such principles. According to the basis of these principles,
the bank is obliged to provide movement of sales
of insurance services and creation of own selling
culture while insurance company has completely
to adjust to the bank partner in joint venture.
Experiences of other developed states (Primm,
2010) indicate that for development of this sales and
insurance channel in general it is necessary to have
gross domestic products achieving the amount of
6000 € per capita. From this it could be concluded that some of CEE states and former Yugoslavia
(SEE - SOUTH EAST EUROPE, edition 2010), as
presented in table 11 are not on such level, but on development of bank-channels should be worked parallel with achieving such level. The reason for this
is high presence of insurance companies and banks
from developed countries on that market which already have developed the product in question.
Table 11. Gross domestic product of the former
Yugoslavia stated, per capita in 2009i
State
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Croatia
Macedonia
Montenegro
Serbia
Slovenia
GDP in 2009
5.283 $
14.258 $
4.089 $
7.619 $
5.060 $
21.170 $
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5.1. Basic conditions for success
Key conditions for sales of insurance products
through banks network becomes reality are higher
standard of life, change of financial culture of population and creation of adequate products. Other
important factors are adequate state regulations
and general economic and cultural factors.
Common guidelines for success in sales of
insurance products through banks network (bank
sales channels) are:
–– Common strategy of insurance companies
and banks in presentation of insurance
products on the market,
–– Precise defining of target group of clients (
use of approach of customer relationship
management developed in banks such as
CRM - Customer Relationship Management),
–– Simple products and work technology,
–– excellent sales servicing,
–– excellent administration,
–– joint planning and marketing,
–– excellent education of bank employees,
–– planning and achievement of selling plans,
–– use of customer database of insurance
company and banks,
–– quality and fast processing of cases.
5.2. Basic circumstances for failure
Circumstances which would lead towards failure or would be an obstacle in development of
bank sales channel for insurance products can be
recognized in following:
–– inadequate human resources management,
–– insufficient culture of insurance sales with
bank employees,
–– resistance of employees towards new things,
that is towards changes,
–– noninvolvement of the bank management
structures in operations,
–– inadequate marketing campaign,
–– inappropriate stimulation and rewarding of
employees,
–– bad connection of sales channels,
–– non acceptance of the new way of sales by
users of these services,
–– introduction in this sales channel of complex
insurance products and unnecessary
administration,
–– aggressive integration of insurance company
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into the bank (too much aggressive approach
towards customers).
5.3. Insurance products appropriate for sales
through bank sales channel
The most selling insurance product through
bank sales channel could be recognized, before
all, with life and credit insurance, specifically:
Life insurance:
–– risk insurance (insurance in case of death
regardless to cause), where are included
the risk insurance with single payment of
premium and risk insurance with single
payment of premium and descending
insurance sum,
–– classic life endowment insurance which
included endowment insurance with
multiple payment of premium (additional
insurance against accident) and endowment
insurance with single payment of premium
Non-life insurance:
Non-life insurance should be in offer but they
are not so much present in practice and the offer
is reduced on:
–– Insurance of property against fire and other
risks (flat ownership, houses...) – insurance
packages which include insurance of
household things and liability,
–– Voluntary health insurance of persons in
time of travel and stay abroad,
–– Insurance against accident.
5.4. Flow chart of business process
Flow chart of business process of bankassurance in different banks may be different depending on method of work and bank and insurance
company and their mutual relationship, but also
from global point of view, for any kind of cooperation includes following steps:
1. Selection of product,
2. Defining of product (elaboration of
documentation on product),
3. Defining of all elements of contract on
insurance (policies),
4. Education of the bank sales network,
5. Marketing campaign,
6. Start of sales,
7. Control of efficiency of bank sales channels
and their improvement.
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Business process of bankassurance (Mašić,
2003) is mostly going on through following 3 patterns or models:
–– Integral model – products are being sold
through existing bank sales channels,
that is insurance services are offered to
customers through bank subsidiaries. This
model requires complete training of bank
employees.
–– Model of experts – understands sales of
insurance by experts who are by rule,
associated with insurance company. The
role of a bank employee is reduced to
recognition of a potential buyer of the service
and addressing to expert from insurance
company. Realization of this model requires
less training but deficiency is longer process
period due to two stages of sales.
–– Model of financial planning – this is about
the most complex approach which requires
team work. Customer is offered with entire
package of financial services which includes
banking and insurance services adjusted to
his needs, the size of risk to which is ready.
All mentioned models of sales are efficient in
certain conditions and their success lies in their
recognition (Kumar, 2001). The key guideline is
comprehension whether the model fits into the
most important goals of all parties in bank sales
channel of insurance.
Partners in bank sales channel of insurance in
former Yugoslavia countries have established cooperation by relationship presented in table 12:
6. Conclusion
Dynamic development of life insurance as
an instrument of investment in many developed
countries caused decrease of investments in banks
what resulted in new model of sales of insurance
through the banks. Offering the largest possible
selection of financial services at one place, banks
and insurance companies expect more efficient
utilization of own potentials and potentials of their
customers and by this increase of own profit.
Elementary arguments for the concept of bankassurance are decrease of costs and better utilization
of existing sales channels. Banks in this business
see, before all, possibility to offer complete financial package of services to customers at one place
and insurance companies the sales channel which
does not require additional investments. In order to
achieve success in further development of bankassurance, goals and interests of the bank and insurance company have to be harmonized. Both sides
should recognize customer's needs; prepare well the
selling process at introduction of bank sales channels and to be ready to overcome the resistance with
both; customers and their employees.
Low acquisition costs and EU regulations are
very favorable to development of bankassurance.
More complete and better service and higher profit
are just some of main reasons why the bankassurance is sales channel for close future.
Table 12. Traditional partners in bank sales channel of insurance in former Yugoslavia
Serbia
Bank
OTP
banka
Metals
banka
Čačanska
banka
Raiffeisenbank
Bank
Intesa
Croatia
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Insurance
company
Bank
Insurance
company
Bank
Insurance
company
Basler osiguranje
Erste banka
VIG
Raiffeisenbank
Uniqa osiguranje
DDOR Novi Sad
Raiffeisenbank
Uniqa osiguranje
UniCredit
Croatia
Dunav osiguranje
UniCredit
Alianz
NLB
Triglav
Uniqa osiguranje
NLB
Triglav
Delta Generali
PBZ
Generali
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7. Reference
1. Zarkovic N., Reinsurance with coinsurance, Singidunum University, Beograd, 2006.
2. Kumar, M., Marketing and Distribution Channels in
Bankassurance, CEO's summit of Asia Pacific countries, Asia Business Forum, 18-19 October 2001,
Singapore.
3. Masic, N., Bankassurance, Insurance, 2003.
4. Prga, I., Segedi T., Bankassurance – model of integration of bank and insurance market, Accounting
and Finance, 5, 2003
5. “The world of insurance”, magazine for law, economics and practice of insurance and reinsurance,
Zagreb, number 13, 2010)
6. SEE (SOUTH EAST EUROPE) Sofia, edition 2010.
7. Primm, XPRIMM News - THE ROMANIAN INSURANCE MARKET NEWSLETTER, year XII, Issue
6/2010, www.primm.ro,
8. www.hanfa.hr,
9. www.azors.org,
10. www.top100.seenews.com,
11. Marchitelli, A., AXA Experiences in Bancassurance
Development, Proceedings of "New posibilities of
BIH and RS finance sector development", Teslic,
2010
Corresponding Author
Miroslav Miskic,
Jahorina insurance,
Bosnia and Herzegovina,
E-mail: mmiskic@jahorinaosiguranje.com
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Numerical calculation of the of the heat flux
distribution and temperature field in the
furnace with floating slag
Enes Dzihic1, Vlado Madzarevic2
1
2
Post of B&H, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina,
University in Tuzla, Faculty of electrical engineering, Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Abstract
In this paper is realized numerical calculation
of the heat flux distribution and temperature field
in the furnace with floating slag. Results of calculation show real image of heat flux distribution
and temperature field in furnace. For this calculation is used the 2D and 3D finite elements method.
Analysis of results showed distribution of heat flux
and locations of maximum temperature stresses of
furnace elements during metallurgy process in order to gain the optimal furnace constructions and
to improve energetic work indicators of the furnace in purpose of the most economical work. It
is also established that the crystallizer of furnace
with floating slag is the part of the furnace which
is the most exposed to the most highest thermal
loadings, thus this part of the furnace is needed to
pay attention from the aspect of its construction
and cooling organization.
The analysis has been performed for the cover constructed of chamotte and for the suggested
cover cooled by water. Suggested solution for usage of the cover cooled by water has been implemented in practice.
Key word: furnace with floating slag, temperature stresses, numerical calculation, temperature
field
1. Introduction
In the paper is discussed the numerical calculation of heat flux distribution and temperature
field of the furnace with floating slag realized with
2D/3D software packages in static regime. Analysis of the heat flux distribution and temperature
field ensured analysis of thermal tensions of certain furnace parts and especially ensured analysis
of the furnace crystallizer as the most temperature
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exposed part of the furnace. In this paper has been
realized numerical calculation for the cover constructed of chamotte and for the suggested cover
cooled by water. Suggested solution for usage of
the cover cooled by water has been implemented
in practice.
2. Numerical calculation of heat flux and
temperature field of furnace with floating
slag
Temperature field of electrode is one of the
most important part of furnace termophysic examinations. Temperature of electrode surfaces is
directly dependant of the level of their interaction
with surrounding.
Temperature field of the slag bath is the most
important factor for determination of technicalmetallurgicaly characteristics of the furnace. Temperature field in area of ingot is described by equation 1[L.2, 7]:
........................ (1)
Q1 - temperature of crystallizer by ingot side
Q - temperature in the crystallizer wall
S - surface of crystallizer wall im m2
F - steady state heat flux in W
lst – coefficient of heating conduction
Results of numerical solving of equation 1 has
been shown heat flux and temperature distribution
into area of ingot and very important temperature
distribution on crystallizer height.
For 2D/3D numerical calculation of temperature fields in steady state by finite elements method
are used software packages MATLAB and MAGMASOFT.
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Cross-section of furnace with floating slag as
a object of numarical calculation is showed on
figure 1.
Furnace data are:
- Power
S = 800 kVA
S = 800 kVA
- Current I = 14,5 kA
- Voltage U = 80 V
U = 80 V
- Power factor cos φ = 0,8
cos φ = 0,8
- Heating time
t = 20 min t = 20 min
- Melting velocity A = 620 kg A = 620 kg
- Amount of cooling water 770 l/min 770 l/min
- Slag type
CaFe3
CaFe3
- Amount of slag 100 kg
- coefficient of heating transfer by conduction
of steel
λFe = 50 W/m˚C
- coefficient of heating transfer by conduction
of copper
λCu = 348 W/m˚C
- coefficient of heating transfer by conduction
of slag
λš = 98 W/m˚C
- coefficient of heating transfer by conduction
of air
λe = 0,0248 W/m˚C
- electrode diameter de=370 mm de=370 mm
- crystallizer diameter dk = 710 mm
matematical model dependent on one or a few parameters, determined experimentaly.
Analyses of heat distribution of every technology process give data important for design of
equipment and evaluation of energetic efficiency.
Useful spent heat in electro-melting procedure
is heat coming in ingot.
Because of forced cooling, temperature of
crystallizer operating surface is much lower then
temperature of slag bath and ingot. Large temperature gradient between cooling water and melting
area in crystallizer cause intensive heat exchange
through the walls of crystallizer.
Clacualtion of heat flux distribution and temperature field of furnace with floating slag is very complex because of complexity of furnace geometry.
Figure 2. Mesh of the geometry
Figure 1. Cross-section of furnace with floating
slag
Matematical modelling of melting process
include modelling of thermal, electrical and hydrodynamic processes. Because of simplicity,
these processes are analyzed separately. Result is
526
Goal of the calculation was to get more accurate
heat flux distribution and temperature field distribution in cross-section of furnace with floating slag,
indispensable for analysis of thermal stresses.
Cross-section of furnace is divided on following regions (figure 2):
–– outer furnace part, crystallizator, with a fine
mesh
–– inner furnace part with rough mesh.
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Number of elements is 3310, and number of
nodes of the mesh is 1790.
3. Results of numerical calculation
All electrical power spent during the melting
proces is divided into:
–– accumulated energy in the electrode,
increasing internal energy of electrode
ie.temperature to melting point
–– covering the heat losses that occur due
to heat transfer form heated electrode to
ambient and
–– change in internal energy for the melted
ingot due to current flow through ingot and
development of Joule losses
Direction of heat flux density distribution is
shown on figure 3.
In table 1. and 2. are given results of numerical calculation of heat flux through crystallizer for
different types of cover, cover from chamotte and
water-cooled cover.
Table 1. Results of numerical calculation of heat
flux through crystallizer for chamotte cover
Height molten ingot h (m) Power heat flux F (W)
0,450
7,578E+05
0,440
7,591E+05
0,430
7,576E+05
0,415
7,574E+05
0,400
7,584E+05
0,350
7,633E+05
0,300
7,708E+05
0,250
7,908E+05
0,200
8,520E+05
0,185
8,982E+05
0,170
9,947E+05
Figure 4. Graphic illustration of results of numerical calculation of heat flux through crystallizer for cover from chamotte
Table 2. Results of numerical calculation of heat
flux through crystallizer with water cooled cover
Figure 3. Typical heat balance during electrode
melting process
From the figure 3 can be seen that heat spent
from electrode melting, partially flow through
water-cooled crystallizer, directly from bath and
slag on to cristalizer wall, and then be passed on to
cooling water, partially through crystallizer cover
in to ambient or cooling water, depend on cover
construction.
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Height molten ingot h (m) Power heat flux F (W)
0,450
7,971E+05
0,440
7,716E+05
0,430
7,681E+05
0,415
7,659E+05
0,400
7,648E+05
0,350
7,665E+05
0,300
7,758E+05
0,250
7,946E+05
0,200
8,549E+05
0,185
9,007E+05
0,170
9,967E+05
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Figure 5. Graphic illustration of results of numerical calculation of heat flux through crystallizer with water cooled cover
Graphic illustrations of heat flux distribution
for different types of cover are given on figure 6.
Furnace with water-cooled cover
Figure 6. Graphic illustrations of heat flux distribution
Comparing the previous graphics can be concluded that heat conveyance on the end of the
melting process is higher in water-cooled cover
then in chamotte cover, but without significant impact on energy losses. The main reason of this is
shorter duration of melting process.
On figure 7. is confirmation of previously obtained results.
Furnace with chamotte cover
Figure 7. Dependence of heat transfer (W/mK)
from temperature (0C)
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On the figures 8 are showed a three pictures of
temperature fields for different phases of melting
process.
Temperature values on some positions are:
Value: 362.367118 [K], Expression: T, Position: (0.346429,0.403138)
Value: 579.802194 [K], Expression: T, Position: (0.346429,0.303026)
Value: 1688.822516 [K], Expression: T, Position: (0.350782,0.250793)
Value: 630.436872 [K], Expression: T, Position: (0.346429,0.20509)
Value: 441.423464 [K], Expression: T, Position: (0.344253,0.152857)
On figure 10. is showed temperature distribution in inner side of crystallizer in the furnce with
the suggested cover cooled by water.
Figure 8. Temperature field distribution-phase 1,
phase 2, phase 3
During melting process furnace crystallizer is
exsposed to extremly high nonuniform temperature load.
On figure 9. is showed temperature distribution
in inner side of crystallizer in the furnce with the
cover constructed of chamotte.
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Figure 9. Temperature distribution in inner side
of crystallizator in the furnce with the cover constructed of chamotte
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Temperature values on some positions are:
Value: 334.847153 [K], Expression: T, Position: (0.347909,0.402041)
Value: 482.905141 [K], Expression: T, Position: (0.350261,0.305614)
Value: 1458.024989 [K], Expression: T, Position: (0.347909,0.253872)
Value: 639.484588 [K], Expression: T, Position: (0.345557,0.206834)
Value: 418.670508 [K], Expression: T, Position: (0.345557, 0.150389)
Analyzing figures 5 and 6, and results of calculation, i.e. temperature values on some positions,
could be concluded following:
–– temperature stresses of furnace bath are
the biggest on the contact places of the bath
with melted ingot, in both cases;
–– temperature stress of furnace bath is smaller
in the furnce with the suggested cover
cooled by water
Using the cover cooled by water, number of
melting periods with the same bath is larger. This
is confirmed in the practice.
4. Conclusion
Figure 10. Temperature distribution in inner side
of crystallizer in the furnce with the suggested
metal cover cooled by water
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Increased heat flux and heat losses on the begining of melting process are caused by proximity
to molten slag to water-cooled floor. During the
melting process hardened ingot becomes a sort of
insulator between the liquid slag and water-cooled
floor. The highest heat flux through the mold-crystalizer is in the place of contact with molten steel
and wall of the crystalizer. This does not mean an
increase of electrical energy losses, because the
fact that the main part of the heat flux is held by
decreasing intenral energy of the bath and ingot,
ie. by cooling in crystallizer.
Therefore, more intensive cooling of the mold
would reduce the thermal stress of the mold, power consumption of unnecessary heating of ingots
and shorten time to melt.
All this increases productivity and the productivity of the furnace.
The experiential data of users of these furnaces,
"BH Steel-steel" Zenica, showed that due to large
thermal stresses occurs deformation of the mold,
and the erosion of the walls of the mold, which
negatively affects the quality of the castings.
Application of the results obtained in practice
resulting from this work is primarily reflected in
the following:
–– From analysis of calculated temperature
field is proposed change of chamotte cover
with metal water-cooled cover. With this
measure the number of blending cycles
without deformation of the mold is increased
to 150, while the erosion of the mold walls
is reduced.
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–– Time of melting duration, using watercooled metal cover instead of chamotte
cover is reduced by approximately 10%,
resulting in the reduction of electricity
consumption by approximately 5%
As in all melting aggregates, existance of high
temperature cause large temperature stresses of
some parts of aggregate. Modelling of temperature stresses of some parts of furnace, esspecialy
crystalizer is very important. As we can see crystallizer is a heart of furnace.
Value and distribution of temperature in the
volume of crystallizer of furnace with floating
slag are very important parameters which defined
and determined functionability of crystallizator,
its defomability, surface quality and a structure
of melting ingot. Crystallizator heating during
melting process cause its geometry deformation.
Depending on construction of cooling channels
and crystallizer configuration temperature field of
walls could be different.
Crystallizer function is to take-over large heat
flux which is measured in millions of kJ/m2 per
hour, without burning and deformatios. Crystallizator would ensure obtaining of ingot of needed
format.
By analysis of numerical calcualtion of steady
state temperature field and heat flux distribution is
possible to:
–– locate a places in furnace, during melting
process with maximum temperature stress
–– have an effect on number of melting periods
which could not cause damage of furnace
parts exposed to temperature stress
–– calculate heating flux during melting process
–– improve construction of furnace for more
economic work and energetic efficiency of
furnace.
3. V.S.Taranakov, V.K.Leko, O.V.Mazurov, Some problems of precise measurements of heat transfer coefficients in glass melts, Measurements of effective
conductivity, Glastechnische Berichte, 1995.
4. T.Wriedt, The Generalized Multipole Technique for
Electromagnetic and Light Scattering, Elsevier, '99
5. M.Huang, F.C.Lai, Numerical Study of EHD-Enhanced Forced Convection with Two-way Coupling,
ASME Heat Transfer Division, IMECE 2001
6. A.Mo, H.J.Thevik, B.R.Heriksen, E.K.Jonsen, Modelling of surface segregation development during
D.C. casting of rolling slab ingots, Cast shop
Technology, Fundamentals and Modelling, Bonn,
Germany,1997.A.Mo,.
7. I.Kapetanović, Metode rješavanja temperaturnih
polja modelovanjem, Magistarski rad, Sarajevo,
1985.
Corresponding author
Enes Dzihic,
Post of B&H,
Sarajevo,
Bosnia and Herzegovina,
E-mail: enesdz@posta.ba
5. References
1. R.T.Bui,D.Kocaefe, Mathematical modelling of the
metal flow in sidewell furnaces, Cast shop Technology, Fundamentals and Modelling, Bonn, Germany,1997.
2. Б.И.Медовар, Тепловые процессы при
элекрошлаковом переплаве Kиeв, 1978.
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Obtaining The Relation Between The Courses
By Using Data Mining Application
Ali Buldu, Kerem Üçgün
Technical Educational Fakulty of Marmara University, Electronics & Computer Education Department, Goztepe,
Istanbul, Turkey
Abstract
The amount of data kept every area increases
continually in our day. From these data by being
carried out data mining techniques, meaningful,
precious knowledge which is unknown before is
desired to be obtained.
Because of this reason, data mining comes in
the first line in the process of information exploration on databases. From these data in hand, data
mining is extracting potentially handy information which is not so clear, unknown before and up
closed [1]. Data mining is not a solution itself at
this point, instead it is a tool which supports decision making process and which tries to ensure
required knowledge in order to reach the solution
of the problem.
In data mining techniques, association rules are
one of the most preferred techniques. Apriori algorithm is the most used one in these association
rules. In this concept, school automation software
has been prepared in Microsoft VB.Net programming concept. With this prepared software, by
being carried out apriori algorithm upon the data
of students of Istanbul Eyup I.M.K.B. Vocational
Commerce High School, the rules have been produced and from the results obtained the relation
between the courses that the students failed have
been revealed.
Key words:
1. Introduction
The data is for their sizes covers much space
in pages but the merit of their usage is little. However, if we sum it up by putting numbers in an order, if we convert into meaningful sentences by
arranging letters, and if we produce a melody by
putting notes in a raw and if we produce a graphic
or a picture of a tree by combining data on computer screen it is only at this point that we convert
532
these data into information. Info covers less space
as for its size in contrast to data but is more powerful in terms of usage worth [2].
1.1 Knowledge discovery in databases
Knowledge discovery in databases is the process of extracting valid, meaningful and useful
patterns from the stored data.
According to Fayyad, knowledge discovery in
databases is processed as this raw [3]
–– Data Selection: At this step, by combining more
than one data set, a sample data set is obtained
which is suitable for questioning over it. This
operation is a selection produce but selection
part and data integration take place as a process
as this step. This is called as data collection.
–– Data Preprocessing: It is the step in which the
faulty and deficient patterns occupying in the
sample data set obtained with data selection are
arranged and removed. Thanks to procedure
applied in this step, the data on which the data
mining will be carried out is filled into qualified
data. Data cleaning and data transformation are
data preprocess procedures.
–– Data Reduction: It is the step in which
irrelevant and repeated data are remove out
in sample data set selected. As the dimension
of data is reduced without h this procedure,
producing faster results of questions being
worked when data mining is carried is ensured.
–– Data Mining: This is the step in which
data mining methods (classifying, piling,
association) and algorithms (AIS, apriori, etc.)
are applied.
–– Evaluation: In the process of knowledge
discovery, it is the evaluation of the info
(obtained before this step) according to the
criteria of validness, newness, usefulness and
simple ness.
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According to Fayyad and others, the steps in
the process of knowledge discovery in databases
are pointed out in Figure 1:
Figure 1. The steps in the process of knowledge
discovery in databases [4]
Data mining, which makes meaningless data
listed in databases be turned into meaningful pattern, is used broadly from the areas of business
to astronomy and it has been started to be used in
many areas in our country. The most initiative areas
of this comes marketing, retailing, banking, insuring, exchange, telecommunication, biology, medicine, genetic, industry, engineering and education.
One of the first techniques carried out in data
mining is association rules [5]. Association rules
can be defined as revealing the relations of the objects in data set. Association rules are the procedures of by being analyzed of these transactions in
data set, among these transactions or in records the
most frequent soon ones all together are fixed out.
The dependences of the quality rates in a relation
with association rules are found by being grouped
other qualities which don’t take place in the key.
These rules were first found by Agrawal in 1994.
In this study as well, association rules are considered from data mining techniques. This study
has been applied over the students of Istanbul Eyup
I.M.K.B Vocational Commerce High School and the
relations between the courses have been revealed.
Apriori algorithm is used in forming these relations.
1.2. Apriori algorithm
Apriori algorithms are the most known algorithm in association rules. The name of algorithm
is apriori in the meaning of “prior” as it takes
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knowledge from the previous pace. The basic approach in apriori algorithm is that if k-item set
(owns k numbers item) ensures minimum support
criteria, the sub set of this set ensures minimum
support criteria, too.
Association rules mining are in two steps as one
including the finding of all frequent item and other
including the production of powerful association
rules from these frequent items. In the data used as
market basket the production codes taking place in
each transaction is numeral and production codes
are ordered from the bigger one to the smaller. The
item sets are mentioned with the numbers of items
and an item set which owns “k” number product
is named as k-item set. If k-item set is stated with
“c” its products are showed in the shape of c[1],
c[2], c[3],...,c[k] and it is ordered like this from
bigger to smaller c[1] < c[2] < c[3]< ... <c[k] [6].
A counter variable has been added to item set to
hold the support criterion and the counter variable
is zeroized when the item set is farmed as a first
time. The frequent item sets are indicated with
“L” and candidate item sets are indicated with “C”
character [4].
The classic summary code of apriori algorithm
is seen Figure 2. the function of apriori gone in
this figure produces candidate item sets that own
“k” number item using Lk-1 item set which owns
(k-1) number items.
L1= {frequent 1-item set};
for (k=2; Lk-1≠ Ø; k++) do begin
Ck=apriori-gen (Lk-1); // New candidates
forall transactions t Î D do begin
Ct = subset (Ck, t);
forall candidates c Î Ct
c.count++;
end
Lk = {c Î Ck | c.count ≥ minsup}
end
Answer = Èk Lk;
Figure 2. The classic summary code of apriori
algorithm [7]
This function works like this. First, Lk-1 frequent
item set is combined with Lk-1. In joining step, the
similarity of other items as crosswise excluding
the last item taking place each line of the frequent
item set is looked about and is formed new candi533
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date item set considering the similarities of other
items excluding the last item. The function is returned by pruning of the set being formed. Pruning
procedure functions like this: The sub sets of “c”
candidate set owning (k-1) item and not being involved in (k-1) are deleted. The crosscut of apriori
algorithm function is indicated in figure 3 [7].
insert into Ck
select p.items1, p.items2,.....,p.
itemsk-1, q.itemk-1
from Lk-1 p, Lk-1 q
where p.item1=q.item1, ...., p.itemk-2=q.
itemk-2,
p.itemk-1 < q.itemk-1;
forall itemsets c Î Ck do
forall (k-1)-subsets s of c do
if (s Ï Lk-1) then
delete c from Ck
Figure 3. The algorithm crosscut of apriori-gene
function [7]
In pruning procedure, all subsets, which don’t
take place Lk-1 frequent item sets of “c” candidate
set owning (k-1) number subsets, are deleted.
What it means is that the existence of the subsets
of Ck candidate item set in Lk-1 frequent item set is
controlled. If one subset of an item doesn’t take
place in Lk-1 frequent item set, the related item isn’t
included in the evaluation and is deleted from Ck
candidate item set [7].
When the summary code of apriori algorithm is
observed, it is seen that in order to find the frequent
item sets. Databases are scanned many times. Before first step, hypothesis that the data-community
on which data mining will be applied is scanned
and how many transaction record they are included
in is fixed and the items equal to minimum support
counter or bigger than it is determined as L1 frequent 1- item set then the procedure is started [8].
With the cyle structure setup in code in the first
step, a new set is formed which is similar to (L1 ¥
L1) combination of L1 frequent item set. This process is called as joining. The sets that are formed
by this procedure are named as candidate item
sets and are indicated with the letter C. As each
item of this formed candidate set consist of two
elements, it is named with C2. This candidate set
is exposed to pruning with apriori gene function
and whether subsets are looked. And the items of
set that don’t take place in subset L1 set are de534
leted C2 candidate set. By being scanned again of
data community on which apriori algorithm have
been carried out, the support counter is found that
shows from how many transaction record that the
item of C2 candidate set being exposed to pruning
have passed through. Regarding the information
of support counter found, the items of C2 candidate sets which are equal to the rate of minimum
support counter or the items having big support
rate forms L2 frequent item set [8].
The cycle at one after process, with triple combination of L2 set items a new candidate set formed and
it is symbolized the expression of C3. As the same in
first step, this set passes through pruning, too. After
pruning L3 frequent item set is farmed with the elements which remain beyond the minimum support
level. The cycle goes on by increasing the number
of items in each turn. This process continuous until
new frequent item set isn’t found [8].
2. The procedure of application
In this study, in order to realize data mining
with apriori algorithm, the students’ data has been
entered into the school automation program which
has been developed by us. The frequent items sets
are fixed by regarding all the points that students
have got. Then, the rules are revealed which can
be obtained from databases.
As a data set which apriori algorithm will be
applied, the data of the students of Eyup İ.M.K.B.
Vocational Commerce High School 11-A class is
used. There are 28 students in 11-A class. When
the lessons are dealt separately as a first and second
term, apriori algorithm is applied on the points that
the students got from 74 courses in total. Which
means 30 courses in 9th, 26 courses in 10th and 18
courses in 11th classes. As minimum support rate 9
and as minimum confidence rate %85 is entered.
Each step of algorithm can be seen below.
1st Step: In the first step of algorithm, algorithm scans the table of course lists in figure 4 and
the information about how many operations each
objects have passed through is obtained. These
obtained data represents C1 candidate item set of
apriori algorithm.
2nd Step: In the second step, with the help of
minimum support which is determined at previous
L1 item set is obtained which includes the most
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School
number
413
414
420
423
436
441
443
464
468
469
471
472
480
491
494
498
500
506
516
520
522
529
539
541
553
The courses he/she failed
9AFİZ - 9AKİM - 9AMAT - 9AMATBHR - 10AMAT
9AFİZ - 9AKİM - 9AMATBHR - 9AAUB - 10AMAT
9AMAT - 10AMAT
9AMAT - 9AFİZ
9ABİT- 9ADİH - 9AFİZ - 9AKİM - 9AAUB - 9AİNGBHR - 10AMAT - 10AMATBHR 10ATARBHR - 10ATEÖ - 10ATEÖBHR - 10ABTT - 11AİTA
9AMAT - 9ATEDBHR - 9AAUB - 10AMATBHR - 10ATEÖ - 10ATEÖBHR - 10ABTTBHR 11AGÖPBHR
9ADVABHR - 9AFİZ - 9AKİM - 9AMATBHR - 10AMAT - 10ATEÖ
9AKİM - 9AAUB - 10AMAT
9AKİM
9ACOGBHR - 9ADVABHR - 9AKİM - 9AKİMBHR - 9AMATBHR - 9AAUB - 10AMAT - 10ATAR
- 10ATEÖ
9AFİZ - 9AKİM - 10AMAT
9AFİZ - 9AMAT - 9ATARBHR - 9ATED - 9AAUB - 9İNGBHR - 9ABİT - 9ABİTBHR - 9ADVA 10ACOG - 10ADVA - 10AMAT - 10AMES - 10APPR - 10ATARBHR - 10ATED - 10ATEÖ-11AFEL11AGÖPBHR - 11AİTA
9AFİZ - 9AKİM - 9AMAT
11AGÖPBHR
9ABİT - 9AFİZ - 9AKİM - 9AAUB - 9AİNGBHR-10AMAT-10ATEÖBHR - 11AGÖPBHR - 11AİTA
9ABYLBHR - 9AFİZ - 9AKİM - 9AAUB - 9AİNG - 10AMAT - 10AMATBHR - 10ATEÖ 10ATEÖBHR - 10ABTT
10AMAT - 10AİNGBHR
9ADVA - 9AFİZ - 9AKİM - 9AMAT - 9AMATBHR - 9ATED - 9AAUB - 9AİNG - 9AİNGBHR 10AMAT - 10AMATBHR - 10ATEÖ - 10ATEÖBHR - 10ABTT - 11AGÖPBHR
9ABİT - 9AFİZ - 9AMAT - 9AAUB - 10AMAT - 10ATED - 10ATEÖ - 11AİTA
9ABİT - 9ACOG - 9ACOGBHR - 9ADVA - 9AFİZ - 9AAUB - 10AMATBHR - 10APPRBHR 10ATARBHR - 10ATED - 10ATEÖ - 11AİTA
9ABİT - 10ABTT - 10ABTTBHR
9ADVABHR - 9AFİZ - 9AMAT - 10AMAT - 10ATAR - 10ATED - 10ATEÖ-10ATEÖBHR - 11AFEL
- 11AFELBHR - 11AGÖPBHR
9ABİT - 9AFİZ - 9AKİM - 9AMAT - 9AMATBHR - 9AAUB - 9AAUBBHR - 10AMAT - 10ATED 10ATEÖ - 10ATEÖBHR - 10ABTT - 11AGÖPBHR - 11AİTA
9ABYLBHR - 9ACOG - 9ADVA - 9ADVABHR - 9ADİH - 10ADVA - 9AFİZ - 9AKİM - 9AMAT 9AMATBHR - 9ATEDBHR - 9AAUB - 9AİNGBHR - 10AMAT - 10APPR - 10ATAR - 10ATEÖ 10AİNG - 11AİTA
9ABİT - 9ABİTBHR - 9AAUB - 10AMAT - 10ATEÖ
Figure 4. Course list table
frequent single items. That is to say, they form L1
set equal to the minimum support rate or having
higher support rate.
3rd Step: In this step, in order to determine L2
frequent item set L1 as a new candidate item set is
formed from the combination of L1 ¥ L
1. This process is called as joining. The forming of C2 candidate item set can be seen figure 6 with sample data.
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
4th Step: According to the summary code of
C2 pruning procedure is necessary to be done after candidate set is formed. In pruning, the existence of subsets of C2 candidate item sets in L1 set
is controlled and if a sub set of any item doesn’t
take place in L1, the related item is excluded from
evaluation and it is deleted from C2 candidate item
set. When this procedure is necessary to be done
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in C2 and later candidate sets, this procedure isn’t
done C2. the reason of this is that the subsets of all
the items C2 consists of single item and they have
come to C2 candidate item set after being exposed
to joining from L1 set. This means that all the sub
sets of C2 take place L1 set. Thus, in this step C2 candidate item set is looked and L2 candidate item set
is formed from the rates which are equal to minimum support rate or high rate. The forming of L2
frequent is indicated in Figure 7 with sample data.
formed from the dual combination of L2 set items.
C3 candidate item set’s forming is indicated in Figure 8 with sample data.
Figure 8. C3 candidate item set formed by L2 ¥ L2
6th Step: According to the summary code of
apriori algorithm, pruning procedure is required
after C3 candidate item set is formed. In pruning,
whether the subsets of C3 candidate item set exists
in L2 set is controlled. If a subset of any item doesn’t
take place in L2 set, the related item is excluded
from the evaluation process and the algorithm can
be ended. At the end of the pruning C3 candidate set
when the algorithm is ended, the items Lk-1 frequent
item sets are used in order to form association rules.
Figure 5. Apriori algorithm C1 ¥ L
1 transformation
Figure 6. C2 candidate item set formed by L1 ¥ L1
transformation
Figure 7. L2 frequent item set formed by C2 ¥ L2
transformation
5th Step: In 5th step of application, in order determine L3 frequent item set, a new item set C3 is
536
Figure 9. Pruning in C3 candidate item set in
apriori algorithm
7th Step: In this step C3 candidate item set is
looked and L3 frequent item set is obtained from
the rates that are equal to minimum support rate
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or from higher rates. The consisting of L3 frequent
item set is seen at Figure 10 with sample data.
cording to the situation of data set or can be ended
before they have reached at this step.
Figure 10. L3 frequent item set formed by C3 ¥ L3
transformation
8th Step: In this step, in order to determine L4
frequent item set q new candidate item set C4 is
formed from the join process of L3 set items. The
forming of C4 candidate item set is seen in figure
11 with sample data.
Figure 12. Prune process in C4 candidate item
set of apriori algorithm
Figure 11. C4 candidate item set formed by L3 ¥ L
3
transformation
9th Step: According to the summary code of
apriori algorithm, pruning procedure is required
after C4 candidate item set has been formed. If a
subset of any item doesn’t take place L3 set, the
related item is excluded from the evaluation and
is deleted from C4 candidate item set. All items at
the end of pruning process can be excluded from
the evaluation and the algorithm can be ended. At
the end of the pruning made in Ck candidate item
set when the algorithm is ended, the items in Lk-1
frequent item sets are used in order to form association rules. Pruning process in C4 candidate item
set is seen with sample data in Figure 12.
10th Step: In tenth step, C4 candidate item set is
looked and from the rates which are equal to minimum support rate or from high rates L4 frequent
item set is obtained and the data is kept in veri_L4
table. During obtaining Lk frequent item set in Ck
candidate item set, no item in Ck candidate item
set can go beyond minimum support rate. In this
situation the algorithm is finished and the items of
Lk-1 which are equal to determined minimum support rate or having high rate are used in forming
association rules. These steps can be repeated acVolume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
The Rules: In this part, association rules are
formed from the item of the most frequent item set
which has been obtained as the last and the ones
which are equal to or higher than confidence rate
determined in first step are showed. The rules are
seen with data on Figure 13.
Rules
9AFİZ X 9AKİM --> 10AMAT
9AAUB X 9AKİM --> 10AMAT
9AAUB X 9AFİZ --> 10AMAT
10ATEÖ X 9AFİZ --> 10AMAT
Confidence
91%
100%
90%
90%
Figure 13. Association rules which are formed at
the end of algorithm
3. The results
When these rules are observed, we can got the
result that the students who are unsuccessful in
numeral courses become unsuccessful again in
numeral courses of one year after. It is observed
that the students who are unsuccessful in especially 9th class numeral courses become unsuccessful
in the course of math of 10th class as well. According to rules; from the students of 11-A class it has
been observed that:
–– 91 percent of the ones who are unsuccessful
in physic and chemistry of 9th class are also
unsuccessful in math of 10th class,
–– 100 percent of the ones who are unsuccessful
in space science and astronomy are
unsuccessful in math of 10th class,
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–– 90 percent of the ones who are unsuccessful
in astronomy, space science and physic of 9th
class are unsuccessful in math of 10th class,
–– 90 percent of the ones who are unsuccessful in
basic electronics and measuring and physic of
9th class are unsuccessful in math of 10th class.
At last, the ways of students’ being successful
in these courses can be found by seeking the reasons of being unsuccessful. The students can be
helped in choosing profession for themselves by
revealing the data relations between their social
activities, their concern fields and the lessons in
which they are unsuccessful. [10]
Data mining is a method for the efficient discovery of useful information such as rules and previously unknown patterns existing between data
items embedded in large databases, which allows
more effective utilization of existing data.[11]
Data mining has attracted much attention from
both the research and commercial communities, for
finding interesting trends hidden in large transaction logs, which have been accumulated because of
the progress of bar-code technology.Such data was
just archived and not used efficiently until recently.
In this study, a sample study has been conducted
to show how the apriori algorithm can be used in
educational field and the results have been observed.
Some rules about students’ course points have been
made out. Apriori algorithm is the most know algorithm in exploring the frequent item in data mining. In this algorithm, the database is required to be
scanned many times to find frequent item set. It is
used especially in analyzing market basket.
A school automation software has been prepared for algorithm’s studying on data. This software is general purpose and prepared in order to
reveal association rules from databases. With this
reason, a database in general purpose has been
prepared. Thanks to this software, all the information about the students and the school has been
transferred on database. Then, association rules
have been obtained by these data being used.
Data mining can be used effectively in educational institutes for leading education activities
in an effective way, for watching students’ performances continuously and directing students in
course and profession choosing. Thus, the level
of students’ success can be raised. Being evalu538
ated previously of the associations in which the
students are unsuccessful with associations being
observed, different strategies can be determined to
make this situation away. Besides, it can be used as
a helping tool in profession choosing of students
according to their aptitudes and characteristics
The results we have made out from the data
will allow us to guess truly for the future.
References
1. Holsheimer, R.; Siebes, A.P. J.M.: “Data Mining :the
search for knowledge in database”, Technical Report
CS-R9406,Amsterdam,TheNatherland(1994)
2. Gürsakal, N.: “Research Methods in Social Sciences”, VİPAŞ, Bursa, TURKEY(2001)
3. Fayyad, U.; Piatetsky-Shapiro, G.; Smyth, P.: “The KDD
Process for Extracting Useful Knowledge From Volumes
of Data”, Communications of ACM, 39(11), (1996)
4. Sever, H.; Oğuz B.: ”Veritabanlarında Bilgi Keşfine
Formel Bir Yaklaşım, Kısım 1: Eşleştirme Sorguları ve
Algoritmalar”, Bilgi Dünyası, 3(2), October, (2002)
5. http://www.unak.org.tr/BilgiDunyasi/eskisayi/3-2.
htm (Erişim HISTORYi: December 2007)
6. Agrawal, R.; Imielinski, T.; Swami, A.: “Mining
Association Rules Between Sets of Items in Large
Databases”, In Proceedings of the ACM SIGMOD
International Conference on Management of Data
(ACMSIGMOD ’93), 207-216, Washington, USA,
(1993) 207-216.
7. Agrawal, R.; Srikant, R.: “Fast Algorithms for Mining Association Rules”, Proceedings of the VLDB,
Santiago de Chile, September (1994)
8. Han, J.: Kamber, M.: “Data Mininig Consepts And
Tecniques”Morgan Kaufmann Publishers, San Francisco, USA,(2000)
9. Ralf Mikut,Markus Reischl.: “Data mining tools”,
WIREs Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery, Article first published online (2011)
10. Ucgun,K: “Students for Teaching Institutions and
Student Data on the Data Mining Applications in
Design Automation ”, M.Sc. project, Marmara
University, İstanbul, TURKEY (2009)
11. Maria G. Bartolini Bussi.: “Artefacts and utilization schemes in mathematics teachereducation: place
value in early childhood education”,Data Mining
and Knowledge Discovery, Springer Science February( 2011)
Corresponding Author
Ali Buldu,
Technical Educational Faculty of Marmara University,
Electronics & Computer Education Department,
Istanbul,
Turkey,
E-mail: alibuldu@marmara.edu.tr
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
technics technologies education management
Experimental determination of chip
compression ratio during counterboring
Snezana Radonjic1, Pavel Kovac2, Radomir Slavkovic1, Nedeljko Ducic1, Jelena Baralic1
1
2
University of Kragujevac, Technical Faculty, Cacak, Serbia,
University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Technical Sciences, Novi Sad, Serbia,
Abstract
Chip compression ratio is used for the analysis
of deformations that occur in the process of machining during chip formation. The value of this
ratio is influenced by many parameters of cutting
process. Based on experimental results, the paper
presents a mathematical equation of chip compression ratio dependence on cutting speed, feeds and
counterbore diameter. 3D diagrams have been obtained using MATLAB software system, on the basis of the above-mentioned mathematical equation.
These diagrams show the effect of s(mm/o) and
v(m/min) on chip compression ratio for three different counterbore diameters used in the research.
Key words: chip compression ratio, chip, machining, counterboring
Figure 1. Speeds in cutting process
On the basis of speed triangle and according
to sine theorem, the following relation can be set:
v st
v
1. Introduction
90% of the total amount of work done during
the cutting process is spent on the process of chip
formation. Deformation process affects thermal
mode and contact stress that occurs on the working surfaces of the tool, and, therefore, it affects
the intensity and character of wear. The quality of
the surface layer and the machining accuracy are
directly related to the process of chip formation.
Chip compression ratio is used for evaluation of
deformation of the layer removed. Chip compression ratio is the value that varies during the machining of different materials and it is represented
by λ coefficient. During the relative motion of the
tool and workpiece material in the cutting process, three speeds can be differentiated: v – cutting
speed, vst – chip sliding speed over the tool rake
surface and vS – chip shear speed (Figure 1).
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
=
si nj
1
= . .................... (1)
c o s (j - g ) l
Where:
φ – chip shear angle,
g - tool rake angle and
l - chip compression ratio.
The above equation (1) enables the determination of chip speed depending on chip compression
ratio (2):
v
v s t = .................................. (2)
l
Chip compression ratio is higher than 1, which
means that the chip slides over the tool top cutting
surface at the speed significantly lower than the
cutting speed. Due to the effect of cutting force
and friction on the top cutting surface of the tool
cutting wedge, the chip is plastically deformed
(compressed). Thus the length of the chip is shorter than the length processed by cutting. The relation between the length processed by cutting lo
539
technics technologies education management
and the chip mean length represents the chip compression ratio.
l=
lo
................................. (3)
l
Chip compression ratio can also be obtained from
the relation of chip thickness to cutting depth (4).
l=
d1
. ............................... (4)
d
Assuming that the chip width is not different
from the cutting width. Lately, the most frequently
used method for defining the value of chip compression ratio, and the method that ensures the
most reliable results, is a method of measuring the
appropriate chip mass [2,3].
l=
m2 - m1
............................ (5)
Ar 0 ⋅ l1
Deformation and chip compression, i.e. the
value of chip compression ratio depends on the
mechanical properties of machined material, tool
geometry, cutting mode, as well as cooling and lubrication devices. The increase of material plasticity, under the same cutting conditions, causes the
increase of chip compression ratio. The value of
the tool rake angle of cutting wedge g has a significant effect on the value of chip compression
ratio. The decrease of this angle results in the increase of chip compression ratio. The increase of
the feeds causes the decrease of chip compression
ratio, which can be seen in the above equation.
The increase of cutting speed leads to non-monotonic changes in chip compression ratio. Cutting
speed is a value that significantly defines the contact conditions.
2. Methodology and research conditions
Experimental research has been conducted in
the laboratory of Technical Faculty Cacak. The
workpiece material: advanced C35E, ultimate tensile strength 750 N/mm2. Tool: standard cylindrical counterbore with mk handle of HS6-5-2 material. Geometrical characteristics of the tool are:
input cone angle j = 118° , tool clearance angle
a = 8°(±2°) and spiral angle - w =20o. Manufac-
turer: FRA – Čačak. Machining has been done
using a radial drill with the aid of cooling and lubrication devices. The method of measuring appropriate chip mass has been used for determining
chip compression ratio:
l=
m2 - m1
............................ (6)
Ar 0 ⋅ l1
Where:
m2 (kg) - chip mass measured in air,
m2 (kg) - chip mass measured in distilled water,
r0 (10-3 gr/mm3) - density of distilled water,
A ( mm2 ) - chip cross-section per tooth,
l1 ( mm ) - length of the chip.
Measuring the chip mass has been conducted on “Metler” analytical scales with accuracy
0.0001gr. In order to obtain accurate data, the chip
has been degreased before measuring. The chip
cross-section per tooth has been determined using
the following equation (7):
A = h⋅b =
s ⋅d
((mmm2 2) ).................... (7)
Z
where:
b (mm) - chip width,
h (mm) - thickness of removed chip measured
perpendicular to the blade,
s (mm/o) - feed,
Table 1. Determining chip compression ratio
Machining modes
s=0.315 (mm/o)
v=31.4 (m/min)
d =0.75 (mm)
540
Sample No.
1
2
3
4
m2 [g]
0.1779
0.1409
0.1141
0.0755
m1 [g]
0.1574
0.1222
0.0994
0.0648
l1 [mm]
122.6
104.1
76.5
52.2
l
2.18
2.33
2.49
2.67
lsr
2.41
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technics technologies education management
d = 0,75 (mm) - thickness of removed layer, and
Z=3 – number of counterbore teeth.
3. Research results
During the cutting, under different machining
modes, the chip has been collected. Four samples
of the chip have been separated for each mode in
order to obtain a mean value of chip compression
ratio. Table 1 presents an example of determining
chip compression ratio.
Figure 2 presents chip compression ratio
change depending on cutting speed for feed s =
0.315 (mm/o).
Figure 2. Chip compression ratio change depending on cutting speed
in the cutting process. The deposits on the tool top
cutting surface alter the value of the tool rake angle, thereby changing the value of chip compression ratio.
3.1 Determination of chip compression ratio
depending on machining mode (v, s) and
a diameter of counterbore
The method of experiment planning (three-factor plan of experiment) has been used for obtaining a mathematical equation for determining chip
compression ratio depending on the cutting mode
(v i s) and counterbore diameter. The values of the
chip compression ratio have been determined for
each experiment in the orthogonal plan of the matrix, in a way explained in the previous paragraph..
Table 3 shows the values of chip compression
ratio. These values are used for mathematical
treatment i.e. for obtaining dependence between
chip compression ratio and cutting speed, feed and
counterbore diameter.
Results processing includes determination of
coefficients, exponents for mathematical model,
determination of the significance of individual
variables and the accuracy of mathematical model,
expressed by the confidence interval. Coefficients
of the regression are:
The effect of cutting speed on chip compression ratio is related to the occurrence of deposits
b0 = 0.8875 , b1 = -0.0288 , b2 = 0.0366 i
b3 = -0.075
Table 2. Plan – experiment matrix
Test
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Faktors
d (mm)
11.5
18.3
11.5
18.3
11.5
18.3
11.5
18.3
14.5
14.5
14.5
14.5
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v (m/min)
36.2
36.2
57.5
57.5
36.2
36.2
57.5
57.5
45.6
45.6
45.6
45.6
Matrix plan
s (mm/o)
0.315
0.315
0.315
0.315
0.63
0.63
0.63
0.63
0.45
0.45
0.45
0.45
x0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
x1
-1
1
-1
1
-1
1
-1
1
0
0
0
0
x2
-1
-1
1
1
-1
-1
1
1
0
0
0
0
x3
-1
-1
-1
-1
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
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Table 3. Processed data
Test
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Actual values
l
y=lnl
l̂
yˆ = ln l̂
2.27
2.79
2.96
2.76
2.5
2.09
2.56
2.12
2.42
2.45
2.23
2.18
å
0.819
1.026
1.085
1.015
0.916
0.737
0.94
0.751
0.884
0.896
0.802
0.779
10.65
2.596
2.450
2.793
2.636
2.235
2.109
2.405
2.269
2.422
2.422
2.422
2.422
0.954
0.896
1.027
0.969
0.804
0.746
0.877
0.819
0.884
0.884
0.884
0.884
å
Regression equation in uncoded coordinates is:
ln l =y= 0.4421-0.125 ln d+0.158 ln n-0.216 ln s
........................................ (8)
which after antilogarithms gives a final equation for chip compression ratio in the following
form (9):
l=
95% of confidence interval
Numerical values
0.158
1.557 ⋅ v
. ....................... (9)
d 0.125 ⋅ s 0.216
Dispersion of the experiment in the central plan
point for degree of freedom fE = 3 is:
S E2 = 0.0034 .......................... (10)
y - yˆ
( y - yˆ )
-0.135
0.13
0.058
0.046
0.112
-0.009
0.063
-0.068
0.000
0.012
-0.082
-0.105
0.0182
0.0169
0.0033
0.0021
0.0125
0.00
0.0039
0.0046
0.000
0.001
0.0067
0.011
0.0802
2
yˆ = ln l̂
l̂
0.798–1.11
0.74-1.052
0.871-1.183
0.813-1.125
0.648-0.96
0.59-0.902
0.721-1.033
0.663-0.975
0.818-0.95
0.818-0.95
0.818-0.95
0.818-0.95
2.22-3.03
2.09-2.86
2.39-3.26
2.25-3.08
1.91-2.61
1.80-2.46
2.05-2.81
1.94-2.65
2.26-2.58
2.26-2.58
2.26-2.58
2.26-2.58
s 2( yˆ ) = 0.0045
Therefore, confidence interval for these points,
the value of significance being a =0.05 and the
degree of freedom f = 8, is:
yˆ ± 0.156
Standard deviation for central experiment
points is:
s 2( yˆ ) = 0.0008
Confidence interval for these points is yˆ ± 0.06.
0.06
The estimated values of confidence interval for
each experiment are given in Table 3.
The condition of significance of model parameters is: FRi > Ft = 10.13, for degree of freedom,
f1=1 i f2 = 3 and possibility P=0.95.
FR0 = 2779.94, FR1 = 1.94, FR2 = 3.14, FR3 = 13.23
The requirement of adequacy of mathematical
model (11):
FRLF < Ft = 9.01 ......................... (11)
for degree of freedom f1 = 5 and f2 = 3.
Numerical value is FRLF =4.117, which shows
that the model is adequate. Standard deviation for
central experiment points amounts to:
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Figure 3. Chip compression ratio for diameter
d=11.5 mm
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technics technologies education management
5. References
1. Radonjić S., Prilog istraživanju obradivosti procesa
proširivanja cilindričnim proširivačima, magistarski
rad, Skoplje, 1982.
2. Radonjić S., Topografska i fizička priroda površina
generisanih u procesima dimenzione obrade metala,
Tehnički fakultet, Čačak, 1998.
3. Sekulić S., Identifikacija primarnih parametara obrade na strugu na osnovu plastične deformacije i
termonapona rezanja, doktorska disertacija, Novi
Sad , 1977.
Figure 4. Chip compression ratio for diameter
d=14.5 mm
4. Palunčić Z., Jeremić B., Uticaj stanja termičke obrade Č.7422 na veličinu faktora sabijanja strugotine
u obradi struganjem, Obrada metala i tribologija 2,
Kragujevac, 1974.
5. Shankar M.R., Chandrasekar S., Compton W.D.,
King H.A., Characteristics of aluminum 6061-T6 deformed to large plastic strains by machining, Materials Science and Engineering A 410–411, 2005, p.p.
364–368
6. Astakhov V.P., Shvets S., The assessment of plastic
deformation in metal cutting, Journal of Materials
Processing Technology 146, 2004, p.p. 193–202
Figure 5. Chip compression ratio for diameter
d=11.5 mm
4. Conclusion
The cutting modes have significant effect on
the value of chip compression ratio, as a parameter used for evaluating chip deformation in the
process of counterboring holes. The research work
has resulted in a mathematical equation for determining chip compression ratio depending on the
cutting speed, feeds and counterbore diameter.
3D diagrams have been obtained using MATLAB
software system, on the basis of the above-mentioned mathematical equation. These diagrams
show the effect of feeds and cutting speed on chip
compression ratio for three different counterbore
diameters used in the research.
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
7. Zeqiri H., Salihu A., Bunjaku A., Osmani H., Qehaja
N., Zeqiri F., Chip deformation and its morphology
in orthogonal cutting of hardened steel 42CrMo4,
14th International Research/Expert Conference
”Trends in the Development of Machinery and Associated Technology” TMT 2010, Mediterranean
Cruise, 11-18 September 2010
Corresponding Author
Snezana Radonjic,
University of Kragujevac,
Technical Faculty,
Cacak,
Serbia,
E-mail: snezar@tfc.kg.ac.rs
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Distance distribution-based verification of the
clusters in a multidimensional space
Jasmin Malkic1, Nermin Sarajlic2
1
2
Diagnostics, Anesthesia and Technology Division, University Hospital, Uppsala, Sweden,
Faculty of Electrical Engineering, University of Tuzla, Tuzla, Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Abstract
In order to find the similarities and the patterns
in multidimensional data space diverse methods
of cluster analysis can be applied. The best way
of dividing a data space into the clusters would be
to identify all possible partitions and to select the
best one according to preselected evaluation criterion. This task however is not computationally
feasible, so in practice cluster analyses handles a
number of assumptions based on statistical and visual analyses of the input data. A valuable asset
to such analyses would be if the resulting clusters
can be verified in a simple and time undemanding
way. Proximity distances of the points in a multidimensional data space without the cluster structure follow the normal distribution, while any deviation from this indicates the underlying cluster
structure. A single cluster could be treated as the
sub-space that does not possess the further cluster
structure. Therefore, we consider clusterization as
the process of identifying the distinct divisions of
an observed data space that are not likely to be further divided into clusters using the same partition
algorithm. Such divisions would then represent
the separate areas of data space where the point
proximity distances follow the normal distribution, verifying its cluster structure and the specific
clusters themselves.
Key words: Clustering, cluster verification, kmeans, distance distribution
Introduction
Study the structures of a data set with purpose
to distinct and group its elements is a typical task
of the cluster analyses. A group that contains the
elements related to each other by some observable criteria of similarity represents a data cluster. Through simple, this definition does not catch
the whole concept of the term, as the notion of a
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data cluster is still not well defined [1]. However
intuitive and easy it might be for a human being to find and join together similar elements in
a relatively small set of objects, such perception
remain rather difficult to capture in terms of object’s numerical properties and datasets they form.
The difficulty level arises with the number of objects to process, both for human and the artificial
intelligence. In addition, even if the concept of a
cluster could be accurately defined, it is still extremely complex task to find the optimal way of
dividing a large object set into the clusters. There
are exactly 2375101 ways to group 15 distinctive
data objects into 3 clusters, and around 1068 ways
to make 5 clusters from 100 different objects [2].
Identifying all the possible partitions and selecting
the best one according to preselected evaluation
criterion is therefore computationally infeasible,
so the cluster analyses rely on various clustering
algorithms to get its task done. Those algorithms
commonly impose the cluster structure on the observed data sets and usually have to manage even
some further assumptions. Having this in mind,
there is a clear need to verify and possibly validate
the final results of such algorithms.
Data analyzed in this research consists of several daily weather parameters and appropriate cardinalities of suspected breathing difficulties symptoms, each representing a dimension of the unified
data space that consist of daily data points. Resulting clusters denote the associations between distinctive weather conditions and daily cardinality
of the observed dispatch cause. Proposed method
to verify the clusters is based on statistical distribution of the data point’s proximity distances.
Data sources and methods
As a subject of our cluster analyses, we take
the data set put together from two different data
sources. First source is Uppsala SOS dispatch
central database for the period from June 2008 to
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May 2011, which contains daily cardinalities of
suspected symptoms of breath difficulties for this
period of three years. Another data source, for the
same time period, is Uppsala University Department of Earth Sciences daily weather report from
Celsius weather station, and the parameters taken
into the consideration are:
–– temperature difference (minimum to
maximum daily value),
–– precipitation (daily values),
–– mean air pressure (daily values),
–– mean wind speed (daily values) and
–– mean relative humidity (daily values).
Input data space has been built from six-dimensional vectors representing all the particular dates
of the observed time period. Numerical values of
daily dispatch cause cardinality (suspected breathing difficulties symptoms) and five weather parameters determine each vector’s projection onto
six data space axes.
Our data set consist of 1095 vectors covering three years of observation. Dealing with such
amount of data over a longer time period raises the
question of possible missing records, caused by
failure to record data. Through the weather report
for the observed time period is 100% complete,
there actually are some missing values for the
dispatch cause data. More precisely, the dispatch
cause database is empty for the period of 10 days
during the first month of observation, when the
working procedures of recording the data were apparently not fully established. These missing values occur in a number of instances and can be categorized as NMAR (not missing at random) data.
Methods used to compensate for each of missing
data category differs, while missing rates less than
one per cent are normally considered trivial [3].
As our missing data take about 0,91% of dispatch
cause records, we apply simple replacement of
missing values by zeros.
Before the cluster analyses can commence,
input data set need to go through the process of
statistical conditioning in a form of variance normalization. In this case, the standard deviances for
each data dimension (meteorological attributes or
dispatch cause cardinality) were computed and
compared to each other, so that no attribute could
overshadow the significance of the others, which
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increases the reliability of point distance measuring. By calculating the standard deviance for all
the dimensions of input data set, it is evident that
two dimensions that denote mean air pressure and
mean relative humidity have to be multiplied by
factor 0.1, so their higher standard deviations do
not impair cluster analyses. Result of this procedure is the normalized matrix with 1095 rows and
6 columns. To find its orthogonal axles that reflect
data diversity in a best way, the method of principal component analyses (PCA) is applied to this
matrix, changing its values but keeping its form
factor. In addition of putting the data points into
orthogonal space that highlight their differences,
PCA identifies statistically most significant (principal) data dimensions. By putting two or three of
those dimensions (components) in a simple plot
it is possible to get a rough picture of data points
and the number of clusters inside the data space.
Figure 1 represents the plot of two principal components for the input data set.
Figure 1. Input dataset in the space of its two
principal components
Plot on Figure 1 appears to denote one big and
two smaller data clusters of more or less convex
form. If it was possible to draw, a complete, multidimensional plot of all the components would
certainly give more insight in data’s cluster structure. Complete PCA result, a matrix that contains
all six components of input data set, will therefore
be a subject of further cluster analyses. Algorithm
of choice is k-means, due to its simplicity and suitability to convex data clusters, hyperspherical in
their form [4].
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Data analyses and results
K-means algorithm is simple to implement,
and its time and space complexity is reasonably
small. A major problem with this algorithm is that
it is sensitive to the selection of the initial partition, represented by the initial centroids. As the
points in data space, centroids are the provisional
centers of hypothetical clusters, visually observed
from a data plot of input data space’s principal
components. Put together these points build the
matrix of centroids. This matrix is then subject of
repeated assessments by the algorithm that measures the distances of all the input points from
each centroid, placing every point into the cluster
of its nearest centroid. After the initial matrix, every consecutive centroid matrix is being calculated
as the mean of its cluster’s points. This positions
change in every algorithm’s iteration if at least one
of the data points changes its cluster affinity. The
final iteration is reached, when no point changes
cluster and both the centroid matrix and more
importantly clusters get their definitive form. For
certain combinations of point distance functions
and centroids, k-means algorithm always converges to a solution [5].
Based on supposed three data cluster shapes on
Figure 1, initial centroid matrix would be:
Four unobservable initial centroid point dimensions are set to their null values, however during
the iteration process these values will be adjusted
just as the values of two principal components.
An k-means iteration include calculating the Euclidean distances of all the points to each centroid,
associating the points with the cluster of nearest
centroid and calculating the new centroid matrix
as a statistical mean (expected value) of each point
cluster. Choice of the Euclidean distance function
is motivated by its simplicity and suitability to the
orthogonal coordinates [6]. It should be also noted
that neither of initial or final centroids have to be
a point in input data set. Theirs coordinates just
denote supposed or calculated cluster centers, and
contrary to input points they are never subjected to
any form of cluster analyses.
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After 12 iterations of k-means algorithm, the
final centroid matrix is:
Based on the final centroids coordinates, the
points in input data set display the cluster affinity
as shown on Figure 2. It is apparent that the initial
assumptions about the cluster shapes were somewhat impaired by statistically less significant, visually unobservable dimensions of the data set.
Data clusters formed on this way represent the
comprehensive material for some further research
in the area of medical science. In particular, various studies about the associations between specific kind of weather and the occurrence of suspected emergency symptoms can be built around
these results.
Figure 2. Cluster affiliations of the input data set
points
Result verification
The number of methods has been proposed for
quantitative evaluation or validation of the results
of a clustering algorithm. These methods rely
heavily on statistical hypothesis testing [2]. However, a common characteristic of the clustering
algorithms is that they impose a clustering structure on an input data set. In order to overcome the
setbacks of this assumption it is necessary to first
verify the very cluster structure of the input data
set and the clusters themselves, before attempting
to actually validate the cluster analyses results. To
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confirm that certain subsets of input data space
actually create the clusters, they can be compared
to the known, artificially generated, cluster forms.
A common method for generating of such cluster
forms is the Neyman-Scott procedure [7]. According to this procedure, a cluster is build around a
randomly created centroid, while the distances of
the points around it follows the normal distribution. Furthermore, such distances of the points in
a multidimensional data space without the cluster structures, with a single cluster form, follow
the normal distribution. Any deviation from this
indicates the underlying multiple cluster structure, which is the fact commonly used in the statistical cluster structure detection methods [2]. A
single cluster could then be treated as a part of
the data space that does not possess the further
cluster structure. Extending this logic, the cluster
analyses can be considered as the process of identifying the distinct divisions of an observed data
space that are not likely to be further divided into
clusters using the same partition algorithm. Such
divisions would then represent the separate areas
of data space where the point proximity distances
follow the normal distribution, verifying its cluster structure and the specific clusters themselves.
As an illustration of this verifying procedure,
the point cluster placed on the right side of twodimensional data plot on Figure 1, marked in
red, will be taken. Third row of the final centroid
matrix denotes the centroid of this cluster, and
should be used as the reference point for the distance calculations. However, the centroid points
do not necessarily exist inside the input data set,
so for the simplicity of calculations the existing
point with the coordinates (4,04 ; -1,01), nearest
to this centroid within the space of its statistically
most significant components, has been taken for
the purpose.
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Figure 3. Histograms of the point distances from
the “red” cluster centroid, for the points inside
(left) and outside (right) the cluster
Left histogram on Figure 3 describes the distances of “red” cluster points from their cluster center. Normal distribution function, superposed on the
histogram, clearly indicates that the point distances
follow the normal distribution, as the number of
the points converges around the mean distance and
more or less evenly drops both with shorter and longer distances. To confirm this notion, the right histogram on Figure 3 shows how the distances of the
points outside the “red” cluster relate to its center.
The number of distances in this case drops sharply
with longer distances while the trend is even more
evident towards to shorter distances that even do
not exist at all. These histograms indicate both that
the “red” points shape the cluster around their centroid and that the other points most likely form at
least one more cluster in the distance. As this notion
corresponds to data condition shown on Figure 1,
the cluster analyses results are confirmed.
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References
1. Nisbet R, Elder JF, Miner GD; Handbook of Statistical Analysis & Data Mining Applications; Academic
Press / Elsevier, 2009.
2. Theodoridis S, Koutroumbas K; Pattern Recognition;
Academic Press, New York, 1999.
3. Punithavalli M, Vinod NC; Classification of Incomplete Data Handling Techniques – An Overview;
International Journal on Computer Science and Engineering (IJCSE) vol.3 No.1, Jan 2011
4. Kantardzic M; Data Mining: Concepts, Models,
Methods, and Algorithms; John Wiley & Sons, 2003.
5. Tan PN, Steinbach M, Kumar V; Introduction to Data
Mining; Addison-Wesley, 2006
6. Larose TD; Discovering Knowledge in Data: An
Introduction to Data Mining; John Wiley & Sons,
2005.
7. Neyman J, Scott EL; Processes of clustering and applications in Stochastic Point Processes: Statistical
Analysis, Theory and Applications; John Wiley &
Sons, 1972.
Corresponding Author
Malkic Jasmin,
Diagnostics, Anesthesia and Technology Division,
University Hospital,
Uppsala,
Sweden,
E-mail: jasmin.malkic@akademiska.se
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technics technologies education management
Workplace and challenges in the
communication process
Slobodan T. Ristic1, Dobrivoje Mihailovic1, Zoran P. Cekerevac2, Dzafer Kudumovic3, Samed Karovic4
1
2
3
4
University of Belgrade - Faculty of organizational sciences, Belgrade, Serbia,
“Union” University Belgrade, Faculty of industrial management, Belgrade, Serbia,
University of Tuzla – Faculty of mechanical engineering, Tuzla, Bosnia and Herzegovina,
Military Academy, Belgrade, Serbia.
Abstract
The paper considers the barriers in communications, and specially, the influence of workplace
on business communication process. Communications’ barriers are analyzed through an analysis
of 24 question poll results. General hypothesis
that personal characteristics of workpeople, their
workplace, and their status impact the way of their
communication with colleagues and managers
was discussed through four individual hypotheses. In the paper, based on the statistically verified individual hypotheses, it is concluded that the
obtained results confirm that individual characteristics of business people, their workplace and their
status in the organization impact the quality and
effectiveness of communications they establish.
Key words: communication process, barriers
in communication, statistical significance, Scheffé's method
Introduction
There are a variety of definitions of the term communication, and one of them is that communication
is a process by which information is exchanged
between individuals through a common system of
symbols, signs, or behavior. (Webster, 2011) Communication is also "any act by which one person
gives to or receives from another person information about that person's needs, desires, perceptions,
knowledge, or affective states. Communication may
be intentional or unintentional, may involve conventional or unconventional signals, may take linguistic
or nonlinguistic forms, and may occur through spoken or other modes." (ASHA, 1992)
Many experts believe that communication is
a key process that underlies all aspects of organizational operations. (LS, 2002) (Meesala, 2007)
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
(Binneman, 2010) (Artley & Stroh, 2011). Wellknown management theorist Chester Barnard,
wrote: "The structure, extent and scope of the organization almost entirely is determined by its communication techniques" (Barnard, 1938). Huczynski and Buchanan, the organizational specialists,
brought their well-known and successful brand of
critical thinking, social science underpinning, and
visual appraisal to bear in this comprehensive introduction to organizational behavior, and, perhaps
the best way to define communications is to consider their remark: “Our communication depends,
to a large extent, on how we perceive those around
us, their motives and their intentions, and how we
perceive or interpret the communication we receive
from them.” (Huczynski & Buchanan, 2007)
The communication process begins when one
party (individual, group or entire organization) has
an idea which it wants to transfer to another. Sender's task is to transform an idea into such a form
that can be sent to the recipient and that the recipient will understand. (Cekerevac & Ristic, 2006)
This is called the encoding process - translating
ideas into a form, such as written or spoken language, which the recipient can recognize (beside
speech, coding covers letters and gestures, intonation, body language, facial expressions and any
other resources that can be used to express something). A person encodes information when choosing words to talk with someone personally, or to
write a letter. The encoding may be affected by:
–– the situation in which a person is (whether
he is angry, hungry);
–– person's previous relationship with someone
with whom he communicates (hostile,
friendly); as well as
–– person's understanding of what is the
best way to send a message (conciliatory,
authoritative).
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Having been encoded, the message is ready
to be transmitted using a medium (word, image,
activity such as gestures, mimic, intonation), over
one or several communication channels, to reach
the desired receiver, and using pathways through
which information travels.
Once a message is received, the process of decoding begins - converting the message back to the
sender’s original form. This can involve many different sub-processes, such as comprehending spoken or written words, interpreting facial expressions
and similar. To the extent that the receiver has accurately decoded a sender’s message, the ideas understood will be those the sender intended to transmit.
Once a message has been finally decoded, the
process of communication can continue if the receiver sends a new message to the sender. This
phase of the process is feedback – knowledge of
the impact of messages on receivers. Receiving
feedback allows the sender to determine whether
their messages have been correctly understood.
Concurrently, the feedback may convince the
receiver that their opinion matters to the sender.
Once received, feedback can trigger another idea
from the sender, and thus initiate another cycle of
information transmission. Feedback is crucial for
the regular communication flow.
The noise, factors that distort the clarity of
messages, may occur in any phase of communication process. For example, poorly encoded messages (unclearly written) or poorly decoded (incomprehensible), or the presence of static along
the communication channels (receiver’s attention
is diverted from the main message), may result in
less effective communication. (Ristić, Mihailović,
Čekerevac, Vatovec Krmac, & Salketić, 2012)
In the process of communication can participate (Rampur, 2011):
1. Open communicators - people who are
receptive, and express their emotions and
feelings in a free manner.
2. Reserved communicators - communicators
that do not like to let other people know
about their personal life.
3. Indirect communicators - individuals whose
talk is very slow and intentional.
4. Direct communicators - individuals who
talk more clamorously and rapidly than
indirect communicators.
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Communication Barriers
Barriers, the potential obstacles to effective
communication, arise on several levels, from individual to organizational. (Williams, 2011) The
factors affecting the smooth flow of messages are
numerous, as:
1. words,
2. people,
3. organizational structure.
A person’s choice of words, manner in which
words are used and meaning attributed to them
can cause numerous problems. Essentially it is a
semantic issue arising out of the meaning of the
words used. The one and the same word can mean
different things to different people. For example,
the word “effectiveness” can mean something good
and noble to a manager, while the word “effectiveness” may mean a loss of numerous members, or
more work for the same salary to the Union leader.
People, the greatest value of an organization,
at the same time can be represents of a great risk
to effective communication. Age, character, race,
sex, education, origin and many other differences
influence the things someone says or hears. (Evans,
Hearn, Uhlemann, & Ivey, 2011) There is, also, one
other barrier called filtering (person hears what
they want to hear). Filtering is a result of person’s
individual needs and interests directing their listening. (Krizan, Merrier, Logan, & Williams., 2008)
Insecure employees, more than the secure ones,
misrepresent their messages directed to their senior
management. Employees striving to achieve success misrepresent their upward messages more often than the employees already deeming themselves
as successful. Therefore, the apprehension and
anxiety of subordinates affect the accuracy of the
upward communication. Additionally, people striving for success and climbing the ladder of hierarchy
distort their messages in order to tell bosses what
they want to hear. (Ristić, Mihailović, Čekerevac,
Vatovec Krmac, & Salketić, 2012)
The last category of barriers to effective communication arises out of the very organizational
structure. In the situations when the organizational structure itself and relations among the
people are not clearly defined, it is unclear who is
superior and who subordinate, or who is in charge
of specific activities. These situations lack the acVolume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
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tual explanations on the stipulated communication
channels. They can result in misunderstanding
of the goals, or in lack of information about the
people necessary to cooperate with in the event of
specific problems. Other issues may arise, and all
of them are consequence of a vague organizational
structure. (Ristić, Mihailović, Čekerevac, Vatovec
Krmac, & Salketić, 2012)
Any communication can be improved by better
choice of symbols, emphatic listening, repeating,
ensuring a feedback, and a clearly defined organizational structure.
Research Hypotheses
The research has been carried out based on the
general and individual hypotheses.
General hypothesis:
Personal characteristics of workpeople, their
workplace and their status impact the way of their
communication with colleagues and managers.
Individual hypotheses:
1. Work experience of respondents does
not have a great impact on the manner of
communication of business people when
"looking into the eyes of his interlocutor" is
taken as a criterion.
2. Belonging to different sectors is not
important in terms of concentrating on the
details in communication.
3. Respondents having different chances with
regard to promotion are different among
themselves in terms of their tendency to
plan a communication.
4. People who are actively seeking other jobs
more often use different forms of communication than those who do it passively.
Processing of Poll Results and Analysis of
Results Obtained
For the collection, classification and analysis
of statistical data statistical methods were used.
Analysis of the results obtained by the poll will be
presented using the variance analysis.
S2 =
1
N
N
å(X
i =1
i
- x) 2
Variance is defined as the arithmetic mean of
the square of X values deviation from their arithVolume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
metic mean. Positive value of the variance root
represents the standard deviation.
In statistics, a result is called statistically significant if it is unlikely to have occurred by chance.
In here presented research statistical significance
is expressed in units of "σ" (sigma), the standard
deviation of a normal distribution. A statistical significance of "nσ" can be converted into a value of
α via use of the function Φ which is the cumulative distribution function of the standard normal
distribution α=1-Φ(n).
The term significance level is used to refer to
a pre-chosen probability, and it is usually denoted
by the symbol α (alpha).
Significance Level = P(type I error) = α
Popular levels of significance are 10% (0.1),
5% (0.05), 1% (0.01), 0.5% (0.005), and 0.1%
(0.001). The significance level
The p-value, calculated probability, is defined
as the estimated probability of rejecting the null
hypothesis of the study question when that hypothesis is true. The "p-value" is calculated after
a given study. The probability value (p-value) of a
statistical hypothesis test is the probability of getting a value of the test statistic as extreme as or
more extreme than that observed by chance alone,
if the null hypothesis H0, is true. It is the probability of wrongly rejecting the null hypothesis
if it is in fact true. (Easton & McColl, 1997) If
test of significance gives a p-value lower than the
α-level, the null hypothesis is thus rejected. Such
results are informally referred to as “statistically
significant”. (Anon., 2011)
The cumulative distribution function
of a random variable X can be defined in
terms of its probability density function ƒ as
F ( x) = P( X ≤ x) = å P( x)
X ≤x
A random variable X has density f.
The respondents were asked to fill the poll
consisted of 24 questions, shown in Table 2. This
Table also shows a part of results obtained by the
analysis of statistical significance for the following four groups, namely:
1. The statistical significance of difference
between respondents with different work
experience;
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Communication is an integral part of my job
I use different forms of communication
I plan my messages
Spontaneous communication is better than the official one
I find it hard to express my feelings
I react on the first ball
Priority of communication lies in the choice of group
It is all right to interrupt my collocutor if I have
something to add
Sad news should be delivered immediately
Language which a listener comprehends
When I do not understand something, I ask
Different point of view
The same communication style
I find it hard to express my feelings
Even when I what someone wants to say I wait for them
to say and then answer
When I give instructions, I ask for a feedback
Individuals with a problem in communication
I address the responsible person
I take written communication seriously
I focus my concentration on details
I use humor in communication
I also pay attention to non-verbal speech
I pay attention that non-verbal signals are consistent with
the verbal ones
I look straight in the eye
0.061
0
0.001
0.103
0.198
0.167
0.792
0.613
0.057
0.685
0.894
0.001
0.128
0.547
0.153
0.103
0.001
0.011
0.045
0.015
0.678
0.016
0.034
0
0.671
2.327
0.57
0.275
4.79
1.806
0.767
1.687
1.945
5.121
3.34
2.468
3.153
0.579
3.089
2.643
8.741
"σ"
(Sigma)
2.283
5.486
4.966
1.949
1.516
1.627
0.423
F
0.727
2.361
0.468
0.144
4.318
0.234
2.856
F
1.487
2.422
4.057
3.036
6.385
2.811
1.557
4 3.773
4 2.747
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
0.024
0.066
0.228
0.091
0.018
0.05
0.002
0.062
0.212
0.134
0.001
0.524
0.484
0.853
0.001
0.237
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
df
2.897
1.51
1.451
0.447
0.477
0.806
1.848
0.592
1.097
1.046
2.512
2.246
0.527
1.73
2.592
0.529
0.405
0.679
1.748
6.74
1.829
1.778
2.241
2.942
F
0.036
0.212
0.228
0.72
0.698
0.492
0.139
0.621
0.351
0.373
0.059
0.083
0.664
0.161
0.053
0.663
0.75
0.565
0.157
0
0.142
0.152
0.084
0.033
"σ"
(Sigma)
F
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
0.336
1.603
13.28
2.237
5.442
3.947
3.935
7.115
2.029
3.096
4.257
0.141
6.73
0.673
1.453
1.544
0.55
3 3.793
3 11.926
3 2.412
3 1.992
3 2.017
3 1.195
3 0.085
df
0.715
0.203
0
0.109
0.005
0.02
0.021
0.001
0.133
0.047
0.015
0.868
0.001
0.511
0.236
0.215
0.578
0.024
0
0.091
0.138
0.135
0.304
0.918
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
"σ"
df
(Sigma)
2. The statistical significance of difference
between respondents of different sector
belonging;
4 2.024
6.741
0.649
0.728
0.159
6.85
1.445
0.163
0.484
0.096
0.627
0.866
0.014
0.791
0.059
"σ"
(Sigma)
Table 2. Statistical significance of differences
4
4
4
4
4
4
4 1.824
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
df
The statistical signi- The statistical signiThe statistical signi- The statistical significance of difference ficance of difference
ficance of differences ficance of differences
between respondents between respondents
with regard to pro- with respect to change
with different work of different sector bemotion
of employer
experience
longing
technics technologies education management
3. The statistical significance of differences
with regard to promotion; and
4. The statistical significance of differences
with respect to possible change of employer.
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
-0.67
0
0
0.64
0.68
< 10
< 20
>20
< 20
>20
< 20
< 10
<3
< 20
< 10
<3
<3
Spontaneous
communication
is better than the < 10
official one
< 20
I plan my
messages
I use different
forms of
communication
0.27
>20
< 20
0
0
-0.14
-0.39
0
-0.35
-0.26
< 10
< 20
>20
< 20
>20
>20
-0.53
-0.42
-0.49
0.11
0
< 10
< 20
>20
< 20
>20
>20
0
>20
0
0
0.36
0.11
0.38
0.54
1
0.978
0.396
0.993
0.437
0.996
0.388
0.501
0.285
0.993
1
1
0.194
1
1
0.087
0.039
0.403
1
0.994
0.413
0.985
0.277
AS1"σ"
AS2
(sigma)
(I-J)
Communication is
an integral part of
< 10
my job
<3
(I)
Work
experience
(J)
< 10
< 20
>20
< 20
>20
Dependent
variable
private
(J)
private
private
in a
transition
in a
private
transition
public
in a
transition
in a
private
transition
public
private
in a
transition
in a
private
transition
public
in a
transition
in a
private
transition
public
(I)
Sector
0
0
0.953
0.982
0.867
0.999
0
0
0.709
0.14
0.779
0.98
0
0.13
0.164
0.314
0.816
0.885
0.491
"σ"
(sigma)
-0.34
-0.29
-0.11
0
0.18
AS1AS2
(I-J)
SC
NC
SC
NC
SC
NC
SC
NC
(I)
CP
CP
SC
CP
CP
SC
CP
CP
SC
CP
CP
SC
(J)
Possibility of
promotion
0.22
0.15
0
0
0.5
0.59
0.25
0
-0.26
-0.18
-0.17
0
AS1AS2
(I-J)
0.599
0.872
0.977
0.964
0.096
0.004
0.629
1
0.519
0.662
0.799
0.999
"σ"
(sigma)
IF
TF
IF
TF
IF
TF
IF
TF
(I)
SF
SF
IF
SF
SF
IF
SF
SF
IF
SF
SF
IF
(J)
Changes
0
-0.37
-0.34
0.22
0.43
0.22
0.55
-0.44
-0.99
0.27
-0.16
-0.42
AS1AS2
(I-J)
Table 3 Post hoc analyses (Scheffé’s method)
Legend: NC – “I have no chance”, SC – “There are some chances”, CP – “I think that I can be promoted”, TF – “I am
trying to find another job”, IF – “If better job appears, I will change it”, SF – “I am satisfied with the current job”
0.966
0.148
0.222
0.344
0.134
0.621
0.002
0.142
0
0.092
0.670
0.063
"σ"
(sigma)
technics technologies education management
553
554
< 20
< 10
<3
< 20
< 10
<3
(I)
It is all right to
interrupt my
collocutor if I
have something
to add
< 20
< 10
<3
0
-0.21
0
-0.16
0.22
0
>20
< 10
< 20
>20
< 20
>20
-0.17
0
0
0
-0.18
-0.11
< 10
< 20
>20
< 20
>20
>20
-0.18
0.33
0.57
0.39
0.23
0
< 10
< 20
>20
< 20
>20
>20
0
0
0.41
0.33
0.31
0.24
0.866
0.942
1
0.96
0.871
0.999
0.987
0.995
0.986
1
0.847
0.963
0.912
0.855
0.297
0.639
0.914
1
0.993
0.997
0.497
0.657
0.687
0.841
AS1"σ"
AS2
(sigma)
(I-J)
>20
(J)
< 10
< 20
>20
< 20
>20
Work
experience
<3
Priority of
communication
lies in the choice < 10
of group
< 20
I react on the
first ball
I find it hard
to express my
feelings
Dependent
variable
private
(J)
private
private
private
in a
transition
in a
private
transition
public
in a
transition
in a
private
transition
public
in a
transition
in a
private
transition
public
in a
transition
in a
private
transition
public
(I)
Sector
0.12
0.28
0.16
0.3
0
0.819
0.183
0.626
0.118
0.985
0.082
0.937
0
-0.28
0.791
0.978
0.376
0.395
0.017
"σ"
(sigma)
0.13
0
-0.28
0.22
0.5
AS1AS2
(I-J)
SC
NC
SC
NC
SC
NC
SC
NC
(I)
CP
CP
SC
CP
CP
SC
CP
CP
SC
CP
CP
SC
(J)
Possibility of
promotion
-0.13
-0.1
0
-0.16
-0.39
-0.23
0
0.42
0.4
0
0.38
0.33
AS1AS2
(I-J)
0.895
0.959
0.999
0.64
0.045
0.226
1
0.302
0.176
0.992
0.275
0.234
"σ"
(sigma)
IF
TF
IF
TF
IF
TF
IF
TF
(I)
SF
SF
IF
SF
SF
IF
SF
SF
IF
SF
SF
IF
(J)
Changes
0
-0.2
-0.13
0
0
0
0.12
-0.25
-0.37
0.23
0.33
0
AS1AS2
(I-J)
0.874
0.590
0.808
0.925
1
0.967
0.754
0.578
0.31
0.261
0.275
0.9
"σ"
(sigma)
technics technologies education management
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
0
0
0
0.17
0.15
< 10
< 20
>20
< 20
>20
0.55
0.16
0.44
-0.38
-0.1
< 10
< 20
>20
< 20
>20
< 20
< 20
Different point of
view
< 10
<3
0.28
0
>20
When I do not
understand
< 10
something, I ask
>20
0
0
0
0
0
< 10
< 20
>20
< 20
>20
<3
0
< 20
< 10
<3
>20
Language
which a listener
comprehends
-0.23
>20
< 20
0
0.63
0.39
0.57
0.33
0.537
0.321
0.971
0.366
0.491
0.991
0.987
0.999
0.998
1
1
0.998
1
0.995
0.986
0.994
0.844
0.876
0.789
1
0.186
0.61
0.214
0.688
AS1"σ"
AS2
(sigma)
(I-J)
Sad news should
be delivered
< 10
immediately
<3
(I)
Work
experience
(J)
< 10
< 20
>20
< 20
>20
Dependent
variable
private
(J)
private
private
private
in a
transition
in a
private
transition
public
in a
transition
in a
private
transition
public
in a
transition
in a
private
transition
public
in a
transition
in a
private
transition
public
(I)
Sector
0
0
0.975
0.857
0.969
0.876
0
0
0.825
0
0.507
0.529
-0.16
-0.15
0.88
0.702
0.966
0.016
0.013
"σ"
(sigma)
0
0.1
0
0.52
0.58
AS1AS2
(I-J)
SC
NC
SC
NC
SC
NC
SC
NC
(I)
CP
CP
SC
CP
CP
SC
CP
CP
SC
CP
CP
SC
(J)
Possibility of
promotion
0.22
-0.13
-0.35
-0.12
0
0
0.14
0.32
0.18
0
0.49
0.41
AS1AS2
(I-J)
0.665
0.936
0.209
0.829
0.955
0.992
0.689
0.116
0.42
0.984
0.176
0.156
"σ"
(sigma)
IF
TF
IF
TF
IF
TF
IF
TF
(I)
SF
SF
IF
SF
SF
IF
SF
SF
IF
SF
SF
IF
(J)
Changes
0.13
0.21
0
0.13
0.55
0.43
0
0
0
0.32
0.61
0.29
AS1AS2
(I-J)
0.672
0.617
0.938
0.488
0.001
0.023
0.953
0.879
0.96
0.136
0.032
0.474
"σ"
(sigma)
technics technologies education management
555
556
0.26
-0.12
-0.37
0
-0.25
0.21
>20
< 10
< 20
>20
< 20
>20
>20
Even when I what < 3
someone wants to
say I wait for them
< 10
to say and then
answer
< 20
<3
When I give
instructions, I ask
< 10
for a feedback
< 20
0.46
-0.32
-0.22
0
0
0.35
0
0.37
0.29
0.31
0.22
< 10
< 20
>20
< 20
>20
< 10
< 20
>20
< 20
>20
0.24
0.23
0.26
0.49
0
0.26
>20
(J)
< 10
< 20
>20
< 20
>20
0.113
0.996
0.658
0.997
0.861
0.907
0.542
0.751
0.884
1
0.992
0.426
0.994
1
0.721
0.853
0.803
0.919
0.728
0.938
0.872
0.292
1
0.808
AS1"σ"
AS2
(sigma)
(I-J)
0
< 20
< 10
<3
< 20
< 10
<3
(I)
Work
experience
>20
I find it hard
to express my
feelings
The same
communication
style
Dependent
variable
private
(J)
private
private
private
in a
transition
in a
private
transition
public
in a
transition
in a
private
transition
public
in a
transition
in a
private
transition
public
in a
transition
in a
private
transition
public
(I)
Sector
-0.35
-0.22
0.13
0.254
0.422
0.778
SC
NC
CP
CP
SC
CP
-0.34
SC
CP
CP
SC
CP
CP
SC
(J)
CP
SC
NC
SC
NC
SC
NC
(I)
Possibility of
promotion
-0.25
0.178
0.458
-0.29
0
0.967
0.243
0.971
0.014
0.013
"σ"
(sigma)
0
0.34
0
-0.48
-0.53
AS1AS2
(I-J)
0.13
-0.16
-0.29
0.21
0.3
0
0
-0.11
0
-0.43
-0.42
0
AS1AS2
(I-J)
0.909
0.893
0.382
0.62
0.409
0.936
1
0.969
0.965
0.12
0.22
1
"σ"
(sigma)
IF
TF
IF
TF
IF
TF
IF
TF
(I)
SF
SF
IF
SF
SF
IF
SF
SF
IF
SF
SF
IF
(J)
Changes
0.005
0
0.69
0.998
0.44
0.269
0.051
0.364
0.868
0.334
0.533
0.687
0.276
"σ"
(sigma)
0.68
0
-0.17
0.3
0.47
0.24
-0.13
-0.36
0.17
-0.19
-0.35
AS1AS2
(I-J)
technics technologies education management
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
<3
< 20
< 10
<3
(I)
-0.57
-0.29
-0.2
0.29
0.37
< 10
< 20
>20
< 20
>20
>20
<3
I focus my
concentration on
< 10
details
< 20
0
-0.1
-0.43
-0.17
-0.27
0.26
0.16
< 10
< 20
>20
< 20
>20
>20
< 10
0
>20
0
0.16
0.23
0.24
0.31
< 10
< 20
>20
< 20
>20
< 20
I take written
communication
seriously
<3
< 20
-0.43
0.67
0.91
0.48
0.24
-0.19
0.964
0.036
0.506
0.771
0.432
0.128
0.885
0.095
0.815
0.347
0.368
0.778
0.982
0.995
0.899
0.657
0.595
0.271
0.099
0.105
0.001
0.228
0.832
0.914
AS1"σ"
AS2
(sigma)
(I-J)
>20
(J)
< 10
< 20
>20
< 20
>20
Work
experience
I address the
responsible person < 10
Individuals with
a problem in
communication
Dependent
variable
private
(J)
private
private
private
in a
transition
in a
private
transition
public
in a
transition
in a
private
transition
public
in a
transition
in a
private
transition
public
in a
transition
in a
private
transition
public
(I)
Sector
0.109
0.002
0.24
0.51
0.094
0.241
-0.21
-0.27
0.861
0
0.05
0.705
-0.12
0.26
0.201
0.034
0.239
0.11
1
"σ"
(sigma)
0.2
0.32
0.33
0.33
0
AS1AS2
(I-J)
SC
NC
SC
NC
SC
NC
SC
NC
(I)
CP
CP
SC
CP
CP
SC
CP
CP
SC
CP
CP
SC
(J)
Possibility of
promotion
0
-0.28
-0.19
0.14
0.11
0
0
0
0
0
-0.14
-0.12
AS1AS2
(I-J)
0.927
0.26
0.398
0.636
0.852
0.992
1
0.939
0.855
1
0.912
0.898
"σ"
(sigma)
IF
TF
IF
TF
IF
TF
IF
TF
(I)
SF
SF
IF
SF
SF
IF
SF
SF
IF
SF
SF
IF
(J)
Changes
0.28
0
-0.19
-0.14
-0.34
-0.2
0.3
0.33
0
0.19
-0.22
-0.41
AS1AS2
(I-J)
0.021
0.806
0.458
0.291
0.027
0.291
0.013
0.077
0.98
0.378
0.564
0.139
"σ"
(sigma)
technics technologies education management
557
558
0
-0.85
-0.35
-0.26
0.5
0.59
>20
< 10
< 20
>20
< 20
>20
< 20
I look straight in
the eye
< 10
<3
<3
I pay attention that
non-verbal signals
are consistent with < 10
the verbal ones
< 20
0
0
0.174
0.442
0.006
0
-0.51
-0.22
-0.12
0.29
0.39
< 10
< 20
>20
< 20
>20
< 20
>20
0.963
-0.17
>20
I also pay attention
to non-verbal
< 10
speech
<3
0.919
0.169
0.826
0.973
0.538
0.187
0.856
0.13
1
0.969
0.025
0.144
1
0.985
0.801
0.774
0.981
0.977
-0.62
0
-0.14
0.64
0.48
0.12
0.22
0.22
0.1
0.1
< 10
< 20
>20
< 20
>20
(J)
< 10
< 20
>20
< 20
>20
AS1"σ"
AS2
(sigma)
(I-J)
0
< 20
< 10
<3
(I)
Work
experience
>20
I use humor in
communication
Dependent
variable
private
(J)
private
private
private
in a
transition
in a
private
transition
public
in a
transition
in a
private
transition
public
in a
transition
in a
private
transition
public
in a
transition
in a
private
transition
public
(I)
Sector
0.32
0.25
0
0
0.21
0.052
0.057
0.827
0.896
0.259
0.122
0.546
-0.21
0.29
0.868
0.213
0.367
0.733
0.062
"σ"
(sigma)
0
0.29
0.22
0
-0.31
AS1AS2
(I-J)
SC
NC
SC
NC
SC
NC
SC
NC
(I)
CP
CP
SC
CP
CP
SC
CP
CP
SC
CP
CP
SC
(J)
Possibility of
promotion
-0.11
-0.33
-0.22
0
0.31
0.806
0.076
0.202
0.937
0.271
0.395
0.65
0.2
0.22
0.998
0.458
0.846
0.643
0.946
"σ"
(sigma)
0
-0.24
0.12
0.19
0
AS1AS2
(I-J)
IF
TF
IF
TF
IF
TF
IF
TF
(I)
SF
SF
IF
SF
SF
IF
SF
SF
IF
SF
SF
IF
(J)
Changes
0
0
0
0
0.29
0.23
0.16
-0.22
-0.38
0
-0.52
-0.58
AS1AS2
(I-J)
0.715
0.965
0.957
0.874
0.203
0.378
0.478
0.519
0.153
0.879
0.004
0.001
"σ"
(sigma)
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Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
559
24
23
22
21
20
19
18
17
16
15
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
24
AS1-AS2 (I-J) 0.38 0.17 0.04 0.13 0.07 0.26 -0.12 0.01 0.03 0.08 -0.01 0.05 0.03 0.05 -0.01 0.01 -0.02 0.08 0.158 -0.01 0.11 0.04 0.176
“σ”
0 0.01 0.47 0.02 0.22 0 0.04 0.94 0.56 0.2 0.92 0.42 0.58 0.41 0.91 0.92 0.79 0.19 0.01 0.82 0.06 0.47 0
0.27 0.05 0.1 0.25 0.12 0.02 0.01 0.09 0.24 0.08 -0.05 0.05 0.03 -0.04 -0.18 -0.01 0.07 0.16 0.03 0.07 -0.03 0.16
AS1-AS2 (I-J)
“σ”
0 0.44 0.1 0 0.04 0.79 0.96 0.14 0 0.2 0.36 0.36 0.64 0.55 0 0.91 0.27 0.01 0.6 0.22 0.59 0.01
AS1-AS2 (I-J)
0.06 0.13 0.14 0.22 -0.04 0.15 0.06 0.21 0.07 0.05 0.1 -0.1 -0.07 0.03 0.07 0.08 0.07 0.01 0.1 0.07 0.18
“σ”
0.31 0.03 0.02 0 0.45 0.01 0.3 0 0.25 0.41 0.1 0.11 0.27 0.63 0.21 0.19 0.27 0.91 0.11 0.23 0
AS1-AS2 (I-J)
-0.01 0.14 0.03 0.09 -0.04 0.05 -0.09 0.01 0.16 0.05 -0.03 -0.01 0.22 -0.11 0.07 0.07 0.22 0.08 0.02 0.06
“σ”
0.91 0.02 0.6 0.14 0.53 0.43 0.14 0.93 0.01 0.43 0.58 0.89 0 0.06 0.27 0.21 0 0.2 0.72 0.31
AS1-AS2 (I-J)
0.12 0.02 0 0.13 -0.01 -0.04 -0.01 -0.33 0.63 0.09 -0.03 0.07 -0.08 -0.09 -0.09 -0.17 -0.09 -0.17 -0.14
“σ”
0.05 0.72 0.96 0.03 0.9 0.5 0.8 0
0 0.13 0.58 0.24 0.19 0.13 0.13 0 0.14 0.01 0.02
AS1-AS2 (I-J)
-0.03 0.07 0.26 0 0.05 -0.06 -0.02 -0.03 -0.01 -0.05 -0.03 0.05 -0.03 -0.01 0.21 -0.15 -0.07 -0.07
“σ”
0.59 0.26 0 0.96 0.45 0.31 0.72 0.63 0.92 0.43 0.573 0.43 0.68 0.88 0 0.01 0.24 0.24
-0.28 0.05 0.03 0.15 0.11 0.05 -0.12 0.2 0.03 0.083 0.05 0.04 0.24 -0.1 0.06 -0.01 0.23
AS1-AS2 (I-J)
“σ”
0 0.43 0.57 0.01 0.07 0.38 0.04 0 0.66 0.17 0.39 0.49 0 0.12 0.34 0.9
0
AS1-AS2 (I-J)
0.02 -0.04 -0.01 -0.06 -0.04 0.14 -0.18 0.09 0.01 -0.08 -0.07 -0.16 0.04 -0.01 0.12 -0.13
“σ”
0.75 0.52 0.87 0.3 0.48 0.02 0. 0.12 0.83 0.2 0.23 0.01 0.53 0.89 0.05 0.03
AS1-AS2 (I-J)
0.11 -0.01 0.15 -0.07 0.08 0.08 0.12 0.14 0.21 0.01 0.03 0.05 0.03 -0.01 0.03
“σ”
0.07 0.86 0.01 0.25 0.18 0.2 0.04 0.02 0 0.83 0.62 0.4 0.62 0.92 0.65
0.24 0.08 0.21 -0.09 0.16 0.07 -0.05 0.37 0.28 0.01 -0.04 0.2 0.31 0.14
AS1-AS2 (I-J)
“σ”
0 0.17 0 0.12 0.01 0.22 0.43 0
0 0.86 0.52 0
0 0.02
AS1-AS2 (I-J)
0.14 0.16 -0.19 0.01 0.12 -0.09 0.07 0.03 0.13 -0.12 0.12 0.23 0.24
“σ”
0.02 0.01 0 0.94 0.05 0.13 0.23 0.68 0.04 0.05 0.04 0
0
AS1-AS2 (I-J)
0.01 -0.01 0.12 0.15 -0.03 0.05 0.17 0.21 0.09 0.19 0.05 0.11
“σ”
0.94 0.92 0.05 0.01 0.59 0.37 0.01 0 0.14 0 0.45 0.06
-0.2 0.13 -0.03 0.08 0.12 0.16 0.08 0.13 0.16 0.16 0.18
AS1-AS2 (I-J)
“σ”
0 0.03 0.62 0.18 0.04 0.01 0.2 0.03 0 0.01 0
AS1-AS2 (I-J)
0.01 0.14 0.16 -0.05 -0.04 -0.04 0.02 -0.03 -0.07 -0.15
“σ”
0.89 0.02 0.01 0.42 0.52 0.53 0.69 0.6 0.25 0.01
AS1-AS2 (I-J)
0.11 -0.15 0.15 0.15 0.16 -0.1 0.12 0.16 0.28
“σ”
0.07 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.09 0.04 0.01 0
0.19 0.11 0.06 0.2 0.19 0.3 0.24 0.11
AS1-AS2 (I-J)
“σ”
0 0.06 0.32 0
0
0
0 0.06
AS1-AS2 (I-J)
0.13 0.08 0.06 0.05 0.14 0.05 -0.09
“σ”
0.04 0.17 0.29 0.417 0.017 0.43 0.14
0.18 0.08 -0.02 0.123 0.21 0.26
AS1-AS2 (I-J)
“σ”
0 0.16 0.757 0.04 0
0
0.34 0.04 0.37 0.21 0.25
AS1-AS2 (I-J)
“σ”
0 0.49 0
0
0
AS1-AS2 (I-J)
0.03 0.3 0.29 0.31
“σ”
0.56 0
0
0
AS1-AS2 (I-J)
0.13 -0.08 0.01
“σ”
0.03 0.2 0.91
0.48 0.37
AS1-AS2 (I-J)
“σ”
0
0
0.32
AS1-AS2 (I-J)
“σ”
0
AS1-AS2 (I-J)
“σ”
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Table 4. The statistical significance of items interconnection
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Three hundred and twenty respondents were
interviewed, but by the procedures of technical
and logical controls in the sample remained 281
respondents, a modest number that does not guarantee stronger correlation.
The results processed showed that the work
experience of respondents does not seriously affect the communication of business people. Based
on the results obtained (Table 2 and 3), it can be
noticed that a statistically significant difference between the respondents with the work experience up
to 3 years and others with up to 10 years, as well
as the groups with up to 20 and over 20 years of
work experience, exists in terms of their straight in
eyes looking. Business people with over 10 year
work experience look in eyes more frequently then
the younger, with less work experience. Also, the
respondents with up to three years of work experience more frequently look their interlocutors in
eyes. So, it could be said that workpeople with 3 to
10 years of work experience show the least inclination to communication that involves looking into
the eyes of his interlocutor. This analysis needs to
be refined, because obtained results could be influenced by the fact that this group of respondents was
relatively small in comparison to other groups.
The further analytical efforts in the review and
processing of the results included the sectoral affiliation of respondents belonging to this pattern.
The possible difference between people working
in the private and public sectors, as well as those
whose organizations are in the midst of transition,
were particularly interesting, but here the analysis did not give "sensational" results. There is
almost no difference between subjects that work
in private sector comparing to those working in
the public sector. Statistically significant difference was observed only regarding the tendency of
concentrating on the details of communications.
This tendency is somewhat stronger for those respondents whose organizations are in the midst of
transition. These respondents pay more attention
to details than other business people working in
the private or public sector.
The logical assumption is that the chances of advancement and their assessment are the generator
of motivation and work style, and therefore these
data were included in the analysis. There was no
expected difference between the answers, and they
560
were distributed as the normal distribution curve.
Small difference was observed (statistically significant difference 0.01) in the tendency of planning
of communications. Respondents who have more
chances to advance more frequently plan their communications than those who do not have opportunities or those who estimate that their chances for
advancement are minimal. This was expected as a
tendency in the communication's behavior.
The further analysis of data included tendencies toward a potential fluctuation and impacts
of those important trends on business communications. It could be observed statistically significant differences (level 0.01) in those who exhibit
symptoms of potential fluctuations, compared to
those who have no such symptoms, in terms of
using different means of communication and the
search for additional information. Respondents
who actively seek to change the organization use
information resources more than their colleagues
who were more satisfied with their current job and
organization. The same is in respect to seeking for
further clarifications in the communication. These
data show a lot about the work which those categories of respondents perform. In a situation of insufficient understanding, the additional questions
are frequently asked by those who are happy with
their current job and those who passively looking
for a new employer.
More feedback is asked by those employees
who are satisfied with their workplace compared
to those who want to change it.
In this group of data it was found, somewhat
unexpected fact, that respondents who are actively
searching for new jobs use humor more than others in their communications. The humor is so typical for the category of those with potential fluctuations (statistically significant difference at the
level of 0.01).
Other indicators are generally not crossed the
threshold of statistical significance of differences
on levels 0.005 or 0.001, and those are not taken
into account in the analysis and discussion of results. It should be noted that some of the indicators
of mutual variation of the dependent and independent variables have shown the connections that
point to the empirical generalizations that could,
in the case of more numerous samples, certainly
exceed statistically significant threshold at a lower
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level, or both. These potential correlates are not
included in this analysis, but they might be a subject of some of the further analyses.
Further analysis of the data (Table 4) leads to
a variable in which respondents have considered
that informal communication in their organizations is better than formal, official. This idea, by
its distribution, shows of positive correlation with
the perception that in organization exist problems
of the communication nature, as well as with the
use of humor in communication. It is likely that
this sub-sample of respondents, who rely on informal communication, shows a tendency towards
humor and often comes into contact with people
who communicate poorly.
On the other hand, the use of elements of humor in the communication process shows a negative correlation with the fact that some associates
have distinct difficulties in communication, as
well as with positive correlation with the assessment that they use the same style in their communicating outside the organization.
Statistically significant differences at the 0.01
level of significance exist between the executives
and managers in terms of perception of the existence of communication difficulties with other
people. (Ristić, Mihailović, Čekerevac, Vatovec
Krmac, & Salketić, 2012) Executives believe that
their colleagues and co-workers in the organization show such difficulties more often, while managers perceive these difficulties in lesser scope.
Conclusion
Processing and analysis of data was performed
by comparing the statistical significance of independent (9) and dependent variables (38). From
numerous data it is visible, and statistically significant, positive correlation between the finding that
an integral part of the job, on which respondents
work, make their communication with colleagues
and associates and use of different communication means. A similar positive relationship is noticeable in cases of mutual variation of this variable and the variables: pre-planning of messages,
a priority of communication skills as factor in the
occupational choice, and so-called skills of active
listening (for instance, looking at the interlocutor's
eyes while he speaks).
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
Using of different forms of communication
is associated with a positive correlative relationship with a pre-planning of messages, reactions at
the right time, as well as with additional explanations seeking. It should mean that business people
that, in their jobs, more frequently than others use
phone, fax, Internet, etc., more often pre-plan their
messages and seek additional explanations when
they find that messages they receive from others
are not clear enough. The same variable shows a
negative correlation with the assessment that the
organization has people with distinct problems
in communication. This could mean that people
who communicate using different technologies, it
make mostly with those who have no problems in
communications.
Planning of business messages that business
people, covered by the observed pattern, send
shows as a positive correlate with the assessment
of communication skills as a priority in choosing
a profession. At the same time, it also correlates
with the requirements for additional explanations
and efforts to actively listen to the interlocutor.
This could be explained by a tendency that people
who plan their own messages, ask more precision
and systematization of their interlocutors and seek
to listen actively their interlocutors. It is basically
a common syndrome.
Although correlations are not “strong”, the
information obtained by comprehensive statistical processing has confirmed the expectations in
terms of correlations. Scarcity of obtained correlations in terms of the proof of their statistical significance depends not only on the sample scope,
but also on the sparse answers in the corpus of dependent variables.
Despite the scarcity of results, except in the
case of the hypothesis that respondents having different chances with regard to promotion are different among themselves in terms of their tendency
to plan a communication, the individual hypotheses have been confirmed by the results of research.
Individual characteristics of business people and
other factors discussed have proved to be significant correlations (positive or negative) in the manner of their communication in terms of the quality
and effectiveness of communication established.
Based on the statistically verified hypotheses
of the specific general level, it may be concluded
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technics technologies education management
that the obtained results confirm the general hypothesis: “Personal characteristics of workpeople,
their workplace and their status impact the way of
their communication with colleagues and managers.” Thereby the objective of entire research was
successfully fulfilled.
References
1. Artley, W., & Stroh, S. (2011). The performanceBased Management: Establishing an Integrated Performance Measurement System. Oak Ridge Institute
for Science & USA Department of Energy.
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Retrieved 10 10, 2011, from ASHA: www.asha.org/
policy or www.asha.org/njc
3. Barnard, C. (1938). The Functions of the Executive.
Cambridge: MA: Harvard University Press.
4. Binneman, D. (2010, 04 13). Communication Is
The Key To Successfully Implementing Any Largescale Organizational Change. Retrieved 10 10,
2011, from Deon Binneman on Reputation: http://
deonbinneman.wordpress.com/2010/04/13/communication-is-the-key-to-successfully-implementing-anylarge-scale-organizational-change/
5. Cekerevac, Z., & Ristic, S. (2006). Communications:
the way of transmitting messages and communication skill. Komunikácie - Communications (No. 4),
61-65.
11. Meesala, A. (2007, 11 12). Understanding the Communication Process - The Key to Organisational
Success. Retrieved 10 10, 2011, from Ezine articles:
http://ezinearticles.com/?Understanding-the-Communication-Process---The-Key-to-OrganisationalSuccess&id=876670
12. Rampur, S. (2011, 10 12). Communication Styles in
the Workplace. Retrieved 12 2, 2011, from Buzzle.
com: http://www.buzzle.com/articles/communication-styles-in-the-workplace.html
13. Ristić, S. T., Mihailović, D., Čekerevac, Z. P., Vatovec Krmac, E., & Salketić, S. (2012). Leadership
competence and challenges in the communication
process. TTEM , Vol. 7, No.4 11/12.
14. Webster. (2011). Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Retrieved 10 10, 2011, from Merriam-Webster: http://
www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/communication
15. Williams, J. T. (2011). Obstacles in Effective Communication. Retrieved 10 10, 2011, from Chron
- More Small Business: http://smallbusiness.chron.
com/obstacles-effective-communication-3175.html
Corresponding Author
Zoran Cekerevac,
“Union” University Belgrade,
Faculty of industrial management,
Belgrade,
Serbia,
E-mail: zoran.cekerevac@hotmail.com
6. Easton, V. J., & McColl, J. H. (1997, 09). Hyphothesis testing. Retrieved 12 1, 2011, from Statistics
Glossary: http://www.stats.gla.ac.uk/steps/glossary/
hypothesis_testing.html
7. Evans, D., Hearn, M., Uhlemann, M., & Ivey, A.
(2011). Essential Interviewing: A Programmed Approach to Effective Communication. Belmont, Ca:
Cengage Learning.
8. Huczynski, A., & Buchanan, D. A. (2007). Organizational behaviour. Pearson Education Business&Economics.
9. Krizan, A. C., Merrier, P., Logan, J. P., & Williams.,
K. S. (2008). Business Communication. Mason, OH:
Thomson South-Western.
10. LS. (2002, 11 4). Communication process. Retrieved
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Studies, University of Tennessee: http://www.cls.utk.
edu/pdf/ls/Week1_Lesson7.pdf
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technics technologies education management
Use of monetary aggregates as targets in
developed economies
Boris Siljkovic1, Sasa Obradovic2, Jadranka Djurovic Todorovic3
1
2
3
High Economic school of professional studies Pec in Leposavic, Serbia,
Economic faculty, Kragujevac, The University in Kragujevac, Serbia,
Economic faculty Nis, The University in Nis.
Abstract
The concept of monetary targeting becomes an
interesting in seventies and eighties last century
or once when in the epicentre of monetary policy
enters money supply level which can control inflation. The experiences of developed economies
were different because the importance of monetary aggregates as targets was understood differently, so these were the results. We have two
groups of countries led by Germany on the one
hand and Switzerland who have had pretty good
results. On the other hand, we have another group
of developed countries that have had negative experiences in implementing the strategy of targeting monetary aggregates as follows: Canada, USA
and UK. In the nineties of the last century as an
independent this strategy loses its importance in
many countries and has not been forgotten, but becomes an integral part of the inflation and monetary targeting as a kind of hybrid of monetary policy applied by the European Central Bank today.
Key words: money supply, target, monetary
aggregates, monetary policy
1. Introduction
The concept of monetary targeting becomes
applicable from the central banks of developed
economies during the second half of the seventies and eighties, by placing the thesis that money
in the long term has impact on inflation and not
affect the level of economic activity. If money is
the cause of inflation then it is logical that inflation should be controlled by regulating the money
supply. Dated stagflation during this time accompanied by a significant increase in inflation and
increased unemployment rates and using as a target whose representatives were carrier’s ceasing
discretionary policy direction that it contributed
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to the expansion of the strategy of monetary targeting of the leading world economies over the
seventies of the last century. Two groups of developed countries can be considered as quite successful in implementing the policy of monetary
targeting such as Germany and Switzerland, while
in the other side like relatively unsuccessful countries in implementing the strategy of monetary
policy may be regarded as the UK, Canada and
the United States. Monetary targeting in the year
of 2009, according to the International Monetary
Fund, de jure is using 115 member countries of
the IMF.1 Our research were moving in this direction, where beside the introduction and concluding remarks emphasis were given in the first part
on a) lessons from the practice of using monetary
targets aggregates as a positive experience targets,
b) use of monetary aggregates as targets in developed economies with a negative experience and c)
advantages and disadvantages of using monetary
aggregates as targets in developed economies.
2. Lessons learned from the practice of
using monetary aggregates as targets
in developed economies with a positive
experience
In response to rising inflation in many industrial countries during the seventies has been introduced the practice of establishing goals in terms of
monetary aggregates growth -targeting monetary
growth.2 Following the experience in this regard of
the developed economies, Germany Central Bank
1 Pucar, Beker., Emilija.: Managed floating exchange rate
in regime of targeting inflation in transition economies
with regard to Serbia, Doctoral dissertation under
the supervision of prof. dr Kosta Josifidis, Faculty of
Economics, Subotica, 2010., page 65.
2 Đukić, Đorđe.: Central bank and financial system,
Litopair, Čačak, 2010., Page 80.
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technics technologies education management
(Bundesbank) went in the formulation of monetary
targeting in the famous setting of that inflation is
always and everywhere monetary phenomenon. In
December 1974, Bundesbank decided to publish
targets related to the money stock. Bundesbank
has targeted central bank money, a narrow aggregate that is the sum of currency in circulation and
bank deposits relations required reserves.3 Starting
from the year of 1975, Bundesbank has published
target rate of money supply in advance, and since
1979, the target range of the planned annual rate of
expansion of money supply. Through the practical
3 Mishcin, S., Frederic.: Monetary policy strategy: How
did we get here, Panoeconomicus, Vol. 53, number 4,
Novi Sad, 2006., page 363.
4 Remarks: 1975, 1979, 1980,1981,1982 and 1983 the aim
was for the year. 1976,1978 and 1979 is presented as a
targeted average annual growth rate. (interpretation of
sections target growth rate of money - the money supply
the central bank).
implementation of monetary targets especially in
the first few years we have had a situation of nonrealizing of monetary targets as a result of decreasing interest rates indicating they were more or less
deviations in the movement target and the realized
inflation rate was acceptable, which are not caused
major repercussions for the economy of Germany.
Inflation in Germany in the eighties and nineties
did not exceed 4-5% and then dominated the opinion that this variant of the concept of monetary targeting is the best. What to note is that inflation was
a priority in relation to monetary targets and inflation targeting is actually the basis for monetary targeting. (Table 1) Bundesbank behaved like to strive
for an appropriate price level. It may be represented
by the slow adjustment of actual to equilibrium
price levels. It is truth that German monetary policy
could be viewed as “hybrid” or as a combination
of monetary and inflation targeting than with rigid
Table 1. Concept of targeted and actual monetary targeting and inflation targeting and realized rates in
Germany in the period 1975-19984 4
Year
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
Inflation
Targeted growth rate of central bank Realized growth rate of central bank
money supply as percentage (%)
money supply as percentage (%)
Targeted Realized
8
7,8
4,5
6,0
8
9,2
4,5
4,3
8
9,0
4,0
3,7
8
11,4
4,0
2,7
6-9
9,1
4,0
4,1
5-8
4,8
4,0
5,5
4-7
4,4
3,5-4,0
5,9
4-7
4,9
3,5
5,3
4-7
7,0
3,5
3,3
4-6
4,6
3,0
2,4
3-5
4,5
2,0
2,2
3,5-5,5
7,7
2,0
-0,2
3-6
8,1
2,0
0,2
3-6
6,7
2,0
1,2
app 5
4,7
2
2,8
4-6
5,6
2
2,7
4-6
5,2
2
3,5
3,5-5,5
9,4
2
4,0
4,5-6,5
7,4
2
4,2
4-6
5,7
2
3,0
4-6
2,1
2
1,8
4-7
8,1
2
1,5
3,5-6,5
4,8
1,5-2
1,8
3-6
5,5
1,5-2
0,9
Source: Deutsche Bundesbank, Monthly Report, Current Issues; Deutsche Bundesbank, Statistical Supplements to the Monthly
Reports of the Deutsche Bundesbank 1975-1998.
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monetary targeting. This is usually marked in Germany as a medium-term inflation goal and it was far
from what is considered long term objective of inflation taking into account the fact that inflation can
be eliminated only gradually. The official strategy
of monetary targeting in Germany has meant that
the growth of monetary aggregates to be adapted to
changes in swiftness of money circulation and to be
in line with the growth of potential GNP.
Table 2. Targeting concept of monetary aggregates in Germany
Estimated long-term rates growth of the productive
potential + the inevitable growth rate = growth rate
of nominal gross domestic product -> targets for
money supply and monetary base
Bundesbank was going to broadly defined
monetary aggregate and never sought to achieve
5 Aimed variable for M1 (1975-1978); Annual Goals
for adjusted monetary base 1980-1988 AMB (M0);
Multiyear goals for monetary base adjusted SAMB
(1991-1999);
several objectives. Manner of conducting the
Bundesbank monetary strategy in Germany was
primarily achieving the goals in the long run and
thus control inflation in the long run. From January 1st, 1999, the ECB took over responsibility for
monetary policy in the euro zone and therefore in
Germany as well.
If we make a comparison with other developed economies, the Swiss National Bank as a
small and open economy has also applied the
concept of monetary targeting since 1978, thanks
to the restrictive monetary policy. Switzerland
has achieved good results in achieving the stated goals of long-term price stability, primarily
through more than 10 percent in 1974, to around
1 percent in 1978, to again, but only temporarily
increase inflation to less than 7 percent in 1981.
Inflation in Switzerland, meanwhile, fell again to
about one percent. From 1981 to 1983, the inflation rate quickly dropped to around 3 percent, and
remained roughly at that level until early 1986,
when oil prices led to a further decline in inflation. Overall, between 1974 and 1999, Swiss Na-
Table 3. Concept of monetary targeting and inflation in Switzerland for period 1975-1995 5
Year
Target
variable
Aimed
variable
Realized
variable
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979 DM/Sfr Floor o,80
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
М1
М1
М1
М1
AMB(М0)
АМB(М0)
АМB(М0)
АМB(М0)
АМB(М0)
АМB(М0)
АМB(М0)
АМB(М0)
АМB(М0)
SAMB
SАМB
SАМB
SАМB
SАМB
SАМB
SАМB
6
6
5
5
4c
4
3
3
3
3
2
2
3
2*
1**
1
1
1
1
-
4,4%
7,7%
5,5%
16,2%
-0,6c
-0,5%
2,6%
3,6%
2,5%
2,2%
2,0%
2,9%
-3,9%
-1,9%*
-2,6%
1,4%
-1,0*
2,8%
0,6%
-
Source: Authors display and data from a web site Swiss National Bank, 1975-1999.
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
Inflation rate CPI in %
Estimated
7,5%
3,8%
3-4
4-5
3-4
2,6
2,5
2,0
Less than 2
2,0
3,0
Not less than 3
4,0
3-4
2,5
2,0
Some less than 3
1,5
Realized
6,74%
1,72%
1,30%
3,60%
4,00%
6,40%
5,70%
3,00 %
2,90%
3,40%
0,80%
1,40%
1,90%
3,20%
5,90%
5,30%
3,40%
2,70%
0,90%
1,80%
0,80%
565
technics technologies education management
tional Bank uses adjusted monetary base. Inflation
in Switzerland in this period varies between 0.02
percent and 6.7 percent, during this period, with
an average rate of 2, 8 percent, and standard deviation of about 2 percent which is quite a good
result at the international level in the situation
when it comes to small open economy, but with a
renowned international significance has this kind
of financial market and currency that has the character of an international resort.
From the year of 1990, Swiss Central Bank
(SCB) is raising the annual growth targets for the
monetary base, and from 1991 the medium-term
strategy is followed by highlighting a five-year
growth targets for the monetary base. True, the
basic problem of SCB has been reported in the inappropriate response to unexpected shocks of the
Swiss currency exchange rate in this period. Generally, in the reference period was present policy of
response lag of SCB expressed through short-term
price stability and stability of production on the
one hand and long-term price stability on the other.
Specifically, if the SCB is not optimally responded
than she had to accept significant fluctuations in
the exchange rate in order to preserve price stability over the long term. As an example, we have that
SCB in 1992 had publicly announced intention of
relaxing its monetary policy, while inflation was
currently high. Another example we have in 1994
when the signals given by the height of the monetary base are not taken seriously enough because
it is too tight money policy implemented to long.6
Since the beginning of 2000 Swiss National Bank
believes that price stability can be done with an annual inflation rate of 2 percent. With this move, the
Swiss Bank changes the course of its monetary policy decisions now based on the medium term (three
years) through the inflation forecast. This framework
in many respects is similar to the concept of inflation
the ECB, where there are some other functions. This
change in monetary policy resulted in a relatively
stable inflation, which ranged between 0.64 percent
and 1.54 percent by the year of 2009.
Chosen concept of monetary targeting in Switzerland made possible to maintain an independent
monetary policy which it contributed to the Swiss
interest rates and long-term and short-term that
were between 150 and 200 basis points lower than
the corresponding in Germany and which were
usually the lowest in Europe. The use of monetary
aggregates as targets and goals of the SNB within
the simple frame of reference proved to be an extremely effective method of communication with
the public. Very illustrative description of the SNB
gave Bernanke, Director of the Central American
Federal Reserve: “The SNB hasn’t chosen simple
rules with complicated explanations, but complicated rules with simple explanations”. Why the
SNB failed to control inflation is the fact that the
Swiss Constitution and the SNB rather vague and
that the mission of the bank is “just to satisfy the
general interests of the country”. This mandate is
not very different from the mandates of other central banks in the world but is unique in that the
SNB had no fixed monetary aggregates growth
taking as the basis of the implicit rate of inflation which was mainly between 0 and 1 percent
in the seventies and eighties. SNB was one of the
few central banks in the world that equalized its
monetary targets to the low inflation rate. Another
important argument for the SNB that this goal enjoyed broad public support, which no doubt make
easier to meet the goal because the economic aspirations of the public building in their levels of
low inflation.
Regardless that SNB is the only central bank in
developed market economies that in the design of
changes in money demand has relied on monetary
base, its monetary policy has proved as extremely
successful in preventing major short-term fluctuations in price growth, while at the same time there
is no large-scale short-term fluctuations in output
growth. National Bank of the Swiss firstly has digress from monetary targeting by not specifying a
target horizon monetary base, published at the end
of the 1990, then moving to, essentially, a fiveyear target horizon, until completely abandoned
monetary targeting in 1999.7
6 Rich, G.: Monetary Targets as a Policy Rule: Lessons
from the Swiss Experience, Journal of Monetary
Economics 39 (1). 1997. p. 113–141.
7 Mishkin, S., Frederic.: Monetary policy strategy: How
did we get here?, Panoeconomicus,Vol. 53, iss.4, Novi
Sad, 2006., page 365.
566
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3. Negative experiences of using monetary
aggregates as targets in developed
economies
We also have another group of developed economies with negative experience in terms of monetary targeting primarily in Canada, that in mid
seventies has targeted M1 growth, but inflation
has nevertheless continued to grow. A question
was imposed, what was wrong? Like many developed economies during seventies, in the beginning
of the 1975 Canada has inflation on its peak of 10
percent. The monetary policy of central banks of
Canada known as “monetary gradualism” predicted narrowly defined aggregate M1, which has
targeted by the Central Bank of Canada consisting of currency plus demand deposits with authorized banks. After three years of monetary targeting
Central Bank of Canada began to distance itself
from the strategy of monetary policy because of
the fear of exchange rate depreciation accompanied by inflationary shock due to import prices,
by which this strategy has marked as unsuccessful. Inflation expressed through the price increase
in 1973 has grown to over 14 percent to nearly 13
percent in 1979. During the early eighties inflation
has fallen from 12 percent to 4 percent. Although
the actual M1 growth in this period was close to
the goal aimed at reducing money, however, on
the contrary the growth has realized. Due to a
conflict with the objectives of the course, M1, this
strategy has been cancelled 1982. At the end of
the 1982 Gerald Bouie, Governor of Central Bank
of Canada, describes this situation quite symboli-
cally saying: “We have not abandoned monetary
aggregates, but they left us”.8
In 1984 fixed exchange rate of US dollar were
de facto (which has remained largely unchanged
since 1978) abandoned and since then Canada
central bank is relaxing its monetary policy in an
attempt to help the recovery of the economy that
is in a deep recession that began in the 1981. Since
1991 Canadian central bank changes the strategy
of monetary policy and implements the policy of
inflation targeting and since than inflation was on
the level of about 2 percent.
Picture 1. Inflation –CPI expressed through the
growth of consumer prices in Canada in the period of 1966-2004
Source: Data from the web site of Canada Central Bank,
2004.
8 Mishcin, S., Frederic.: From monetary targeting to
inflation targeting, Policy research Working paper,
2684, World bank financial sector strategy and policy
Department, Washington, October 2001, p.3.
Таble 4. Monetary targeting concept in Canada for period of 1975-1982
Date when
target is posted
Nov. 1975.
August 1976.
Oct. 1977.
Sept. 1978.
Dec. 1979.
Feb. 1981.
Nov. 1982.
Period base
Target
Extent
Outcome
May-June 1975
Feb. 1976.
June 1977.
June 1978
Apr.-Jun 1979
Aug. –Oct. 1980
-
М1
М1
М1
М1
М1
М1
М1
10-15
8-12
7-11
6-10
5-9
4-8
Target withdrawn
9,2
15,9
14,9
5,1
5,9
0,5
-
Target realized
/yes or no
Yes
No
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
-
Note: Item outcomes are seasonally adjusted annual growth rate M1, between base period and the months following announcement of new targets, Source: Central Bank of Canada
Source: Authors display and data from a web site of Central Bank of Canada, 1982.
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
567
technics technologies education management
From the developed economies United Kingdom has undergone through a period of monetary
targeting, it’s true a lot of failure throughout the
period until the end of 1973 to the temporary suspension in 1985, until the total abolition in the
1987. Growth inflation rate significantly contributed to the acceptance of monetary targeting by
the central Bank of England, which has increased
the importance of monetary control in the management of aggregate demand. In July 1976 Central Bank of England published targeted value of
the M3 monetary aggregate, which was the target
size and a much larger unit than used by the Central Bank of the United States and Canada, which
was a response to the crisis of the course in 1976.
All other macro-economic policy in Britain was
subordinated to this goal of monetary targeting.
By the year of 1977 subject of targeting has been
changed and it was sterling M3, which has turned
off private sector deposits in foreign currency.
Since 1982 the other target sizes of M1 has
been added in England, and since 1987 the target
size and M0. However, the general assessment
that targeted value of the concept of monetary
targeting in England was not achieved in this period. The growth of consumer prices - CPI in the
England was visible during the second half of the
seventies and at its maximum in 1974 of 25 percent. Decrease of prices in England however, were
evident during the second half of the eighties with
the level of eight percent to a level slightly higher
than 4.8 percent from 1985 to 1986. If we take into
account other macroeconomic trends in England
unemployment rate in the period 1973-1974 were
3.0 percent and 1985-1986 was increased to a level of 13.1 percent.9
Picture 2. Inflation growth through price increases reported in England in the period 19752007
Source: Office for National Statistics, London, England, 2008.
9 Fischer, Stanley.: Monetary policy and performance in
the US., Japan and Europe, Working paper No, 2475,
National Bureau of economic Research, Massachusetts,
Cambridge, December, 1987., p.3.
Table 5. Monetary targeting concept in England for period of 1976-1987.
Year
Apr.1976-apr.1977
Apr. 1977-apr.1978
Apr. 1978-apr. 1979.
Oct.1978-oct.1979.
Jun 1979. oct. 1980.
Feb. 1980-apr. 1981
Feb. 1981-apr. 1982
Feb. 1982-apr. 1983
Feb. 1983-apr. 1984
Feb. 1984-apr. 1985
March 1985-march
1986
March
1985-march 1986
Monetary
Target Outcome
aggregate
StМ3
StМ3
StМ3
StМ3
StМ3
StМ3
StМ3
StМ3
StМ3
StМ3
М0
StМ3
М0
StМ3
М0
9-13
9-13
8-12
8-12
7-11
7-11
6-10
8-12
7-11
6-10
4-8
5-9
3-7
11-15
2- 6
8,0
15,1
11,4
13,7
17,2
19,4
12,8
11,2
9,5
11,9
5,4
16,7
3,4
19,0
4,4
Target
realized
/yes or no
Yes
No
No
No
No
No
No
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
No
Yes
No
Yes
Target
М1
Target
М0
Goal
Outcome
8-12
7-11
12,3
14,0
Goal
Outcome
4-8
5,7
3-7
3,3
2-6
4,5
Source: Bank of England and Isard and Rojas-Suarez (1986), Table 35, p.84, through 1985 to 1986 data from OECD Economic
Outlook, (Dec.1986).
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Monetary targeting as a concept of monetary
strategy policy in the United States was introduced
in March 1975 for the M1, M2 and M3. The best
imaging policy of monetary targeting in the U.S.
during its implementation we have through the
work of Paul Volcker, Council President Governor
of U.S. in eighties. Although he has consistently
claimed that the targeting of monetary aggregates
is needed, he wasn’t dedicated to it because it is
actually more use of interest rates in the U.S. economy during that time to stop the inflation. In order
to use the interest rate a statement was needed that
he and FED will focus on targeting the monetary
targets and this is in fact constitute a shield that defended the U.S. central bank charges high interest
rates.10 (Table 6) FED legal obligation is determining zone of the annual growth of monetary aggregates expired in 2000, and in late June of that year
it was decided to discontinue this practice.11 There
is some kind of controversy when it comes to dual
objectives of FED because many other central
banks, such as the European Central Bank and the
Bank of Canada has been targeted only inflation.
These countries believe that the only responsibility of central banks is to preserve the purchasing
10 Mishkin, S., Frederic.: Monetary Economy, Banking
and Financial Markets, Data status, Belgrade, 2006.,
page 425.
11 See as well: Đukić, Đorđe.: Central bank and finacial
system, Litopapir, Čačak, 2010., page 214.
power of currencies. Although several countries
have explicit numerical targets for inflation, this
is a topic avoided by the FED. FED has used in
past interim targets such as monetary aggregates,
because they are more commonly available than
real GDP and less than the rate of inflation of late,
or unemployment.12
4. Advantages and disadvantages of using
monetary aggregates as targets in developed economies
The key of success with the strategy of monetary
targeting and long-term strategy control of inflation
is the transparency of monetary policy, which involves active communication with the public, increasing transparency and accountability of central
banks, which include clarity, simplicity and clearness. After all, the concept of monetary targeting
strategy must be set so that means targeting flexibility where it also takes care about other objectives such as the production and exchange rate with
the fact that the German Bundesbank for example,
accepted that inflation may be eliminated only
gradually. Normally it meant very flexible tolerat12 Ritter, S., Lawrence., Silber, L., William., Udell, F.,
Gregory.: Principles of Money, Banking and Financial
Markets, Association of Banks of Serbia, Belgrade,
2009., pages 437-438.
Table 6. Target and actual movement of M1, M2 and M3, inflation, unemployment and interest rates in
the U.S. in the period 1975-1986.
Year
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
М1
М2
Target Outcome Target
5.0-7.5
5,3
8,5-10,5
4,5-7,5
5,8
7,5-10,5
4,5-6,5
7,9
7,0-10,0
4,0-6,5
7,2
6,5-9,0
3,0-6,0
5,5
5,0-8,0
4,0-6,5
7,3
6,0-9,0
3,5-6,0
2,3
6,0-9,0
2,5-5,5
8,5
6,0-9,0
4,0-8,0
10,0
7,0-10,0
Outcome
9,7
10,9
9,8
8,7
8,3
9,6
9,5
9,2
8,3
М3
Target Outcome
10,0-12,0
12,3
9,0- 12,0
12,7
8,5-11,5
11,7
7,5-10,0
9,5
6,0-9,0
8,1
6,5-9,5
10,2
6,5-9,5
11,4
6,5-9,5
10,1
6,5-9,5
9,7
Inflation
9,1
5,8
6,5
7,7
11,3
13,5
10,4
6,1
3,2
4,3
3,5
2,0
Unemployment Interest
rate
rate
8,3
7,7
7,0
6,1
5,8
7,2
7,6
9,7
9,6
7,5
7,2
7,0
6,0
5,25
6,0
9,5
12,0
13,35
16,39
12,24
9,09
10,23
8,10
6,80
Source: OECD, Economic Outlook, Various issues from December 1977, from December 1987 and OECD economic Indicators Various issues from April 1976 to April 1988, p.71-72
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
569
technics technologies education management
ing failures and gradual disinflation targets (egg. the
Bundesbank and the Swiss National Bank, which
used monetary targeting to set clear objectives of
monetary policy and explained that monetary actions remained, focused on long-term goal of price
stability even if the targets are missed).
Overall following the experiences so far reasons
for the failure of monetary targeting strategy of the
Bank of England, Canada and the United States,
because these are the three banks essentially dealt
with the game in which they targeted multiple aggregates, allowed base drift (it was allowed to be the
starting point of the monetary target moves up and
down the monetary aggregate), did not announce
targets on a regular basis, have used artificial means
to reduce the growth of a targeted aggregate, often
exceeding their targets without reversing the subsequent overshoots often obscured the reasons for
deviations from monetary targets. In confirmation
of this, for example, during most of the seventies
and eighties, the Federal Reserve System – FED argued that he uses monetary aggregates such as M1
and M2 as well as indirect targets. And of course
another reason for the failure of monetary targeting in the late seventies was a growing instability
of the monetary aggregates and goal variables such
as inflation and nominal gross domestic product,
which meant that this strategy is doomed to failure. We have examples that inflation is first reduced
and then increased again by using monetary targets
(Canada, USA and England). (Table 7)
Table 7. Average growth of consumer prices (CPI)
the most advanced economies of the world in the
period 1976-1998
State
Italy
Great Britain
France
Canada
USA
Germany
Switzerland
Japan
Average growth rate (CPI)
8,2%
6,1%
5,1%
4,7%
4,6%
2,7%
2,6%
2,3%
Source: Swiss National Bank, 1999. Monetary Policy Decisions of the Swiss National Bank for 2000, Press
Release, December 10.
And definitely the best event of benefits and
disadvantages of monetary targeting as an indirect
570
means of the intermediate term we have achieved
through macro-economic trends in the period
1973-1974 compared to 1985-1986 in United
States, Japan, Germany and England.
Table 8. Macroeconomic trends in USA, Japan
and Germany in 1973-1974 and 1985-1986.
Unemployment rate
USA
Japan
Germany
England
Inflation rate (CPI)
USA
Japan
Germany
England
Current account /BNP
USA
Japan
Germany
England
1973-1974
5,3%
1,4%
1,2%
3,0%
1985-1986
7,0%
2,7%
8,5%
3,1%
8,5%
11,4%
6,9%
12,5%
2,7%
1,3%
1,0%
4,8%
0,3%
-0,5%
2,1%
-2,7%
-3,2%
4,1%
1,9%
0,6%
Source: Fischer, Stanley.: Monetary policy and performance
in the USA, Japan and Europe, 1973-1986., Working paper,
N02475., National bureau of economic research, Cambridge,
December, 1987., p.3.
5. Conclusion
Strategy of targeting of monetary aggregates
has replaced the concept of inflation targeting in
the nineties of last century. That started from the
figurative settings of Jeffrey Franker that: “Grass
is always greener on the other contest parity”.13
Solution in a number of developed economies that
followed the targeting of monetary aggregates at
one point it became too narrow, although it gave a
lot of good results, while some economies such as
USA, Canada and the United Kingdom gave poor
results, so it is officially abandoned. True realistically states such as Switzerland and Germany
during the period were closer to the strategy of inflation targeting than monetary targeting. The fact
is that none of the observed states supreme monetary institutions are not strictly adhere to the rules
for monetary growth. We know that the famous
monetarist economist Milton Friedman suggested
13 Baldwin, Richard., Wyplosz, Charles.: Economy of
European Integration, Data status, Belgrade, 2010.,
page 288.
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that the selected monetary aggregate growth rate
is constant, but as we notice in the previous survey, no state strictly adhere to this rule. Giving up,
failure to comply with the concept of continuity of
agreed monetary growth and size, etc. are the main
reasons for the failure of monetary targeting strategy. After all, the success of monetary targeting,
but not in pure form belongs to the two countries
especially Germany and Switzerland. Because of
these circumstances it is accepted as an important
element and component of a hybrid combination
of monetary policy as inflation targeting to monetary targeting and implemented by the European
Central Bank today.
References
1. Baldwin, Richard., Wyplosz, Charles.: Economy of
European Integration, Data status, Belgrade, 2010.
2. Đukić, Đorđe.: Central bank and financial system,
Litopapir, Čačak, 2010.
3. Fischer, Stanley.: Monetary policy and performance
in the USA, Japan and Europe, 1973-1986., Working paper, N02475., National bureau of economic
research, Cambridge, December, 1987.
4. Inflation - CPI expressed through the growth of consumer prices in Canada in the period 1966-2004,
Central Bank of Canada, 2004.
5. The concept of monetary targeting in England in the
period of 1976-1987, Bank of England and Isard
and Rojas—Suarez (1986), Table 35, p.84, through
1985.1986 data from OECD Economic Outlook,
Dec.1986.
6. Target and actual movement of M1, M2 and M3, inflation, unemployment and interest rates in the U.S.
in the period 1975-1986, OECD, Economic Outlook,
Various issues from December 1977- from December
1987 and OECD economic Indicators Various issues
from April 1976 to April 1988.
7. The concept of targeted and actual rates of monetary
targeting and inflation targeting, and realized in
Germany in the period 1975-1998, Deutsche Bundesbank, Monthly Report, Current Issues; Deutsche
Bundesbank, Statistical Supplements to the Monthly
Reports of the Deutsche Bundesbank 1975-1998.
9. The concept of monetary targeting in Canada during the period 1975-1982, Central bank of Canada,
1982.
10. Mishkin, S., Frederic.: Monetary Economics, Banking and Financial Markets, Data status, Belgrade,
2006.
11. Mishcin, S., Frederic.: From monetary targeting to
inflation targeting, Policy research Working paper,
2684, World bank financial sector strategy and
policy Department, Washington, October 2001.
12. Mishkin, S., Frederic.: Monetary Policy Strategy:
How Did We Get Here?, Panoeconomicus,Vol. 53,
iss.4, Novi Sad, 2006.
13. Miller, L., Roger., Van Hoose, D., David.: Modern
money and banking, Mate, Zagreb,1997.
14. Pucar, Beker., Emilija.: Managed floating exchange
rate in regime of targeting inflation in transition
economies with regard to Serbia, Doctoral dissertation under the supervision of prof. dr Kosta Josifidis, Faculty of Economics, Subotica, 2010.
15. Average growth of consumer prices (CPI) the most
advanced economies of the world in the period
1976-1998, Swiss National Bank, 1999. Monetary
Policy Decisions of the Swiss National Bank for
2000, Press Release, 10 December, 2000.
16. Inflation through price increases reported in England during the period 1975-2007, Office for National Statistics, London, England, 2008.
17. Ritter, S., Lawrence., Silber, L., William., Udell,
F., Gregory.: Principles of Money, Banking and
Financial Markets Association of Banks of Serbia,
Belgrade, 2009.
18. Rich, G.: Monetary Targets as a Policy Rule: Lessons from the Swiss Experience.” Journal of Monetary Economics 39 (1), 1997.
Corresponding Author
Boris Siljkovic,
High Economic school of professional studies
Pec in Leposavic,
Serbia,
E-mail: boris_siljkovic@yahoo.com
8. The concept of monetary targeting and inflation in
Switzerland during the period 1975-1995, Swiss National Bank, 1975-1999.
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
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technics technologies education management
Development of environmental copper-based
alloys
Aleksandra Ivanovic1, Vesna Marjanovic1, Silvana Dimitrijevic1, Miroslav Ignjatovic1, Vlastimir Trujic1, Miroslav R.
Ignjatovic2
1
2
Mining and Metallurgy Institute, Bor, Serbia,
Serbian Chamber of Commerce, Serbia.
Abstract
This work presents the investigation results of
Cu-Sn, Cu-Te and Cu-Sn-Te systems, aimed to
develop non-toxic alloys that could completely
respond to the exploitation requirements in the
transport electrification networks and, therefore
replace presently used alloys of Cu-Cd system.
Mechanical and metallographic testing determined
the chemical composition of the alloy, which has
satisfactory electro-conductivity (86.21% IACS),
tensile strength (400N/mm2) and size of re-crystallized grain in the defined overall deformation
degree (50%).
Key words: low-alloyed copper, re-crystallization, tin, tellurium
Alloys with tellurium are copper alloys with high
electroconductivity and good mechanical workability [1]. Good characteristic of these alloys is the
retention of good mechanical characteristics after
plastic processing also, at increased temperatures,
and corrosion resistance. On a phase diagram in the
Cu-Te system (Figure 1) there is a break in solubility in the liquid state at 8.2-46.2 %mass Te where
the mixture of two solutions exists[2,3]. Monotecticum exists at temperature of 1051oC and 8.2%mass
Te, while the eutectic temperature is achieved at
1050oC and 46.2%mass Te. The dissolubility of tellurium in copper is very low and located between
the solubility of sulfur and selenium, and decreases
with temperature decrease [3,4].
1. Introduction
Although copper and copper alloys are for very
long time in use, and therefore they were subjected to various tests, copper and its alloys for their
behavior and characteristics in various treatments
are still unknown and the subject of research studies. Due to the more growing deficit on the market, as well as the environmental acceptability of
certain alloys, there is the requirement to develop
Cu alloys without toxic elements, which will be
able to replace completely previously used ones.
The amount of present impurities and alloying
elements is a determinative factor for ability of
copper and its alloys during treatment in a plastic
state, and therefore their mechanical and exploitation characteristics.
In this paper, the effect of tin and tellurium on
the mechanical and exploitation characteristics of
copper was investigated, as these alloys are more
environmentally friendly than the alloys of copper-cadmium system, which are presently used,
with the same purpose, could replace them.
572
Figure 1. Phase diagram of the Cu-Te system [7]
It is seen from the state diagrams of Cu-Te
that tellurium with copper forms two compounds
Cu2Te and Cu4Te3 although Cu4Te3 is resistant
only to temperature 623oC. The microstructure of
these alloys consists of a base that is pure copper
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where the particles of copper telluride (Cu2Te) are
arranged representing the high temperature phase
with a surface centered cubic lattice. With the reduced temperature, the phase of Cu2Te suffers
transformations into low temperature phase of antype Cu2Te (n=1-4). The lattice Cu2Te presents a
transition from the coordination type into layered
structure [5]. By addition of tellurium, the density
of copper is changed as indicated by the works of
A.M. Pimenov [6] according to which the greatest density is at content of 0.6% Te, until at higher
content of tellurium, it decreases. At low content
of tellurium, the elasticity module is slightly lower
than that for pure copper and is very dependent on
texture. Due to the low solubility of tellurium in
copper, the electrical conductivity decreases proportionally to the increase of tellurium content and
annealing temperature.
Many researchers have dealt by investigation
the mechanical properties of copper alloys with
tellurium since these alloys are easily processed
by cold drawing or cold rolling. Hardening occurs during cold deformation, which is characterized by the increased strength and drawing limit,
but reduced elongation [5,6 ]. Relieving at different temperatures leads to a change in mechanical
properties. The effect of small tellurium additions
to the movement of re-crystallization temperature
to higher temperatures was explained [6].
Small additions of Sn and Te to the amount of
0.0005% to 0.003% practically do not affect the
microstructure of copper as well as the mechanical properties at lower temperatures while at high
temperatures they have caused the reduced plasticity, even up to 1.5 ÷ 2 times without affecting
the value of strength [6]. Copper-tellurium alloys
can be hot shaped in the temperature range from
700oC to 900oC and, therefore, they are used for
production of forgings, which are subsequently
processed by cutting. Due to the fracture, caused
by deformation in cold and hot state, tellurium
are viewed as a harmful impurity, but due to good
properties (high electrical conductivity and good
mach inability by cutting), tellurium as an impurity has found its place in the copper alloys.
Alloys of the copper - tin system are the alloys
with limited solubility of alloying element in the
base metal, and they are characterized by several
peritectic and eutectoid reactions (Figure 2).
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Figure2. Phase diagram of the Cu-Sn system [7]
It could be seen from the state diagram of CuSn that copper with tin forms a - solid solution
of homogeneous composition. Maximum solubility of tin in copper at temperature of peritectic
reaction (798oC) is 13.5% and with temperature
decrease, the tin solubility in copper increases in
temperature range from 520oC to 590oC and it is
15.8%, while by temperature decrease to 350oC,
the solubility drops at 11%, and temperature reduction, in the equilibrium cooling conditions to
the room temperature, and it significantly decreases to very insignificant values [7]. The eutectoid
reaction and formation of appropriate phases of
various compositions are developed at temperatures of 590oC, 520oC and 350oC [5].
Crystallization of copper alloy with tin in real
conditions is usually unbalanced and as a consequence of this way is the crystallization of distinct
dendritic segregation. Therefore, in the real production conditions, e.g. b-phase occurs, but in the
alloys containing 4% Sn instead of the alloys containing more than 13.5% Sn, as it should be, based
on the state diagram.
By the addition of tin, the hardness and strength
of copper increase, while elongation initially decreases slightly, and from 0.5% Sn decreases intensively. The strength attains maximum at 15%
Sn, and after the occurrence of brittle crystals of
d-phase, again decreases, while the hardness increases continuously [8].
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By drawing in cold state, the wire made of copper alloyed with tin could achieve the strength of
900-1100 N/mm2 and hardness of 2000-2500 N/
mm2, where by elongation decreases to about 1%.
The addition of Sn significantly affects the
electrical conductivity of copper as opposite to
tellurium. Author Marino [9] pointed out that tin
contents up to 140ppm in the oxygen free copper
have no significantly effect on electrical conductivity of copper. When copper contains little oxygen, tin has no effect on electrical conductivity to
the amount of 80ppm.
By increase of temperature, the mechanical
properties of these alloys are deteriorated and
they become brittle at temperatures from 400oC to
500oC.
2. Experimental part
Starting samples for sampling were obtained
by melting the charge, consisted of the following
raw materials:
–– Copper - OFHC quality in the form of wire
cut into pieces of 5 – 6 cm in length
–– Tin – in one piece
–– Tellurium – Cu-Te master alloy with 90%
Cu and10% Te where the electrolytic Cu
powder (fresh, non-oxidized) and Te powder
(non-oxidized) are used for its preparation.
Mixture of these two powders in ration
90:10 is entered into mixer to carry out
the homogenization followed by pressing
into cakes of cylindrical shape by the press
pressure of 26.5 KN.
–– Phosphorus - deoxidant of melt during
casting, used as the key Cu - P alloy with
10% P.
After charge preparation, the smelting was
carried out in IRM accredited laboratories, in the
laboratory reverbatory furnace in a graphite crucible under a layer of charcoal (to maintain the
low oxidation atmosphere), using gas. Then, the
casting of samples was carried out in the graphite
casting molds of square cross section, dimensions
20x20x270 mm and 20x20x200mm, which were
cooled in the air. The head of cooled castings (the
largest concentration of casting defects) were cut
off and the chemical composition was analyzed
574
using the spectrophotometric methods. Plastic
processing of samples was carried out primarily on
cold, to the cross section dimensions 17x17 mm,
in order to prevent the occurrence of “burrs” in
the hot rolling, and then the obtained billets were
annealed for 30 minutes at temperature of 8500C
and immediately hot rolled to the cross section
dimensions 10x10 mm on the rolling mill with
calibrated rollers. The cooled samples were then
annealed for 30 minutes at temperature of 6000C,
and then cooled in the air and rolled on the rolling
mill with calibrated rollers to the cross-section dimensions 4x4 mm. Cold rolled samples were then
annealed for 30 minutes at 6000C, cooled in the
air and drawn into a wire of circular cross section,
on the tow bench through a series of matrices to a
diameter of Ø = 2 mm.
Upon the wire obtaining, the tensile strength
and elongation were tested depending on the overall deformation degree as well as elongation at elevated temperatures on the Karl Frank testing machine, and metallographic testing to the aim of determination the effect of Sn and Te on a degree of
copper recrystallization, that is the softening temperature of cold deformed metal. Preparation of
samples for metallographic testing was performed
primarily by the melting the samples of obtained
wire, 2mm diameter, on cold in polymerized acrylate, then the samples were ground and polished,
and in order to develop the structure, the polished
samples were etched with a solution of ferric chloride and copper-ammonchloride. Recording of
sample microstructure was done on metallographic microscope “Reichert MeF2“ (figure 3).
3. Results and discussion
The results of chemical analysis of samples,
after melting and casting, are given in Table 1.
It is noticed, from presented results of chemical
analysis, that the preparation, melting and casting of samples were carried out under appropriate
conditions as the samples after treatment have the
required chemical composition which, based on
literature data, would be the best suitable as a replacement for Cu-Cd alloy, used for electrification
of transport networks[10,11].
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Figure 4. Dependence of tensile strength on the
total degree of deformation
Figure 3. The Karl Frank testing machine
Table 1. Results of chemical analysis
Samples number Sn (%)
1.
0,058
2.
0,580
3.
0,130
4.
1,140
5.
0,066
6.
0,130
7.
-
Te (%)
0,0092
0,0920
0,04
0.760
Cu (%)
rest
rest
rest
rest
rest
rest
rest
Since the alloys of this type should be used as a
substitute for modified copper or Cu-Cd alloy, they
are required, in total deformation degree of 50%,
to have a tensile strength over 400N/mm2, and the
testing of tensile strength (Rm) and elongation of
samples (A200) was done with electro conductivity over 50 SM ( 86,21% IACS), depending on
total deformation degree (εtotal) and the results are
shown in Figures 4 and 5, respectively, while the
results of Rm and the A200 at elevated temperatures
are shown in Figures 6 and 7.
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The following is observed from the shown testing results:
–– The effect of alloying Sn and Te elements on
tensile strength is noticeable. So, in sample
no. 2, which, in relation to the sample no. 1,
has tenfold greater amount of both alloying
elements, there is a noticeable increase in
tensile strength.
–– In samples nos. 4, 5 and 6, an increase of
tensile strength is recorded with the increase
of tin content.
–– In Te contents of approximately 1%, without
the presence of Sn, an increase of tensile
strength also occurs.
Figure 5. Dependence of elongation on the total
degree of deformation
Three fields of change Rm = f (ε) is observed
on a diagram of tensile strength dependence on total deformation degree:
–– The first field is characterized by a significant
increase of tensile strength. It extends to
approx. 20% of the total deformation degree.
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–– The second field is characterized by slower
growth of tensile strength. It extends between
20% and 80% of the total deformation degree.
–– The third field is characterized by repeated
sudden increase of tensile strength at the
total deformation degree >80%.
Figure 7. Dependence of elongation on temperature
Table 2. Results of measurements the electric
conductivity
Figure 6. Dependence of tensile strength on temperature
Comparative analysis of test results of samples nos.1 and 2 indicates that tenfold increase
of Sn and Te amount has a very little effect on
Rm change while elongation of sample no.2 decreases with higher content of Sn and Te. In the
diagram Rm = f (T) for sample no.2, the peak appears. More detailed investigation in this field was
not done but it is assumed that an increase in Rm
is due to a deposition of Sn and Te oxides.
For samples nos. 1, 3 and 4, there is a constant
decrease of Rm with temperature increase, what is
in line with expectations. In all other samples, in
a certain temperature range, the peak appears on
diagram Rm = f (T) both with addition of Sn, or
both elements. The explanation of thes phenomena is as for the sample no.2
A drop of tensile strength is observed in sample
no.7 in total deformation degree between 18.3%
and 28.4%.
According to the results shown in figure No. 6,
with the T increase of all the samples, the elongation also increases.
Electro conductivity was measured on samples
of wire Ø 2 mm in the annealed and non annealed
condition, and testing results are shown in Table 2.
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Samples
number
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Electric conductivity (% IACS )
Fullhard state
95,60
62,20
95,27
80,70
97,29
93,01
68,08
Annealed state
95,86
62,24
98,08
79,48
98,65
96,68
76,86
Based on the electro conductivity values, it is
observed that the electro conductivity is slightly
higher in the annealed wire in relation to the nonannealed. In samples nos. 2, 4 and 7, the electro
conductivity is unsatisfactory while in samples
nos.1, 5 and 6, the electro conductivity is good.
The results of metallographic testing of the obtained wires, 2 mm diameter, are shown in Figures 7-12. Metallographic testing of sample no. 7
was not done since the mechanical tests showed
that the sample is not adequate in terms of tensile
strength nor in terms of elongation as well as its
electro conductivity unsatisfactory. In all other
samples, the metallographic testing has revealed
that the samples show re-crystallized wire structure with polyhedral grains characteristic for recrystallized copper [10].
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Figure 8. Microstructure of sample no. 1.:
0.058% Sn 0.092%Te,5500C, x480
Figure 11. Microstructure of sample no. 4:
1.14% Sn, 5500C, x480
Figure 9. Microstructure of sample no. 2: 0.58%
Sn 0.92% Te, 5500C, x480
Figure 12. Microstructure of sample no. 5:
0.066% Sn,4000C, x480
Figure 10. Microstructure of sample no.3: 0.13%
Sn 0,04% Te, 5500C, x480
Figure 13. Microstructure of sample no.6.:
0.13% Sn, 5500C, x480
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The followings are observed using the metallographic testing:
–– On sample no. 1, a completely re-crystallized
structure is observed with polyhedral grains,
characteristic for re-crystallized copper. The
same structure was also observed on sample
no. 3, while on sample no. 2, a partly recrystallized structure is observed with large
amounts of elongated deformed grain.
–– From details of the microstructure shown
in Figures 8, 9 and 10, it is observed that
greater amount of added Sn and Te requires
higher re-crystallization temperature than
the samples with less content of Sn and Te.
–– From Figures 10, 11 and 12, it is observed
that the increased Sn content in the alloy
causes the increase of re-crystallization
temperature regarded to the alloy with
lower Sn content, what contributes to
the coarsening of re-crystallized grain.
Further increase of Sn content at constant
temperature significantly increases the grain
regarded to the previous concentration. All
three samples have re-crystallized structure
with polyhedral grains, characteristic for recrystallized copper. Also, it is observed that
increase of Sn content in the alloy causes the
increase of re-crystallization temperature
and that the re-crystallized grain is coarsed
with increasing Sn content in the alloy.
Since the alloys of this type should be used as a
substitute for modified copper or Cu-Cd alloy[5], for
electrification the transport networks, they are prompted to have the tensile strength over 400N/mm2 in total
deformation degree of 50%, with electro conductivity
over 50 SM (86.21% IACS), the tested alloys correspond to these requirements as follows:
–– Samples nos. 2 and 4 meet the requirements
of tensile strength but do not meet the
requirement of electro conductivity
–– Samples nos. 1, 5 and 6 meet the
requirements of electro conductivity, but
their tensile strength is small
–– Sample no. 7 does not meet any request.
–– Sample no. 3 (0.13% Sn 0.04% Te the rest of
Cu) was proved as the most suitable because
it meets both requirements, and a size of recrystallized grain is satisfactory.
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4. Conclusion
Based on realized testing, the followings could
be concluded:
1. In drawing, with increase of deformation
degree, the tensile strength increases and
relative elongation decreases
2. Increase of tin content causes the intense
increase of tensile strength
3. Electro conductivity of wires in annealed
state is slightly higher than in non-annealed
state as well as the decrease of electro
conductivity appears with tin content over
0.5% and tellurium above 0.1%.
4. Progress of the re-crystallization process
causes decrease of tensile strength and
increase of relative elongation value.
5. Addition of small Sn and Te amounts has
effect on increasing the re-crystallization
temperature regarded to the re-crystallization
temperature of pure copper.
6. Increased content of Sn and Te regarded
to the alloys with lower content of these
elements requires much higher temperature
for leading to the re-crystallization.
7. Size of re-crystallized grain increases with
the increase of Sn content in the alloy with
Cu.
8. For manufacturing the trolley lines, based
on the set requirements, the sample no.3 has
proved to be as the most suitable.
Acknowledgements
This work has resulted from the project funded
by the Ministry of Science and Educations of the
Republic of Serbia, No. 34024 “ Development of
technologies for recycling of precious, rare and associated metals from solid waste in Serbia to high
purity products” on which the authors of this occasion want to thank.
References
1. J.P. Tardent, B. Demestral, New copper alloys for
electrical, electronic and mechanical applications,
Wire Industry, 68, 173-176(2001).
2. M. Hansen, K. Anderko, Constitution of Binary Alloys, Second Edition, Me Graw-Hill Book Company,
New York, Toronto, London (1958).
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3. A. S. Pashinkin and L. M. Pavlova, p-T Phase Diagram of the Cu-Te System, Inorg. Mater., 41(9),
939–944 (2005).
4. J.S.Smart, A.A.Smith, Effect of Phosphorus, Arsenic,
Sulphur and Selenium on Some Properties of Highpurity Copper,Metals technology, American institute of
mining and metallurgical engineers, 12, 1807 (1945).
5. H.Graveman, H.J.Wallbaum, Z.Metallkunde, 47,
433-441(1956).
6. A. M. Pimenov, Z. I. Gofenshefer, Vlitnie malih
dobavor Se i Te na soistva medi, Izdatelstvo Metallurgia, Moscow (1958).
7. M. Bizjak at al.,The phenomena controlling the
melting phase of a fuse element during a break,
MTAEC9, 38(1–2)123(2004)
8. G.Kosec, V.Gonatarev, Mater. Technol., 37(3-4), 161166 (2003).
9. V.J.Marino, M.V.Yokelson and G.J.Fisher, The Effect of Lead and Tin on the Annealability and Electrical Conductivity of Commercially Hot-Rolled
ETP Copper Rod, Wire Association meeting, Atlanta, Georgia (1975).
10. A. Mitić - Ivanović, Graduation Thesis, Testing the
Effect of Tin and Tellurium Content on Temperature
of Copper Recrystallization, Technical Faculty, Bor
(1997) (in Serbian).
11. Z. Popović, Electro-technical and Electronic Materials, Promezzia Press, Belgrade (1995) (in Serbian).
Coresponding author
Aleksandra Ivanovic,
Mining and Metallurgy Institute,
Bor,
Serbia,
E-mail: aleksandra.ivanovic@irmbor.co.rs
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
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Deep oil wells between production and disaster
Zvonimir Boskovic2, Vladimir Mitrovic1, Tatjana Malbasic1, Jelka Stupar1
1
2
Faculty of Mining and Geology, University of Belgrade, Serbia,
NIS-Novi Sad, Serbia.
Abstract
The paper analyzes the technological factors
making deep wells using standard /conventional
drilling method and underbalance method. The
result of the conventional drilling is contamination the borehole zone, ie. reduced throughput
and production capacity of reservoir rocks. Recommended for use underbalance drilling. Identify
the advantages and disadvantages of underbalance
drilling methods. Shows the basic characteristics
of the flush fluid underbalance drilling technology.
Have been singled out and discussed in detail the
technical and technological problems during drilling operations in underbalance conditions. Points
out the extent of the risk of uncontrolled eruption
that involves the application of inadequate methods underbalance drilling.
Introduction
Realization of project of deep wells requires the
use of machinery, equipment and technical characteristics of certain devices, the appropriate types
and characteristics of flush fluid (wept), optimal
mechanical and hydraulic regime, continuous management and monitoring of the drilling and so. During conventional processes of drilling mud column
pressure in the well exceeds the size of the layer
(pore) pressure in the productive formation. The filtrate and solid phase flush fluid penetrates into the
pore system of reservoir rocks and causes the reduction of permeability borehole zone - skin effect.
Borehole contamination zones can be caused by
many factors during the drilling, maintenance and
repair of drilling fluid, etc. exploitation. The immediate result of skin effects is significantly lower productivity wells. That, in these conditions, increased
production and utilization of petroleum reservoirs
is necessary to eliminate skin effect, ie. Increase
throughput reservoir rocks using certain methods of
processing borehole and drainage zones. Such procedures and activities require substantial financial
580
investment and materially. However, application of
modern methods and program development wells
can be substantially prevented or avoided doubtful
physical and chemical contamination (skin effect)
of the productive forces. Underbalance drilling
was primarily developed as a technique of drilling
through the productive zone to prevent skin effects.
Underbalance drilling method
Underbalance drilling is a specific process of
exploitation wells in which the hydrostatic pressure of the flush fluid column lower layer of pressure (pore pressure, the pressure in the formation). Pressure in the well is lower than pay zone
pressure which allows for the drilling fluid in the
layer affects the borehole, and thus prevents the
contamination borehole zone by flush fluids. Also
underbalance drilling can reduce the loss of circulation or completely eliminated, minimizing the
risk of jamming due to tool pressure difference
(differential reception), to increase the mechanical speed of drilling and, most importantly, to preserve the physical characteristics of the primary
collector, and therefore the oil production or the
use of much larger deposits. Underbalance drilling technology is often used for drilling fractured
natural formations (layers), partially exhausted
collectors who are suspected of being susceptible
to contamination, the collector who geomechanical disrupted oil production, as well as to regulate
the mechanical drilling speed. Although underbalance method mainly used for drilling through
formation of a stable where there is no possibility
of demolitions borehole walls in some cases undrbalance drilling can increase the stability of potentially unstable borehole (for example, contain
the reactive formation of marl clay, which often
result from water-binding swelling and flush fluid
enter in the wellbore and after making unconsolidate well bore stability). However, in many cases,
the borehole stability may deteriorate due to the
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low hydrostatic pressure column flush fluid on the
walls of the borehole, as the tangential stress from
the formation pressure will be greater than that
achieved flush fluid column. To prevent the occurrence of this effect, the pressure in the borehole
may not be much lower than layer (pore) pressure,
since otherwise there was a demolitions and relatively stable formations. Also, if the pressure in
the well is much lower than layer (pore) pressure,
we will not be able to control the flow from the
formation which can result in excessive stress due
to surface equipment that may be damaged.
In conventional drilling due to higher pressure in
the borehole than in the formation of flush fluid is injected into the formation, and with it the tiny drilled
particles that fills the pores of the collector greatly
reducing the permeability of the collector, leading
ultimately to reduced utilization of the reservoir.
Advantages of undrbalance drilling
Advantages of underbalance vs conventional
drilling are numerous:
1. Reducing damage to the collector
–– Production index improves and production
capacity,
–– Reduces the number of wells needed for the
exploitation of deposits,
–– Increase the final efficiency ones;
2. The possibility of obtaining data on the
productive zone in real time:
–– Relatively easy to identify impervious areas,
–– Test the characteristics of the collector,
–– Estimated productivity of the well during
drilling,
–– Optimize the distance between the
exploitation wells;
3. Reduce or eliminate the loss of circulation:
–– Drilling is done by pressing the lower layer
and no penetration flush fluid in formation,
–– Lower costs for the preparation of flush
fluid, eliminating the need for additives that
regulate filtration.
4. Increases the mechanical drilling speed;.
5. Eliminates the risk of accepting differential
(stuck) tools;
6. Identify potential collectors that due to
the low pressure or slight layer thickness
remained undetected in conventional drilling.
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Preventing collector damage
The emergence of damaging the collector is a
complex problem which has competence in specific
disciplines. When conventional methods of drilling
through permeable panels, flush fluid penetrates the
formation as clean filtrate leaving behind a wall lining the borehole. Lining that occurs at the borehole
wall (clay wrap) blocks the pores of the collector,
reducing the bandwidth. During maneuvers column
drilling tools much of this lining is removed, but
nevertheless remains in the pores of a solid phase
which reduces the permeability of the collector,
resulting in decreased production of hydrocarbonate’s fluid. Borehole damage zone (skin effect) is
determined using the method of hydrodynamic test
wells, and generally expresses the scale ranges from
-5 to +12. When there is no skin effect value is 0.
From an economic point of view, the use underbalance drilling is justified because the drilling
fluid at all times ranging from the formation to the
wellbore, and there is no contamination of the layer of solid phase particles flush fluid, and thus no
effect to the formation of skin (Figure 1).
Figure 1. No filter cake cased by inflow of fluid
from formation to the well
Disandvantages underbalance drilling
Besides many advantages underbalance drilling compared to conventional evident and certain
disadvantages:
1. Increasing complexity of operations:
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–– The design space for additional equipment,
–– Requirements to be highly qualified personnel
with extensive experience who are able to
coordinate all services on the borehole;
2. The standard depth units (pulse-transfer)
to monitor drilling parameters (MWD) are
inefficient in the use of compressible flush
fluid:
–– Electromagnetic Devices (MWD) data are
more expensive, and their use is limited by the
depth and characteristics of the formations,
–– Instruments with wired data transmission
delay column assembly and increase the
complexity of operations;
3. Inadequate management system for preparing and injecting flush fluid, resulting in the
following problems:
–– Fast enough removal of drilled material,
–– Depth may exceed the engine speed,
–– Sudden drop in engine speed in the borehole
depth, due to low capacity injection (flush
fluid),
–– Improper mixing of fluid in the borehole can
cause strong vibrations;
4. Increased costs due to the use of accessories:
–– Rotating equipment,
–– Potable gas,
–– Fluid recycling systems;
5. Increasing costs for hiring professional staff.
Underbalance drilling in function of lithology
Lithological characteristics of the formations
have significant impact on the design and development undrebalance method. Underbalance drilling
can not be applied for well-drilling in all types of formations. Collectors in which the hydrostatic pressure
under the natural conditions or because of exhaustion of deposit are ideal for underbalance drilling
method. In many cases, drilling of such collectors
by classic method would have been possible, due to
loss of circulation and can be stuck drilling tools. In
formations with clay binder in contact with the filtrate from the flush fluid drastically reduces leakage
due to swelling clays, leading to borehole instability. The formation of filtrate invasion is the biggest
problem in the production of horizontal wells where
reservoir rocks large surface area exposed to this influence and the formation of large defects. Applying
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underbalance drilling no penetration of filtrate and
the problems that may arise due to the penetration
of filtrate eliminated. Very rock solid stable so there
is no possibility of demolitions in terms of reduced
hydrostatic pressure. During conventional drilling
can reach a large water saturation bore hole zone
which makes the flow of hydrocarbons to the well
(multi-phase flows and Žamen’s effect). Using underbalance drilling solves this problem. Rock mass
in which only in some cases can be successfully
drilled using the underbalance drilling: clay under
geopressure, hydrochloric formations, coal formations and fractured, unconsolidated sands.
Flush fluids for underbalance drilling
There is no universal flush fluid for all drilling conditions. Flush fluids are specially manufactured for each specific case based on the geological properties of rocks in the borehole conditions,
technical limitations, etc..
Flush fluids for underbarance drilling fluid can
provide density up to about 832.79 kg/m3. Flush fluids of these densities are suitable for use in specific
conditions that occur during underbalance drilling.
Fluid pressure in the pores of formation often
exceeds the hydrostatic pressure. In such an environment it is possible to punch underbalance
method using incompressible fluid flush.
The function compresive flush fluid used: dry
air, nitrogen, natural gas, combustion engine exhaust gas, mist, air flush fluids, foam.
Dry air is injected into the column of drilling
tools without using any other fluids and additives.
Speed ascending currents of air in the annular
space of over 1000 m / min.
If the water supply is not large (and should not
be greater than 500 l / min, because at that time
impossible using this method) in the airflow can
be added to calcium stearate, which coats the particles and prevents drilled particle wetting and
bonding with each other. Drilling dry air is not
suitable for drilling unstable formations. The mixture of air and natural gas from the layer (composed mostly of methane) creates the possibility
of the formation of flammable mixtures.
Nitrogen is an inert, non-corrosive and does
not burn, and has similar physical properties as
the air, and is extremely suitable for application in
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underbalance operations. Nitrogen-foam system is
used when it is necessary to drill a long horizontal
intervals through the layers of low permeability,
which have formation pressures lower than the hydrostatic pressure. Natural gas can be used as flush
fluid instead of air, but will almost always make an
explosive mixture when the exit from the well in
the free atmosphere. Due to the high cost of natural gas, its use is limited.
Exhaust gas combustion engine in relation to
the air has very low oxygen content, since most
of the oxygen tied up in the combustion process
of fuel. The resulting gas contains approximately
80% nitrogen and 20% carbon dioxide. Inert and
can be used in a mixture with oil wept.
Drilling a small amount of water mist with diluted surfactants reagent is injected into the gas / air
current in the pressure water. The concentration of
reagent in water ranges from 0.1 to 0.25% by volume of water. If the pH = 10 development drilling
tools corrosion is minimal, so this value should be
maintained during the entire phase of drilling.
Mist drilling system provides excellent drilling
progress as dry air drilling, but drilling costs are
slightly higher.
Use air mud or water in making hole in formations where wept completely lost, and cost-effectively enables the removal of technical difficulties
caused a complete loss. By injecting air or gas in
the mud or water reduces the apparent specific
gravity of emulsion, which is pressure exerted by
the flush fluid column lowers below hydrostatic.
This method is used in conventional drilling in
case of loss so that the underbalance drilling only
adopted the improved existing technologies.
Emulsion air –mud effectual prevent tools stuck.
Foam is a relatively new technology in drilling
fluids. It is used to avoid loss of circulation and removal drilled particles from large diameter wells.
If the layer in the wellbore penetrates the water
consumption of more than 500 l / min, flushing
borehole to use foam as the drilling continued, with
the flushing gas is impossible. Because of its foam
structure is stable, generally contains about 97%
of gas and about 3% liquid, the surface conditions.
Foam quality changes with depth. At a depth of
about 3600m most of the foam about 95% liquid.
Temperatures above 80° C degrade foamy agents.
Problems in underbalance drilling method
In developing a underbalance method at rigs
appear technical and technological problems often
equivalent to the problem of conventional drilling. However, the evident and specific problems
caused primarily by a complex technique of drilling and technological conditions in the borehole.
Table 1 has shown the effects of damage caused
by equipment and other problems that occur during underbalance drilling.
Black arrows (↑, ↓, →) show changes related
to control wells and drilling podravnotežno. Red
Таble 1. Effects and problems classification during underbalance drilling
Pressure in
drill pipe
↓
Pressure
in annulus
↓
Weigth od
drilling tools
→
Fluid level in
mud reservoars
↑
Mud pump
velocity
↑
Choke obstruction
↑
↑
→
→
↓
Gas to surface
↓
↓
↓
↓
→
Lost circulation
↓↓→
↓↓→
↑→
↓
↑
Hole in drill collar
↓→
→
→
→
↑→
Hole in drill pipe
↓→
→
↓
→
↑
Bit nozzles blocked
↑
→
→
→
↓
Wear bit nozzles
Damage mud pump or
gas in mud
Inflow gas from
formation
Well demolitions
↓
→
→
→
↑
↓↑
↓
→
→
↑
↑↓
↑
↑
↑
↑
→
•
↓
Prоblеm
Choke wear
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
↓
583
technics technologies education management
arrows (↑,↓,→) indicate changes unique to underbalance drilling. The table is directly applied to
problems underbalance capital repair and drilling rigs. Arrows indicate increase (↑), decrease (↓)
and the condition of no change (→) in pressure,
weight, level of fluid in the mud or pools of mud
pump gear. The table assumes that the wells are
closed and flush fluid circulation done through the
drill pipes with controlled capacity mud pumps.
Detailed analysis of the effects of conditions and
potential accidents in the preparation of rigs underbalance method (parameters in Table 1) indicate a
significant risk of uncontrolled flow of reservoir fluids in the wellbore or the possibility of an eruption.
Conclusion
In developing a conventional oil wells drillingstandard method in most cases the disease can cause
the tank rocks - formation of productive mainly
because of differences in the layer of pressure and
wellbore. The filtrate and solid phase drilling fluid
penetrating into the pore system of reservoir rocks
causing throughput reduction or complete blockade
wellbore zone - skin effect. The consequence of
contamination and drainage wellbore zone is significantly reduced level of productivity of oil wells.
Under the influence of extremely high skin factors
wells actually stops the production of oil. Fracture,
acid treatment and other procedures to reduce or
eliminate the influence of skin effect, but application of these methods require additional financial investments, and the sometimes extremely high costs.
By applying methods of underbalance drilling formation damage is minimized, since the layer pressure is higher than the pressure that forms a pillar
flush fluid, and no penetration of the filtrate and solid phase particles in the pores of the collector, since
all the time bearing fluid flowing into the wellbore.
Realization underbalance drilling, compared to conventional surgery, requires the application-specific
accessories that are more effective and safer at work
drilling in the circumstances. However, the combination of the two technologies of drilling, can give
good results, compared to their separate use. Rational option involves the use of conventional drilling
productive formation, and then activate underbalance drilling operation through the oil bearing.
Incompressible fluids and drilling costs can be very
584
low and the density of fluid can be adjusted over a
wide range, which certainly depends on the conditions under which the drill. This also reduces the
cost of drilling per meter compared to other methods of drilling.
In the process of making oil rigs by underbalance method mainly used compressible fluids flush.
Foam is one of the most effective material. Air
flush fluids vs non air have many advantages but
also disadvantages. For the application underbalance drilling requires more equipment and highlyqualified professional staff than with conventional
drilling, which involves additional costs. Detailed
analysis of the effects of conditions and potential
accidents in the preparation of oil rigs underbalance method (parameters in Table 1) indicate a significant risk of uncontrolled flow of reservoir fluids
in the wellbore or the possibility of an eruption.
It is obvious that the conventional drilling there is
a real possibility of blocking the productivity of oil
wells and underbalance drilling applications means
an increased degree of risk of uncontrolled flow
of the fluid layer and eruptions. In this range to be
looking into the techno-economic optimum.
References
1. Dr.Kаsim Hrkоvić, dr.Rеnаtо Bizјаk: ''Теоriјski
аspеkti i primеnа istrаžnо-еksplоаtаciоnоg
bušеnjа:tеhnikа i tеhnоlоgiја'', DIТ NIS-Nаftаgаs
Nоvi Sаd 2002.
2. Dr.Slаvkо.М.Nеšić:''Hemija nafte sa osnovama prerade'', Univerzitet u Beogradu, Rudarsko-Geološki
fakultet, Beograd 1991.
3. Bill Rehm: ''Practical Underbalanced Drilling and
Workover'', PETROLEUM EXTENSION SERVICE,
The University of Texas at Austin, Continuing &Extended education, Austin, Texas 2002.
4. Royas, Y. et al.''Field application of Near Balance
Drilling Using Aqueous Foams in Western Venecuela.'' IADC/SPE 7499.
5. American Petroleum Institute : API RP 521-''Guide
for Pressure-Relieving and Depresing Systems.''
- Section 4: ''Selection of Disposal Systems''
- Section 5: ''Disposal Systems''
Coresponding Author
Zvonimir Boskovic,
NIS Novi Sad,
Serbia,
E-mail: vvnz55@yahoo.com
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
technics technologies education management
Grain size efect on quantity of oil shale ash from
Aleksinac deposit, storage and environmental
protection
Miroslav Ignjatovic1, Snezana Ignjatovic2, Milanka Negovanovic2, Dragan Milanovic1, Dragan Ignjatovic1, Lidija
Djurdjevac Ignjatovic1, Srdjana Magdalinovic1
1
2
Institut za Rudarsvi i Metalurgiju Bor, Bor, Serbia,
Univerzitet u Beogradu, Rudarsko geoloski fakultet, Belgrade, Serbia.
Abstract
Rising needs for energy and raw materials in
the world and our country, has led to intensive research to discover new sources of energy. If we
take into account that from year to year, increasing
consumption of natural energy resources (coal, oil,
gas), future studies are reasonably directed to the
possibility of use oil shale as one of the most important sources in the production of synthetic oil.
Of course, we should bear in mind that the exploitation of oil shale involves a problem of the
deposit and waste management, such as oil shale
ash. During the technological processing of oil
shale, there is ash separation that requires permanent depositing. The disposal of ashes is often
done on inadequate way, usually near rivers, so
there is a risk of pollution of the working environment. To avoid pollution of air, water and soil by
ashes, it is necessary to dispose it in landfills.
Through this research clearly wants to show
the context and the concept of future work on getting synthetic oil from oil shale and management
of ash landfills with a clear presentation of its programming and content sections. In addition, the
purpose of this study is to bring the concept to the
subjects of interested for its implementation, potential users and state and local authorities.
Introduction
Particularly high energy prices dictate the need
for comprehensive consideration of technical,
technological and economic parameters to obtain
synthetic crude oil from oil shale. At the present
time there is a need to maximize their available
energy resources in which an important place take
alternative sources of energy (oil shale).
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
Geology - economic evaluation [1] of oil shale
in the first place depends on the sampling and the
appropriate application of standardized laboratory
methods in all phases of geological and chemicaltechnological research, so that all information about
genesis and quality could be correlated to each other.
Oil shale is specific mineral raw material [10,
14] whose research has a multidisciplinary character. Results of previous studies indicate that the oil
shale of the Mesozoic and Tertiary age, in particular,
can be considered as potential sources for obtaining
thermal energy and liquid fuels and raw materials
for chemical industry and construction. In order to
get as many natural indicators for their geological
and chemical and technological assessment, as possible previous studies were conducted in different
directions. For now, a sufficient step forward isn’t
made in terms for achieving the thermal conditions
(under which the oil is obtained in a natural way),
so materials are exposed to high temperatures [7, 8,
14] in order of getting synthetic oil.
Content and type of dominant kerogen [10, 14]
determine the genetic type of oil shale and they
can be considered as basic parameters for determining the quality, that have influence on choice
of pyrolisis method of oil shale, are: particle size
distribution, physical-mechanical properties, the
type of kerogen, mineral composition and thermotechnical properties of minerals during heating,
and the conditions of exploitation.
Jovanovich et al (1986) define technology of retorting including: the possibility of processing contaminants fractions, the possibility of processing
shale oil with different yield, high overall energy efficiency, high specific capacity of the retort (t/m2 h),
a large absolute capacity of retorts (t / h), minimum
recirculation of gas as well as oil and solid materials
[10, 12], and minimal environmental pollution.
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technics technologies education management
Processing of oil shale will also create the same
problem that is already present in thermal power plants, which are, in addition to water and air
pollution, huge amounts of ash and slag [10, 12],
shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1 – Appearance of deposit of oil shale ash
Oil shale ash appears as free and bound [1, 14].
Free ash is a mixture of ingredients, which are not
related to oil shale, and comes from the surrounding rocks.
Oil shale ash is very voluminous, so it would
be necessary to provide a large space for its disposal [10, 12, 13, 14], which leads to further degradation of the terrain.
It is necessary to perform analysis of possible
utilization of oil shale, with small amount of ash
as much as possible, and to decrease its negative
impact on the environment and environmental
protection.
Geology of the deposit
Aleksinac coal and oil shale deposit is located
on the list of Aleksinac OGK K34-20, scale 1:100
000, Figure 2.
Aleksinac productive series with brown coal
and oil shale was made in the spacious Aleksinac
area in which the rim and floor of the basin are
made of crystalline shale [1]. The largest distribution and thickness [1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 9, 11, 17] of
Aleksinac series has in the space [5] of Aleksinac
mines, from Aleksinac to the Mozgovi.
586
Figure 2. Geological map of the wider environment of the Aleksinac coal and oil shale deposit
Processing technology and obtaining of the
synthetic oil
By its nature, oil shale, in technological point
of view, is specific mineral. Exploitation of kerogen is mainly related to treatment of oil shale technology, aimed at obtaining synthetic oil and less
to direct combustion in power plants. A simplified
scheme [10, 14] of processing and utilization of
oil shale is shown in Figure 3.
During this kind of use of oil shale, large quantities of ash are produced, which also represent an
important raw material for further using depending on its chemical composition (for the classification of acid soil, cement and bricks for metal
obtaining and in civil engineering) [13].
Main characteristics of oil shale ash
Oil shale is a sedimentary rock composed of
fine grains, which contain the changeable organic
matter that can be found in all over the rock, from
which the pyrolysis (heating) produces oil, i.e.
synthetic crude oil [1, 14]. The largest share of oil
shale (over 80%) has inorganic components such
as carbonates and aluminosilicates [14].
It was found that from the ashes [4] from Aleksinac shale by-products can be obtained as rare
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
technics technologies education management
and scattered elements [14]. Also, Aleksinac shale
ash can be good material for use in the cement industry and construction.
Oil shale ash appears as free and bound. [4, 14].
Bound ash consists of inorganic material genetically related to the oil shale formation. These are
particles of clay, quartz, dolomite, pyrite and other
materials, Figure 4.
as much as possible, and to decrease its negative
impact on the environment and environmental
protection.
Figure 4. Microscopic appearance of the oil
shale ash
Figure 3. Simplified scheme of processing of oil
shale
Free ash is a mixture of ingredients, which are
not related to the oil shale, and they come from the
surrounding rocks.
It is necessary to perform analysis of possible
utilization of oil shale, with small amount of ash
In the cement plant “Novi Popovac”, during the
1983, in a rotary kiln with heat exchangers, which
capacity is 1000 tons / day of clinker, industrial test
of oil shale’s firing was performed [4]. Basic characteristics of oil shale ash are given in Tables 1 to 3.
Results of chemical analysis of shale ash are given
in Table 1, results of low-temperature analysis are
given in Table 2 and determining the content of organic substances are given in Table 3 [4, 10].
Based on the results of previous tests of oil
shale from Aleksinac basin [2], the average values
of certain parameters of its quality are defined and
presented in Table 4:
Table 1. Chemical analysis of Aleksinac oil shale ash
Ingredient, %
SiO2
Al2O3
Fe2O3
CaO
MgO
SO3
Moisture, 105 0C
Loss on ignition
Total
Residue on the sieve 0,09mm
Residue on the sieve 0,09 mm, by hand
Heating value [kJ/kg] determined in Popovac
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
Computing
averages 1-10
48,66
14,01
11,31
11,33
2,17
7,94
3,98
4,07
96,67
13,25
15,00
5807
Composite
1-10
48,46
14,53
10,80
11,21
2,82
7,41
3,74
4,85
100,08
10,70
15,0
5747
Random
sample
45,96
14,02
11,77
12,06
2,13
8,67
3,85
6,04
100,65
16,55
18,20
5222
Representative
average
47,69
14,18
11,29
11,53
2,37
8,00
3,85
4,98
100,04
/
/
5558
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technics technologies education management
Table 2. Low-temperature analysis of Aleksinac oil shale
Computing average of patterns 1-10
Composite 1-10
Random sample
Representative average
Total distillate %
13,17
12,94
13,26
13,12
Oil % Water % Semi-coke %
6,63
6,55
82,06
6,38
6,56
82,20
7,10
6,16
80,64
6,70
6,42
81,64
Gas + loss %
4,74
4,86
6,10
5,23
Table 3. Content of organic substance and pyrite in the samples of shale
Computing average of patterns 1-10
Composite
Random sample
Representative average
Correction of organic substance, %
19,97
19,76
19,47
19,73
Pyrite %
5,05
5,55
3,46
4,69
Table 4. Average values of oil shale quality parameters
Parameters
Content of organic compounds
Ash content
Sulfur content (total)
Higher heating value
Content of raw oil
Density
Roof oil shale
18,94 %
72,00 %
2,23 %
6900 kJ/kg
9,70 %
1,85 g/cm3
Ash content varies in a wide range (from 52 82%) depending on the participation of organic
compounds. If the shale is higher quality, richer with
kerogen, it leaves less ash during the combustion,
and vice versa. So, for example, shale with 37% of
organic substances contains only 52% ash, with 25%
organic ingredients - about 60% ash, and shale that
contains about 80% ash has 8 - 10% organic ingredients. Roof shale can usually count on an average ash
content between 55 and 80% (mean 73%), and the
underlying between 60 and 80% (average content is
also about 73%). The composition of ash samples of
most oil shale lies within the boundaries [2, 4, 10]:
Table 6. Chemical content of oil shale
Ingredient
SiO2
Al2O3
Fe2O3
CaO
MgO
Na2O
K2O
P2O5
SO3
Roof oil shale
40-56%
10-16%
7-11%
6-23%
2-7%
1-3%
1-3%
0,2-0,6%
3-8%
Underlying oil shale
37-50%
10-18%
10-15%
8-16%
2-4%
1,1-2%
1-2,5%
0,2-0,6%
6-13%
As it can be seen from the comparative examination, there is no significant difference in elemen588
Underlying oil shale
21,00 %
72,00 %
3,85 %
6540 kJ/kg
9,50 %
1,92 g/cm3
tal composition of ash between roof and underlying
shale, except in the content of Fe2O3 and SO3, which
is slightly higher in the ash of underlying shale. It
can also be concluded that ash in the presence of
water provides more acid reaction, and that this is
the alumino-silicate ash poor with carbonates [2, 4].
Flow of laboratory experiment of oil shale
heat treatment
From oil shale samples that are taken at the
shown locations [2, 10] it was made a composite
material who were grinded, where we performed
sowing after milling and separation of five (5)
types of granules as it shown in Figure 5: (-30 +
20), (-20 +10), (-10 +5), (-5 +2) and (-2 +0).
After the preparation of granules was done,
equating of the following parameters was done:
–– mass of sample (100 g)
–– moisture of samples
–– heat treatment temperature 6000 C
After completing of all required measurements
and balancing, oil shale was taken to heat treatment after which was made four measurements.
Measurements are shown in Figure 6.
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
technics technologies education management
Figure 5. Appearance of the prepared granulates
Figure 7. Integral part of ash disposal
Figure 6. Graphic representation of measurements of ash after heat treatment of oil shale with
following granularity
1. (-2+0); 2. (-5+2); 3. (-10+5); 4. (-20+10); 5. (-30+20)
It can be concluded from graphic, that the minimum amount of ash and slag is after heat treatment
of samples whose particle size is (-20 +10) and (-30
+20) mm. It is obvious that particle size, especially
these samples, has crucial importance on ash quantity that has to be deposited, and all these are connected with environmental protection.
The surface is made of the existing material on
condition that there is sufficient bearing capacity
for the pressure of the deposited material during
the whole lifetime of the landfill [2, 10].
The base should be constructed from materials
with minimal watertight coefficient of 1x10-5 m / s, a
minimum thickness of this layer should be 0.3 m2 [2,
10, 15]. Above the drainage layer is placed below a
layer of watertight clay, which allows [15] detecting
and collecting water from the composite layer.
The upper coating [2, 10] is used to cover the
landfill, its minimum thickness is 0.3 m of building materials capable to withstand loads above it,
the drainage layer that allows removal of infiltrating water, and vegetative layer. The position of the
layers of the landfill is shown in Figure 9.
Each ash disposal must have a system for
draining filtrated water [16], potentially hazardous
gases from the landfill, a system for draining surface water, system to bring down the ash particles
during the effect of wind, and ash disposal monitoring system [2, 4, 10, 15].
Construction of the ash disposal
Ash is separated during the technological processing of oil shale, and it is necessary to dispose
it permanently. To avoid pollution of air, water and
soil with ash, it is necessary to create disposal.
There are minimum standards that must be met
[2, 4, 10, 15] during the construction of ash disposal
and which must be in operation during the whole
lifetime of the object. Layers that are an integral
part of the ash disposal are shown in Figure 7.
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
Figure 8. Vertical section of the ash disposal
Due to risks to the environment, which are possible due to the existence of ash disposal, it is necessary to comply with minimum standards in their
design and craftsmanship.
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technics technologies education management
Conclusion
Oil shale will likely find their place in our country, but the energy requirements connected with
combustion, transport, crushing, heating as well as
a particular problem arising from stricter environmental safety measures, justifiable demand for interior space and waste disposal (in this case large
amounts). In addition, it is recommended that the
distance of ash disposal from residential, commercial and industrial buildings be at least 1 000
m. It is also recommended that minimal distance
from ash disposal to arable land and surface water
streams and wells is 100 m, regulated according
with European Standards.
Exploitation of oil shale would have great importance for both, the state and for Aleksinac region. However, we must be careful about environmental issues that arise with mining and processing of oil shale.
Utilization of kerogen is related solely to heat
shale, aimed at direct combustion in power plants
or obtaining synthetic oil. Therefore, detailed researches should be conducted who are related with
finding the most appropriate and cost-effective
methods of retorting for using these materials.
Experiments showed possibility that a certain
kind of grit can speed processing of oil shale and
reduce the amount of ash and slag, which remains
as a problem. From the experiment, that we performed, it can be concluded that the minimum
amount of ash and slag remain in the grit between
(-20 +10) and (-30 +20) mm. This experiment has
shown which grain size is most appropriate for
such a small amount of ash and slag, but remain
research should be done about economic viability
of such milling, for the granulation, and the question of technology that would apply in the case of
thermal processing of oil shale from Aleksinac basin, and whether the granularity satisfy this type
of technology.
Gratitude
Implementers of research are gratitude to the
Ministry of Science and Technological Development of Serbia, which is financially supported by
research project TR-17005 under which they conducted the research.
590
References
1. Study on oil shale reserves from Aleksinac deposit,
Coalproject Belgrade, 1984, Serbia (in Serbian)
2. Report on laboratory testing of physical - mechanical and deformation properties of oil shale from the
site near Aleksinac Subotinac, Mining and Metallurgy Institute Bor, 2009, Pages 8-19, (in Serbian)
3. M. Ignjatovic, R. Rajkovic, M. Maksimovic, D. Ignjatovic; Determination of the final slope angles of
nawly-pit mine during oil shale exploitation from
Aleksinac deposit by program Geostudio 2007 –
Slope/W, Projekat MNTR br. TR-17005, T1/2009,
2008 -2010, pages 5-11 (in Serbian)
4. T. Milovanovic, R. Trifunovic: The use of bituminous
shale in the industrial production of cement clinker,
cement – no.1/86; Cement factory ″Novi Popovac″,
Popovac, Serbia (in Serbian)
5. M. Ignjatovic, R. Rajkovic, D. Milanovic, M. Maksimovic, D. Urosevic, D. Ignjatovic, D. Mitic: Plenary
lecture: Oil shales as energy raw material of Serbia for obtaining synthetic oil, 3 rd International
Symposium Energy mining 2010, Tara 2426.05.2010, pages 61-84, Serbia
6. M.Ignjatovic, M.Ljubojev, D.Mitic, Z.Stojanovic:
Oil shale as energetic potential of Republic Serbia,
Mines engineering 1/2009, Bor, pages 23-32 (in Serbian)
7. D. Matic : Before the fourth international congress
for oil and symposium for oil shale, tecnique 1955,
Belgrade (in Serbian)
8. Yu-patent 2404/83: M. Grbovic, Z. Markov, R. Jovanovic
9. S.Krstic, M.Ignjatovic, V.Ljubojev, D.Ignjatovic: Oil
shale from Vlasko Polje village and oil shale in Aleksinac open pit mine, Journal Inovacije i razvoj, Bor,
2009. pages 45-50 (in Serbian)
10. M. Ignjatovic, D. Ignjatovic, L. DJ. Ignjatovic:
Granulometry influence on quantity of oil shale ash
from Aleksinac basin, Proceedings – Landfilles of
ash, slag, and tailing in power plants and mines,
II Consultation with International participation,
Banja Vrujci 20-21. October 2009 (in Serbian).
11. M.Ignjatovic, R.Rajkovic, M.Mikic, M.Ljubojev:
Possibility of oil shale exploitation for obtaining
the synthetic oil on the Republic Serbia location;
Second International Symposium Mining Energetic
08; Tara, Serbia, 15 -18. September 2008; Pages
135-140 (in Serbian)
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12. E. Ivanauskas, Z. Rudzionis, A. Aleksandras
Navickas, M. Dauksys, Investigation of shale ashes
influences on the self-compacting concrete properties, issn 1392-1320 materials science (Medziagotyra). Vol.14, No. 3.2008.
13. M. Ignjatovic, R. Rajkovic, V. Marinkovic, D. Ignjatovic: Determining optimal outline of the newly
open pit mine during exploitation of oil shale from
Aleksinac deposit site by program Minex 5.2.3.,
TR1/2010 under the project MNTR TR-17005
14. M. Ignjatovic, D. Milanovic, S. Magdalinovic, D.
Urosevic: Coal industrial preparation and cleaning
technology – oil shale – processing technology and
synthetic oil production, Monografija, Bor 2010,
strana 287-403, Srbija
15. M. Hadzi-Nikolova, N. Doneva: Minimal standards
for design and performance of ash landfill, Proceedings – Landfilles of ash, slag, and tailing in
power plants and mines, Banja Vrujci 20-21. October 2009 (in Serbian).
16. M. Ignjatovic, M. Miljkovic: Mining hydrotechnics,
Monograph, Bor 2004, pages 184-197, (in Serbian).
17. V. Cokorilo, N. Lilic, J. Purga, V. Milisavljevic: Oil
shale potential in serbia, Oil shale Journal, 2009,
Vol. 26, No. 4, pp. 451-462, Estonia
Corresponding Author
Miroslav Ignjatovic,
Institut za Rudarsvi i Metalurgiju Bor,
Bor,
Serbia,
E-mail: miroslav.ignjatovic@irmbor.co.rs
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
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One Challenge of Implementing ClinicallyBased Teacher Education In Turkey: Selecting
& Preparing Clinical Faculty
Hidayet Tok1, Nathalie Gehrke2
1
2
Zirve University, Faculty of Education, Turkey,
University of Washington, Professor Emeritus, United States of America.
Abstract
The purpose of this inquiry is to shed light
on the challenges of adopting a clinically-basedteacher education program with special focus
on selecting and preparing clinical faculty, paramount components of clinically- based programs.
In the study, the first section offers a rationale and
description of clinically-based teacher education
(CBTE). The second section gives an overview of
the current Turkish teacher education system and
the role of cooperating teachers within it. This is
contrasted with preliminary evidence about actual practices from a survey of teacher education
programs in Turkish universities in 2011. The last
section explores the challenges of preparing clinical educators for the CBTE model while dealing
with the conflicts between the mandated program
elements and local university realities.
Key words: Teacher education, clinical practice, school-based experience, clinical faculty
Introduction
teacher educators in Turkey must always be
working to strengthen the education of teachers,
just as teacher educators do in every other country. To prepare effective teachers for 21st century
classrooms, we all must shift away from a program norm that emphasizes academic preparation
and course work loosely linked to school-based
experiences. Rather, we must move toward offering programs that are fully grounded in clinical
practice and interwoven with academic content
and professional knowledge courses, much as the
recent Blue Ribbon report from NCATE in the
U.S. has declared (2010), and as noted teacher
education scholars have urged (Feiman-Nemser,
2010; Zeichner, 2010).
592
According to these U.S. spokespersons, this demanding, clinically-based approach creates varied
and extensive opportunities for teacher candidates
to connect what they learn with the challenge of
using it, while under the expert tutelage of skilled
clinical educators. Candidates blend practitioner
knowledge with academic knowledge as they
learn by doing. They refine their practice in the
light of their new knowledge from practice, and
from data gathered about their students’ learning.
Clinically-based teacher education is not without its challenges, however, especially when attempts are made to implement it in a country
whose curriculum is designed at the national level.
One of the greatest of challenges in Turkey is in
selecting and developing classroom teachers for
the roles they are to play as clinical faculty members for these new integrated programs.
At Zirve University, with the support of a small
grant from TUBITAK, the national research institute of Turkey, we have been studying this matter of the selection and preparation of cooperating
teachers for their demanding new role as clinical
faculty. As a new (2-year old) institution, this element is critical to us as we initiate our teacher
education program. Our explorations have helped
us recognize some of the processes that will be
required to adapt a clinically-based approach to
the Turkish educational context. We recognize,
especially, some of the major challenges of selecting and preparing a skilled clinical faculty for this
important work, not the least of which is finding
the resources to support the development of those
strong candidates for clinical faculty roles.
Our review of literature found no studies focused on selection or development of cooperating
teachers and other clinical faculty in Turkey. Instead, we found studies that described and critiqued
the teacher education system as a whole (Aydın&
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Başkan, 2005), or proposed innovations in teacher education programs (Semerci &Taşpınar 2003),
or the management challenges and problems of
teacher education programs ( Arı, & Kiraz, 1999;
Çepni, Ayas & Baki, 1999). A considerable number looked at student teachers’ and cooperating
teachers’ views of practicum experiences (Azar,
2003; Dursun & Kuzu 2008; Gökçe& Demirhan
2005; Gömleksiz & Kan 2007; Gürbüztürk, 2000;
Kudu, Özbek and Bindak 2006; Oral,1997; Özkan, Albayrak, & Berber, 2005; Yapıcı &Yapıcı
2004). This inquiry thus explores new territory as
we seek to define the challenges for implementing clinically based teacher education in Turkish
teacher training, focusing particularly on selection
criteria for cooperating teachers and on preparing
them further for their clinical faculty role.
The next section offers a rationale and further
description of clinically-based teacher education.
We then give an overview of the current Turkish
system and the role of cooperating teachers within
it, both as they are portrayed in national documents and as the system plays out at the local level. The last section explores the adaptation process
of CBTE to that system and to local realities and
considers the challenges of selecting and preparing clinical educators to work effectively within
that conflicted context.
The Need for Strong Clinical Preparation
for Teachers
There has been growing recognition over the
past three decades that no in-school intervention has
a greater impact on student learning than an effective teacher. Concurrently teacher educators have
recognized that the student teaching experience is
the most critical component in preparing student
teachers for that effectiveness (Blocker&Swetname
1995; Guyton & McIntyre, 1990; Koerner, Rust
& Baumgartner, 2002; Ross, Raines, Cervetti and
Dellow 1980). In Turkey, as elsewhere, we need
teachers who are well versed in their curricula,
know their communities, apply their knowledge
of child growth and development, use assessments
to monitor student progress and effectively engage
students in learning. Teachers need collaboration,
communication, and problem-solving skills to keep
pace with rapidly changing learning environments
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and new technologies. These kinds of knowledge
are all matters that are more readily learned, not in
university courses, but in well-crafted learning experiences in real school, that is, “clinical” settings.
Feiman-Nemser (2010) describes “clinical
teacher education” as
…. firsthand experience with real students in
real classrooms, (that) takes different forms and
serves different purposes. It ranges from an early
field experience in which teacher candidates tutor
struggling readers while exploring the principles
and practicing the strategies they are studying in
their reading methods course to a year-long internship in which teacher candidates watch how
learning unfolds for a class of diverse students
across a school year, while gradually taking on
teaching responsibilities under close guidance
and supervision (p.6).
Several key elements show up as important
to strong clinical preparation for teachers: clear
goals; frequent opportunities for practice with
coaching & feedback; clinical placement school
and cooperating teachers selected according to
quality of teaching they exhibit; mentor teachers
and school based and university based field supervisors formally prepared for coaching and assessment practices; clear standards for strong clinical preparations (Boyd, Grossman, Hamerness,
Lankford, Loeb, McDonald, Reinnger, Ronfeldt,
& Wyckoff, 2008; Darling-Hammond & Bransford, 2005; Darling- Hammond, 2006, National
Research Council, 2010; Zeichner, 2010)
One of the most important components of the
school experience is, of course, cooperating teachers, also known as mentors. Zeichner (2002) asserts that cooperating teachers are key participants
in determining the quality of learning for student
teachers. He and Conklin, (2005) found that those
who become teachers of record without having
completed carefully structured and supervised
clinical experiences are less effective in promoting
student learning in their first few years of teaching.
Schwille (2008) likewise claims that mentors are
one of the most influential components of teacher
education programs. Further, she says that viewing mentoring as a professional practice implies
understanding mentoring as a serious, developing
endeavor, one that must be learned over time. Fei593
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man-Nemser (2010) asserts that “clinical preparation cannot be accomplished by school districts
or universities or non-profits working alone”. She
also adds that strong clinical teacher education depends on serious partnerships dedicated to making
schools good places for students to learn and good
places for teachers to work and to learn in. That
includes the careful selection and preparation of
mentor teachers and the development of a professional culture that promotes inquiry and collaboration among teachers across career stages” (p9).
The findings from the cumulative work of
teacher education researchers studying clinical
preparation resulted in the inclusion of a major recommendation in the NCATE panel report (2010)
that “Clinical educators and coaches are rigorously
selected and prepared and drawn from both higher
education and school districts (the P-12 sector)”
(p 6). Now the question is, how can we, in Turkey,
implement our own efforts to achieve higher quality teacher education through improved selection
and preparation of clinical educators, given the nature of our system? Just what are the challenges?
Turkish Teacher Education and The Role of
Cooperating Teachers
The teacher education system in Turkey has undergone considerable change and development over
the decades. Until 1982 teachers received teaching
certificates through three separate programs under the Ministry of National Education: Primary
Schools; Village Institutes; and Educational Institutes. Since 1982, the Council of Higher Education has been responsible for teacher education
(Karamustafaoğlu, 2009). Teacher education was
restructured into an undergraduate study within universities. Now, teacher education programs are offered in both undergraduate Schools of Education,
and in post-graduate programs with the faculty of
Science and Letters. The students graduating from
the faculty of education programs teach in primary
schools (1-8 grades); those who graduate from postgraduate programs with the faculty of Science &
Letter teach in high schools (9-12). A similar structure is found in some U.S. universities as well.
In 1989, a new model of teacher education was
presented by the Higher Education Council (HEC)
and the Ministry of National Education (MONE).
594
In this model, the knowledge areas required in
teacher education programs are classified as either
field knowledge courses, humanities courses, or
pedagogical knowledge. The pedagogical knowledge component is divided into three parts: general pedagogical knowledge, disciplinary knowledge, and practice teaching, that is, student teaching. The program specifies not only the courses to
be taught in each knowledge area but also when
each of them is to occur in the program.
In the 1989 model, practice teaching was to be
carried out in a period of one term/three months,
and according to the regulations established by
HEC and MONE, a practice teaching “course”
is to be provided to student teachers in the last
semester of their program as either one full day
or two half days a week. Student teachers are to
make use of this period by teaching independently
(YOK, 1998a). Student teachers are required to
take “School Experience I” and “School Experience II” courses in the first and fourth year of the
program before going to practice schools for practice teaching. In these two courses, students are to
observe in classroom and other school settings and
become aware of school rules and administration
procedure. They are not expected to undertake any
teaching in the classes, however.
Administrative Structure: In order to run school
experience courses effectively and prepare prospective teachers in in-service institutions with quality
school experiences, the Turkish Higher Education
Council General Assembly set up “The National
Committee of Teacher Education” in 1997. It was
expected to supervise, evaluate and develop the
programs implemented in Colleges of Education
(YÖK, 1998a, 1998b). The committee consists of
representatives from the Turkish Ministry of National Education, the Turkish Higher Education
Council, and Faculties of Education. That committee continues to be responsible for modeling
and implementing procedures for faculty- school
coordination (YÖK, 1998a). The following diagram (Figure 1) shows the Committee prescribed
relationship among the participants in Faculty of
Education-Practice School coordination.
According to the National Committee on
Teacher Education (YÖK, 1998a), the partnership
groups should consist of faculty members from
schools of education, teachers from the practice
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school, and representatives from local education
directorate. In this framework, there are University Supervisors, a Practice Coordinator of Academic Programs, and a Practice Coordinator of
the Faculty of Education on the university side.
The role of Practice Coordinator of the Faculty of
Education is designated by the Dean of that faculty. This person assigns the primary students to
the practice schools and the University Supervisors from the Faculty of Education to work with
them. Every academic program assigns a Practicing Coordinator of Academic Program to oversee the high school preparation programs. The
Practice Coordinators of Academic Programs assign University Supervisors and student teachers
to the practice schools and inform the Academic
Program Chair of those assignments. University
Supervisors who observe, support, and evaluate
the student teachers during their practice term are
usually faculty members of the academic departments of the School of Education.
Figure 1. The relationship among components of
clinical practice in the Turkish teacher education
system
The Practice School side of the partnership
consists of a Coordinator of the Practice School
(usually the School Manager/Principal) and Cooperating Teachers (Mentor Teachers). Cooperating
Teachers are to be determined collaboratively by
the School Coordinator of Practice and the Practicing Coordinator of Education working in coordination with University Supervisors. Student
teachers are directly responsible to both the University Supervisor and Cooperating Teachers. According to the YÖK documents of 1998, facultyschool coordination is not only about placing &
supervising student teachers in practice schools,
but also a process for serving the development of
both the school and its faculty. The idea is, apparVolume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
ently, that at minimum the student teachers will
bring fresh ideas into the schools to which they
are assigned, and the University Supervisor will
likewise bring new practices to the attention of the
cooperating teachers.
Today in the Turkish teacher education system,
procedures and criteria for identifying and selecting cooperating teachers have become uniform,
at least as specified by the Faculty- School Cooperation document issued by the Higher Education
Council and MONE as supported by the World
Bank. The identification of cooperating teachers
is to be jointly determined by the Practicing Coordinators of the School, and the University Practicing Coordinators of Education or Arts & Sciences.
Five standards for selecting cooperating teachers
are presented in the Faculty- School Cooperation
document (YÖK, 1998a) . The cooperating teachers are to be chosen based on the following characteristics: 1. Have volunteered to contribute to
training student teachers and develop their professional skills 2. Have graduated from a university
program in their academic field 3. Have at least
three years teaching experience, 4. Demonstrate
success in using teaching methods and techniques.
5. Model professional attitudes and behaviors. Except for the mention of volunteerism, these broad
standards are quite similar to the standards found
in many other guidelines.
Practicing Coordinators of the School of Education, the Education dean or vice dean, and representatives of the government’s local education
directorate are responsible for assuring that local
programs are actually following any of the practices that are required by the faculty –school cooperation document.
The Reality Of Local School-University
Practice
What comes to be distressingly clear upon reviewing the Turkish teacher education situation,
is that the centrally required practices espoused
in the national documents referenced above often
differ vastly from what happens within each local
program. The central agencies have established
school-based roles and standards for selection of individuals to play those roles; have made curriculum
requirements for school practice-related courses for
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the student teachers; and have made quite specific
descriptions of the teacher education programs that
are to be implemented in every higher education
institution offering a teacher education program in
the country. The implemented reality is often quite
different. In no place is this more evident than in the
student teaching experiences, especially the clinical
faculty selection and development.
According to a recent and, as yet, unpublished
survey of university teacher educator program coordinators, carried out by Tok (2011) in 18 Turkish
universities, most cooperating teachers are selected by school managers/principals alone. University Practicing Coordinators and University Supervisors are not actually engaged in the selection;
they are simply “informed.” Further, most of the
cooperating teachers have not volunteered freely
to carry out the work as mentors, but are, instead,
assigned to do so by the school managers. The survey respondents were not asked further questions
on this, so it is not clear how many teachers would
volunteer freely or request not to be assigned to
serve, if given the choice. The majority of the
survey respondents indicated that there were no
specific criteria used in these assignments, even
though HEC and MONE established the five standard criteria over 20 years ago. The majority of respondents also claimed that their program offered
no professional development experiences for the
cooperating teachers, though they were often given a brief orientation at the beginning of the term
in which they served. Clearly, the preliminary survey results indicate that there are troubling issues
in teacher education programs in Turkey, when
considering the state of clinical faculty selection
and development. Subsequently there are issues in
the kinds and quality of student teaching experience the learners are provided.
When we wish to illuminate the challenges
of creating a skilled clinical faculty in any given
Turkish teacher education program then, we must
face, not only those issues that may stem from the
national requirements, but also those that arise in
the local setting. In order to more clearly illustrate
the discrepancies between the mandated and the
actual practices of the Turkish teacher education
system and then how they differ from a clinically-based teaching model, a comparison table is
shown here (Table 1). The clinically-based model
596
has been taken from the NCATE report of 2010
with terminology modified slightly to match the
Turkish system terms. It helps provide some indicators of the extensive changes needed for integrating a CBTE model in a given Turkish teacher
education program.
Examining the Challenges of Adopting
Clinically Based Teacher Education
Integrating clinically-based teacher education
practices in teacher education programs seems
impossible without revamping the structure of
teacher education programs whether in Turkey or
anywhere else. But before any of this restructuring
can be done, we must face the discrepancy between
what the national agencies currently mandate and
what is actually practiced at the local level in relation to the school practice element of teacher education. It is our assertion that some of the obstacles
to adopting CBTE in a Turkish teacher education
program stem from the centralized teacher education system, but many more stem from practices
at the local level, that is, at the school-university
partnership level. The latter may or may not be related to the centralized system.
As Figure 1 above summarizes, Turkish National agencies already claim that universities and
schools must collaborate on assigning, supervising, and evaluating student teachers. In reality that
collaboration seldom exists and there seem to be
no penalties for that lack of collaboration (Aydin
& Baskan, 2005; Deniz &Sahin, 2006; Gershberg, 2005, Semerci & Taşpınar 2005). National
agencies specify that cooperating teachers will be
chosen jointly following the established standards,
but there is little evidence that this important task
is shared or that selection is done in keeping with
the standards (Tok et al, 2011). National agencies
expect that practice schools will benefit somehow
from the placement of student teachers in those
schools, either because the student teachers bring
in new ideas, or because the university offers some
kind of educational experiences to the school’s
teachers. In reality there is no evidence of such
benefit. And how could there be, when the student
teachers spend so little time (one day a week - or
two half days - for three months, or approximately
17 days total) and the cooperating teachers receive
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Table 1. A comparison of mandated and actual teacher education practices in Turkey and the clinically
based teaching model.
Feature
Higher education council and
The actual practices
mone requirements for teacher
Clinical-based teaching model*
based on survey results
training
Focused on academic
knowledge, theory and
pedagogy with little
school experience.
Centerpiece is clinical
preparation developed by
partnerships of A&S faculty,
Education School faculty, local
school directorates and teachers;
course work is woven around
and into clinical experiences.
Novice teachers
with limited practice
skills, knowledge and
experience eligible for
license. Too few are
prepared in the content
areas and specialties
needed
Novice teachers with extensive
clinical experience, who meet
the needs of local school
directorates and meet the criteria
of licensure.
(Well-started beginners)
Providers
Institutions of higher education
in partnership with local school
directorates.
Institutions of higher
education in weak
partnership with
local school
directorates.
(Live and let live).
Multiple forms of partnerships
involving all teacher preparation
programs, including higher
education institutions, in close
partnership with local school
directorates. School practice
carried out by qualified, everdeveloping clinical educators.
Curriculum
A guide book (Faculty-School
Cooperation) is prepared by
HEC & MONE focused on
roles of people and institutions
involved in practicum,
procedures and evaluation
forms.
Required sequence & courses
are specified. In “school
experience courses I and II”
student teachers are to observe
school and classroom activities;
in “teaching practice” they are
required to teach .
Teacher education
courses are taught by
the local university
faculty on campus,
including the
preliminary “School
Experience” courses.
Limited observation in
schools. No identifiable
practice teaching
curriculum.
Course work and clinical
preparation woven together
throughout programs. Multiple
opportunities to study practice
through simulations, case
studies, & lab-based experiences;
extensive school embedded
clinical practice. Heavy focus
on assessment. decision making,
and technology skills.
Clients
Teacher candidates
admitted to the School of
Education according to
the score received on the
National University Entrance
Examination
Teacher candidates
Candidates and the local school
directorates that will employ
them.
Oversight
Preparation programs of
universities.
Preparation programs of
universities.
Preparation programs and
school districts
Basic
Approach
Largely focused on content
knowledge, theory, and
pedagogy, with teaching
experience added on to course
work at end of program.
Student teachers who are
Practitioner To equipped with academic and
Be Developed theoretical knowledge and
extensive practice skills
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Cooperating teachers
are paid by university
Cooperating teachers are paid by an inadequate payment,
the university equal to 6 hours
which is 9 TL for an
of work a week (during the
hour of work now.
3-month practice term) Amount Practicing school are
determined by HEC.
not funded for their
contributing to the
practicum.
Additional investment by local
school directorates through
reallocation of resources and
fused P-12 and higher education
funding at the state and/or local
levels.
Student teacher scores on the
national teacher examination
(Civil Servant Selection
Examination -KPSS.)
Student teacher scores
on national teacher
examination; (KPSS)
All programs held to same
standards; data-driven
accountability based on measures
of candidate performance and
their students’ achievement,
including gains in standardized
test scores.
Higher Ed. faculty with content,
pedagogical knowledge and
supervision expertise. Qualified
cooperating teachers (5
standards).
Academic faculty
with content and
teaching knowledge;
univ. supervision by
untrained graduate
students and faculty. No
training of cooperating
teachers
Academic faculty and specially
prepared clinical faculty, drawn
from preparation program faculty
and elementary and high schools
Roles and
Relationships
Higher education institution
and local education directorates
should collaborate through
specified roles.
Higher education
institutions and local
education directorates
have limited
interaction and separate
responsibilities for
teacher preparation and
development.
Joint responsibility for
preparation and induction;
differentiated staffing and new
boundary spanning roles created
for clinically based programs.
Selections of
cooperating
teachers
Cooperating teachers are
elected by both universities
and school directors based on 5
criteria
Cooperating teachers
selected by school
directors with
undisclosed criteria.
Cooperating teachers are
elected based on criteria &
procedures established jointly
by Universities and local school
directorates
Cooperating
teachers
development/
training
The Faculty School Cooperation
Manual requires a three- day
seminar.
Brief orientation
on procedures.
No professional
development programs
Cooperating teachers are
prepared in coaching and
assessment and receive
continuing development over
time.
Funding
Measures of
Effectiveness
Staffing
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no professional development from the university
on supervision skills or anything else?
It would appear that, though the central agencies have made declarations about what should
be, much of which could provide a basis for a
clinically-based teacher education program, these
declarations have no teeth. There are no apparent
rewards for following the mandates, and no penalties for ignoring them.
In addition to those aspects of the school
practice component that do appear in national
documents but are given low priority in the local
school-university context, there are critical practices that receive no attention from either level.
While the national agencies specify the titles and
credits and content outline of all the pedagogical
courses each program is to offer and issues a manual including the clinical practice roles, there is no
comprehensive guidance or mandate about what
should constitute the practice teaching curriculum
in the schools. Without such a curriculum, cooperating teachers and university supervisors are
left to their own devices. They decide what and
how student teachers should be learning in their
practice teaching--what knowledge, skills, and attitudes should be taught. Unfortunately, the local
university-school teacher educators, usually working separately, have not developed a recognizable
practice teaching curriculum in the absence of a
national mandate.
Without a practice teaching curriculum for student teachers, there is little basis for a careful selection process or a professional development program
for the teacher educators who offer that curriculum,
that is, the cooperating teachers and university supervisors. Basically, if you don’t know what and
how you are supposed to be teaching something, it
is unclear how you could select expert’s to teach it,
much less prepare them to do so.
Nothing in the national documents actually
precludes clinically-based actions from being taken at the local level, but nothing encourages them
either. We can hypothesize, however, that there are
two likely factors at work: funding and expertise.
Planning a practice teaching curriculum requires
professional time; time costs money. Such planning also requires expertise about a clinical curriculum, that is, learning to teach in school settings.
The same elements are necessary to the creation
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and implementation of a professional development curriculum for the clinical faculty. Because
it is likely that these unmandated elements of
CBTE require resources, time and expertise that
come at a cost, one can see why local universities
might chose to give them low priority in the face
of other pressing needs. One can make the same
argument for why the toothless national mandates
for collaboration are less than fully implemented
at the local level. School-university partnerships
take time and expertise to develop and sustain;
time and expertise cost money. There is certainly
weight to the argument that little is currently happening in the implementation of CBTE in Turkey
because of the limits of the funding and expertise.
But there is another factor that we must raise as
a potential but unacknowledged force in any kind
of movement away from a traditional separate and
sequential format of teacher education to one that
is collaborative and integrated as CBTE aspires to
be. That factor is the national teacher examination.
The extraordinarily important teacher certification
examination KPSS (Civil Servant Selection Examination) is administered to all program completers
right after they finish the final spring university
term. Because the results of this examination are
the sole basis for determining the individual’s access to the best teaching jobs in the desirable locations and schools in the country, student teachers
must, out of personal interest, place heavy emphasis on exam preparation if they truly want to
become teachers. (Many students are enrolled in
teacher preparation programs, not because they
wish to be teachers, but because by selecting the
teacher education program, they could attend the
higher education institution of their choice. They
may have no intention of teaching.) Given the
choice to put their time into an intensive, fulltime, demanding student teaching experience or
into cramming to do well on the national teacher
examination, it is not difficult to figure out what
the practical students will do.
Student teachers themselves thus can become
a powerful force in maintenance of the status quo.
They cannot be expected to welcome a CBTE-influenced model with a demanding school experience curriculum. They may even be quite vociferous in working against it, if participating in one
gives them less time to prepare for the examination
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that can so strongly affect their future and comes
immediately after the final term. Until or unless it
can be shown that those who complete a CBTEmodel program do better on the examination, we
can predict that students will be a force against
participating in them and thus a force against investing resources (money and expertise) in them.
Such evidence is not likely to come quickly and,
given the nature of the examination, which is
weighted toward memorization of large quantities
of information and not necessarily toward expert
problem-solving and performance of teaching
tasks, may not come at all. Those responsible for
the quality of the practice experience must compete for the student teacher’s time and attention in
a contest that is overwhelmingly stacked to favor
the examination.
Conclusion
To summarize briefly, thorny challenges are
clearly recognized in implementing ClinicallyBased Teacher Education in Turkey, not only in
the area of selection and development of clinical
educators, but in other related basic elements of
program design and implementation. These challenges begin with the lack of a school practice
teaching curriculum and the presence of a powerful national professional teachers’ examination.
They are exacerbated by the limitation in funding
and expertise that teacher education has traditionally experienced in Turkey and so many other
countries of the world. They are further troubled
by the lack of a tradition of collaboration between
schools and universities at the local level in a kind
of live and let live arrangement.
Although the national mandates specify the
nature of the academic curriculum for teachers at
all institutions, the central agencies have not provided for a common school practice experience,
that is, a student teaching curriculum. Regrettably,
the local programs have not provided a practice
teaching curriculum either. No one has begun to
give requirements or even suggestions to the supervisors or cooperating teachers about what they
should be teaching the student teachers or in what
activities they should engage them. Further, there
has been little or no effort to engage the teachers
and supervisors in constructing such a curriculum
600
drawing on the expertise of both local school and
university teacher educators.
The extraordinarily important teacher certification examination KPSS is administered to all program completers right after they finish the spring
university term. Because the results of this examination are used in determining the individual’s
access to the best teaching jobs in the desirable
locations in the country, student teachers place far
more emphasis on exam preparation than they do
on their practice experience. Those responsible for
the quality of the practice experience must compete for the student teacher’s time and attention in
a contest that is clearly stacked to favor the test.
School-university collaboration is minimal.
University teacher education program administrators do not, in reality, participate in choosing the
practice school much less the cooperating teachers within them. Most often, the practice schools
are determined by the local education directorate,
that is the local representatives of the national
government office and the cooperating teachers
are identified by the school manager. Many of the
teachers tapped for service as cooperating teachers have expressed no interest in the service, and it
is unclear how committed they are to this professional responsibility. Standards actually used for
identification of either the schools or the cooperating teachers are vague, despite the existence of
national standards developed more than twenty
years ago and reported by HEC and MONE supported by the World Bank (YOK, 1998a).
Though there is a requirement for three days of
professional development, there is no prescribed
or suggested program for cooperating teachers or
for university supervisors, either before they serve
or once they have begun service. This requirement
is not monitored by the central education agency.
In most teacher education programs, cooperating
teachers are likely to be invited to an hour seminar at the beginning of the term in which they will
serve, but this seminar is mostly informational,
not intended to teach cooperating teachers about
their roles and functions, except in the most cursory manner. How university supervisors learn their
role and function is equally laissez- faire.
In light of these challenges, the representatives
of a local school-university partnership must exhibit extraordinary commitment to achieving a
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CBTE teacher education model. They must overcome, not only the lack of guidance from the national level, but also cope with the powerful influence of the national teacher examination, the limits of local and national funding and expertise, and
the traditional pattern of separate responsibilities
of schools and universities. Tackling each of these
challenges one at a time will not do, for they are
interlocking; progress must be made simultaneously. That simultaneity may be the biggest challenge of all.
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report', The Teacher Educator, 30 (3), 19 - 30.
10. Dursun, Ö Ö. & Kuzu, A. ( 2008), Opinions of
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Sayı: 25, 159 -178.
11. Feiman-Nemser, S. (1983). Learning to teach. In L.
Shulman & G. Sykes (Eds.), Handbook of teaching
and policy. New York: Longman, 150-171.
12. Feiman-Nemser, S. (2010), The Case for strong
clinical teacher education, AACTE Briefing:
Teacher Preparation: Who Needs It? The Clinical
Component , 6-10. Retrieved on April 8, 2011 at
URL: http://aacte.org/pdf/Government_Relations/
Briefing%20Packet_03-11-2010.pdf
13. Gershberg , A. (2005) Towards an education
decentralization strategy for Turkey: Education
sector study, sustainable pathways to an effective, equitable, and efficient education system for
preschool through secondary School Education
, World Bank, The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, Washington, DC
20433, USA, retrieved on April, 5, 2011, from URL:
http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTTURKEY/
Resources/361616-1142415001082/ESS_Main_Report_V1.pdf
14. Gömleksiz, M. N., Kan, A. Ü. (2007). Eğitim
Fakültesi Öğrencilerinin Öğretmenlik Meslek
Bilgisi Derslerine ilişkin Görüşlerinin
Değerlendirilmesi. 16. ulusal Eğitim Bilimleri Kongresi, 5-7 Eylül 2007. Gaziosmanpaşa Üniversitesi,
Eğitim Fakültesi, Tokat.
5. Boyd, D.; Grossman, P.; Hamerness, K.; Lankford, R.H.; Loeb, S.; McDonald, M.; Reinnger, M.;
Ronfeldt, M. & Wyckoff, J. (2008). Surveying the
landscape of teacher education in New York City:
Constrained variation and the challenge of innovation. Education Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 30
(4), 319-343.
15. Gökçe, E. ve C. Demirhan. (2005). Öğetmen
adaylarının ve ilköğretim okullarında görev yapan
uygulama öğretmenlerinin öğremenlik uygulaması
etkinlikerine ilişkin görüşleri. Ankara Üniversitesi
Eğitim Bilimleri Fakültesi Dergisi, 38(1), 43-71.
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ve çözüm önerileri” III. Ulusal Fen Bilimleri Eğitimi
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M. Haberman, & J. Sikula (Eds.), Handbook of
research on teacher education (pp. 514–534). New
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Preparing teachers for a changing world: What
teachers should learn and be able to do. San Francisco: Jossey Bass.
17. Gürbüztürk, O. (2000). Eğitim Fakülteleri
Programlarında Yer Alan Okul Deneyimi-I
Çalışmalarının Değerlendirilmesi. II. Ulusal
Öğretmen Yetiştirme Sempozyumu. Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart Üniversitesi 10-12 Mayıs, Çanakkale,
608-614.
8. Darling-Hammond, L. (2006). Powerful teacher education. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
9. Deniz, S. and Şahin, N. (2006) The restructuring process of teacher training system in Turkey: A model of
teacher training based on post-graduate education,
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18. Karamustafaoğlu, O. (2009) A Comparative analysis of the models of teacher education in terms of
teaching practices in the USA, England, and Turkey, Education, 130 (2), 172-183. http://www.projectinnovation.biz/education_2006.html
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19. Koerner, M., Rust, F. & Baumgartner, F. (2002),
Exploring roles in student teaching placements.
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20. Kudu, M., Özbek, R. ve Bindak. R. (2006). Okul
deneyimi- I uygulamasına ilişkin öğrenci algıları
(Dicle Üniversitesi Örneği). Elektronik Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 5(15), 99-109.
21. National Research Council (2010). Preparing
teachers: Building evidence for sound policy. Washington, D.C: National Academies Press.
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through clinical practice: A national strategy to
prepare effective teachers: Blue Ribbon panel on
clinical preparation and partnerships for improved
student learning. NCATE, Washington, DC.
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uygulamasına ilişkin görüşleri. Çağdaş Eğitim Dergisi, Sayı: 232, Tek ışık Yayıncılık Ankara.
24. Ozkan, H. H,. Albayrak, M., Berber K.(2005).
Öğretmen adaylarının ilköğretim okullarında
yaptıkları öğretmenlik uygulamasının
yetişmelerindeki rolü. Ankara, Milli Eğitim Dergisi,
Sayı :168.
33. Zeichner, K. (2010). The importance of strong
clinical preparation for teachers. Congressional
briefing on Capital Hill , University of Washington,
Seattle. Retrieved on March 17, 2011, from URL at
34. http://education.washington.edu/news/fac_spotlight/zeichner-aacte-2010.html
35. Zeichner, K. (2002), Beyond traditional: Structures
of student teaching. Teacher Education Quarterly.
29(2), 59-64.
36. Zeichner, K. & Conklin, H. (2005). Teacher education programs. In M. Cochran-Smith & K. Zeichner
(Eds.), Studying teacher education: The report of
the AERA panel on research and teacher Education
(pp. 645-736). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates.
Corresponding Author
Hidayet Tok,
Zirve University,
Faculty of Education,
Turkey,
E-mail: hidayettok2000@yahoo.com
25. Ross, S., Raines, F., Cervetti, M., Dellow, D.
(1980). Field experiences for teacher candidates:
A comparison between tutorial and apprenticeship
programs on student activities and attitudes. The
Journal of Teacher Education, 31 (6), 57-61.
26. Schwille, S. A. (2008), The professional practice
of mentoring, American Journal of Education 115,
139-167.
27. Semerci, Ç. & Taşpınar, M. (2003 ) Restructuring of
teacher training system in Turkey. Manas Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 136-146 retrieved on
5 April, 2011, from URL at http://yordam.manas.kg/
ekitap/pdf/Manasdergi/sbd/sbd6/sbd-6-10.pdf
28. Tok, H. (2011), Mentor teachers in Turkish teacher
education programs. A study in progress.
29. Yapıcı, Ş. & Yapıcı. M. (2004). Öğretmen
adaylarının okul deneyimi I dersine ilişkin
görüşleri. Ilköğretim-Online, 3(2), 54-59.
30. YÖK. (1998a). Fakulte-okul işbirligi (Faculty
-school cooperation). Dünya Bankası Milli Eğitim
Geliştirme Projesi, Hizmet Öncesi Öğretmen Eğitim
.Ankara, Turkey: Turkish Higher Education Council
(YOK).
31. YÖK. (1998b). Eğitim Fakülteleri Öğretmen
Yetiştirme Programlarının Yeniden
32. Düzenlenmesi, Ankara: YÖK Başkanlığı, 26-31.
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The Determination of Beam Displacement with
Isotropic Material Hardening by Energy Methods
Besim Demirovic, Mirsad Topalovic, Zijad Pozegic
Faculty of Mining, Geology and Civil Engineering, University of Tuzla, Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Abstract
In this work has been presented a simple beam
made of steel and loaded with two equal concentric forces. It describes the behavior of beams
under load in terms of deflection as a function of
voltage changes and dilatation class quality materials used for producing beams. The procedure has
been carried out using the energy method for establishing the beam balance with a minimum potential energy. The calculations are done numerically in the software package, and the results were
controlled by the experimentally measured values
of the deflection measured on the life-size model.
Analytical and numerical results of the shifting
in the direction and the course of the force have
also been presented, and they were compared with
those shifting obtained by numerical calculation
and experiment. Through the numerical example
was presented the calculation process of the displacement by energy methods.
Key words: energy, deformation, nonlinear,
displacement.
1. Introduction
The determination of the arbitrary point displacement of the beam due to external loads in the
elastic domain of the material behavior is a well
known procedure in the static design based on the
linear elasticity theory. However, when the stresses
and dilatation reach the border of elasticity, the connection between them becomes nonlinear. Such a
relationship of stress and strain causes a nonlinear
relationship between the force and the displacement.
Theory of elasticity use the linear relationship of
voltage and dilatation, which has use limits till the
borders of material leakage. After that expressions
from which the solution of displacement is derived
should be adjusted to the nonlinear behavior of the
construction. In the material’s behavior diagram or
work diagram there are three areas that are obtained
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
by straining examination of appropriate test tubes
(samples). At samples ( test tubes) for examination
the working diagram σ-ε of steel by its behavioral
function is divided into three parts: the first part
(elastic behavior) from 0 to 0.2% elongation, the
second part (flow) of 0.2 to 3% elongation and the
third part (hardening) of 3-20% describes the flow
of deformation due to loading. The behavioral functions are approximated by numerical methods and
used as such for further calculation. If so formulated
function is used in expressions for the energy of deformation we can determine the displacement of any
point at the beam. Of all the possible combinations
of the unknown forces that meet the requirements
for beam balance, the right is the one for which the
energy of deformation takes minimum value.
2. The Energy of Beam Deformation
Internal forces which reduce at the axis of the
carrier occur due to the external loads. The deformations of the beam’s cross-section occur due
to internal forces. Internal forces may be normal,
transverse, bending moments and torsion moments, and can be considered separately. Thus
the deformation is observed separately. At beams
loaded with transverse loading the largest share
in the deformation have bending moments, so in
this case the deformation from the bending moments will be considered as dominant. The stick
in the process of loading besides the work of external forces We can accept or reject heat Q from
the environment. The work of external forces and
brought warmth are spend on the increasing of the
internal energy U and kinetic energy Ek., i.e.:
We + Q = U + DEk ........................ (1)
where U is not the absolute amount of internal
energy, but the difference between final and initial
state of internal energy. In the construction static is
introduced the assumption of small displacement,
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i.e. the assumption of static linearity so that the
load is gradually inflicted, there is no displacement acceleration of the rod. Therefore, there is
no growth of the kinetic energy, on the other side
the load growth is fast enough, so there is no heat
exchange, and (1) exceeds in the form:
We = U ................................ (2)
The energy of deformation per volume unit is
called the density of the deformation energy U0, i.e.:
U0 =
dU
. ............................. (3)
dV
U 0 = k ⋅ s ij ⋅ e ij ........................... (4)
The factor k depends on the form of working diagrams and for the linear-elastic material is
k=0.5. For other materials it is between 0 <k <1.
When you take into account the expression for
the sectional curvature and the geometry of the
deformation of the beams, taking into account the
figure 1 b) from expression (3) is obtained the energy of stick bending in the form:
1 M2
U= ∫
dx .......................... (5)
2 l EΙ
3. The Deformation from the Bending
Moment for the Bilinear Elastic-Plastic
Range
At the materials with isotropic hardening the
energy density of deformation is equal to the area
under the function of material behavior to the x
axis, from 0 to ε.
Figure 2. The definition of deformation energy
1
U 0 = s T ⋅ eT + s T ⋅ (e - eT ) +
2
.................. (6)
1
+ s ⋅ (e - eT )
2
where σ is the hardening variable. Taking into
account the expression (3) then follows:
1
U = ∫ s T ⋅ e T + s T ⋅ ( e - e T ) ds +
2
s
Figure 1. Density of the deformation energy for
the nonlinear elastic and linear elastic material
604
1
+ ∫ s ⋅ ( e - e T ) ds
2
s
. ........ (7)
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From the material behavior diagram σ-ε can be
expressed the solidification variable in the function of dilatation as:
s = f ( e ) .............................. (8)
If the expression (8) is included in (7) then follows:
1
U = ∫ s T ⋅ e T + s T ⋅ ( e - e T ) ds +
2
s
2
1
+ ∫ s ⋅ ( e - e T ) ds
2
s
The input data
Beam L=3,40 m, HEA 140
Iy=1030,00 cm4
Wy=155,00 cm3
σT=34,00 kN/cm2
E=1,93x108 kN/m2
F=50 kN
M yT = s T ⋅ Wy = 34 ⋅155 = 5270 kNcm
M 2 = F ⋅1, 2 = 50 ⋅1, 2 = 60 kNm
. ........ (9)
According to the second Castigliano theorem
the partial derivative of the deformation energy by
the force, is equal to the shift that can be written as:
∂U
w=
............................... (10)
∂F
where instead of σ is incorporated:
M
. ..............................(11)
s=
Wypl
M yT
x
⇒x=
For a simply beam shown in figure below determine the deflection under the force in the field
of plasticity using energy theorems.
M1
⇒
1, 2
1, 2 ⋅ M yT
M1
=
1, 2 ⋅ 52, 70
= 1, 05 m
60
x Î [ 0;1, 05] - the elastic material behavior
x Î [1, 05;1, 20] - the plastic material behavior
x Î [1, 2;1, 7 ] - the plastic material behavior
Wypl = b ⋅ t ⋅ ytn ⋅ 2 + s ⋅ hr ⋅ ytr ⋅ 2 =
= 14 ⋅ 0,85 ⋅ 6, 25 ⋅ 2 + 0,55 ⋅ 5,85 ⋅ 2,93 ⋅ 2 =
= 158,85 cm3
N
2
mm
s = 580 ⋅ ( e - e T )
where:
M- bending moment;
Wypl- resistant plastic moment of cross section.
4. Example 1.
=
e=
s +2
580
The energy of beam bending is:
U =2
1
2
1050
∫
0
M 02-1
dx +
EΙ
1200
1
2 s T ⋅ e T + s T ⋅ ( e - e T ) dx +
1050
+2
∫
1200
1
2 s ⋅ ( e - e T ) dx +
1050
+2
∫
1700
1
2 s T ⋅ e T + s T ⋅ ( e - e T ) dx +
1200
+2
∫
1700
1
2 s ⋅ ( e - e T ) dx
1200
+2
Figure 3. Beam from Example 1
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∫
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technics technologies education management
M 0-1 = F ⋅ x
w=
1050
∫
0
M 1- 2 = F ⋅ x
M
2-
U=
1200
∂U
∂F
1050
+2
= F ⋅1200
l
2
1050
∫
0
∂U ( F ⋅ x )
dx +
∂F E Ι
( F ⋅ x)
EΙ
2
∫
1200
∂U
∂F
1050
+2
dx +
∫
1200
1
s + 2
2 s T ⋅ e T + s T ⋅ 580 - e T dx +
1050
+2
∫
1
s + 2
+2 ∫ 580 ⋅
- eT
580
1050
2
1200
2
dx +
1700
∂U
∂F
1200
+2
∫
1700
1
s + 2
2 s T ⋅ e T + s T ⋅ 580 - e T dx +
1200
+2
∫
2
1
s + 2
+2 ∫ 580 ⋅
- e T dx
2
580
1200
1700
U=
1050
∫
0
( F ⋅ x)
EΙ
∂U
∂F
1200
∫
F⋅x
W +2
1 s ⋅ e + s T ⋅ ypl
- e T dx +
2 T T
580
2
F⋅x
W +2
1 580 ⋅ ypl
- e T dx +
2
580
F ⋅1200
+2
W
ypl
1 s T ⋅ eT + s T ⋅
- e T dx +
2
580
2
F ⋅1200
+
2
1 580 ⋅ Wypl
- e T dx
2
580
w = 19, 41 + 2 ⋅1, 75 + 2 ⋅ 6, 46 = 35,83 mm
2
dx +
F⋅x
W +2
1
+2 ∫ s T ⋅ e T + s T ⋅ ypl
- e T dx +
2
580
1050
2
F⋅x
+
2
W
1200
1
ypl
+2 ∫ + 580 ⋅
- e T dx +
2
580
1050
F ⋅1200
+2
W
1700
1
ypl
+2 ∫ s T ⋅ e T + s T ⋅
- e T dx +
2
580
1200
1200
2
F ⋅1200
+2
1700
W
1
ypl
+2 ∫
- e T dx
1000 ⋅
2
580
1200
606
1700
+2
2
4.1 The Program Adina
The input data
Figure 4. σ-ε material diagram
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Figure 5. Finite element mesh with load, 3D
Figure 6. Deflection of the beam in [m] under
load F = 50 kN
The measured values of the model established
by the experiment and the comparison with other
methods of calculation are given in the following
diagram.
grams should be used to determine the displacement. This problem can be explained by the rigidity which changes during the load growth through
the course of his application. In the plastic area
the rigidity of the section decreases significantly
causing larger increase of deformation compared
to the load. This means that the beam reaches its
capacity limit of the potential energy it has, with
taking advantage of its capacity. The results of this
study show that after the elastic limit the deformations are growing exponentially in relation to the
load. When they looked at this problem through
the theory of elasticity the force-displacement relationship would be linear, which is not realistic.
Through this work has shown the procedure for determination of displacements, taking into account
only the deformation of the bending moments. On
the same way can be introduced other types of deformation, and then superimposed. These results
indicate the actual state of displacement development through the process of applying the load on
the base of which can be seen carrying capacity
and the functionality of the structure.
References
1. Adina: „Theory and Modeling Guide“, Adina R &
D, USA, 2000;
2. Alfirević I. i grupa autora: „Inženjerski priručnik 1“,
Školska knjiga Zagreb, 1996.;
3. Demirović B.: „Magistarski rad – Rješenje problema
materijalne nelinearnosti jednobrodnih okvirnih konstrukcija“, Univerzitet u Tuzli, Tuzla, 2008.;
4. Ebibi M., Fetaji B., Fetaji M.: Combining and Supporting Expert Based Learning and Academic Based
Learning in Developing Mobile Learning Knowledge
Management System, Tem Journal, ISSN 2217-8309,
e-ISSN 2217-8333, pp 16-23, Vol. 1, No. 1, 2012.
Figure 7. Comparison of the obtained results of
the deflection under the force F
5. Conclussion
The beam displacement under load in the elastic
field can be solved by analytical methods. However, when the material reaches the limit of elasticity
and more than that, the linear relationship between
stress and strain do not apply any more. Thus in
the field of plasticity real material behavior diaVolume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
5. Ibrahimbegović A.: „Nelinearna mehanika deformabilnih tijela“, Građevinski fakultet u Sarajevu, 2010;
6. Maglajlić Z.: „Metoda relaksacije“, Građevinski
fakultet u Sarajevu, 2008.
Corresponding Author
Besim Demirovic,
Faculty of Mining, Geology and Civil Engineering,
University of Tuzla,
Bosnia and Herzegovina,
E-mail: besim.demirovic@untz.ba
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Process management as basis for quality
management in service industry
Milic Radovic1, Slobodan Camilovic2, Zoran Rakic3, Barbara Simeunovic1, Ivan Tomasevic1, Dragana Stojanovic1
1
2
3
Department of Industrial and Management Engineering, Faculty of Organizational Science, University of
Belgrade, Serbia,
Open University “APEIRON”, Travnik, Bosnia and Herzegovina,
National Employment Service, Chief officer for quality management, Belgrade, Serbia.
Abstract
Service delivery processes and service consumption processes are partially and sometimes
completely overlapped. This means that there
is no room for quality control and prevention of
other forms of poor quality output. This is why
modern service quality management should be
based on controlling the process of providing such
services. The purpose of this paper is to propose a
framework for managing service quality by tracking performance indicators of processes responsible for rendering observed services. The paper
describes a case study of the managing service
quality by managing processes in National Employment Agency in Serbia (NEA) and significant
improvements of service quality were achieved
through the application of proposed framework.
This paper helps clarify how the quality of services
can be managed in the process of their provision.
Key words: Business process management,
Process measurement and improvement, Service
Quality Management, Job provision services.
1. Introduction
Improving the quality of business is long-term
goal of all organizations that seek business excellence and achieving world-class products and
services [1]. Continuing growth of the service
sector, the lack of significant improvement of productivity within services, and a late start of the research on the operational issues of services make
service operations an important and fertile area
of research [2]. Increased importance of services
in today's society has led to increased interest in
their quality. Perception of quality from the point
of view of a customer is key determinant for defining of harmonisation of services with customers’
608
needs and demands [3]. The issue that arises when
Quality Management (QM) in services is considered is the dominant emphasis on manufacturing
in the QM literature. Deming’s 14 principles of
transformation for improving management practice [4] are considered to be equally applicable to
manufacturing and service organizations. However, a specific application of Deming’s principles to
services has been developed [5]. Nowadays, there
is a growing list of case studies and QM applications in the service context as exemplified by the
various firms that have won the Malcolm Baldrige
National Quality Award [6]. Despite the increasing efforts in addressing QM in services, it must
be noted that the empirical literature on QM in
services has only begun to develop in recent years
with some industry-specific studies [7, 8, 9]. Common criteria continue to exist for manufacturing
and service firms in the Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award and other similar quality awards
worldwide. But it must be noted that contingency
debate with reference to services is not adequately
resolved. Hence there is a need for specific service QM research that addresses the broader service industry [6]. Due to the nature of services, it is
difficult to manage their quality and clearly define
it. Thus the idea that service quality can be managed through managing processes that render those
services was developed. There are many different
definitions of process in literature, but the common
feature for all of them is that process is seen as a
set of activities that transform inputs into desirable
outputs.[10, 11] In service companies, the desired
output is the service for the end user, so a clear link
can be established between service and process resulting with service. The only way is to make the
process of rendering services as reliable as possible
by monitoring that process. Having that in mind,
the model that translates service quality manageVolume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
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ment into managing processes that render these
services will be presented in this paper.
2. Quality management in services
Services can be defined as those activities, with
mainly intangible character, which result in certain
benefits, and solve the certain problem of user, and
for which the user is ready to directly or indirectly
pay [12]. Some authors attempted to deal with two
unique features of service: intangibility of the service
and customer involvement in its delivery [13]. Considering that the service quality is often determined
by subjective judgments, it is often difficult to precisely define the level of quality of observed service.
This difficulty of precise definition of service quality is a function of differences between [14]: Actual
consumer expectations and management’s beliefs
of what consumers want; Management’s beliefs
and the actual specification of the service; What has
been specified and what is actually delivered; What
is delivered and hence experienced by the consumer;
and what consumers were led to expect by external
communications. The most important dimensions
for service quality are [15]: Time, Timelines, Completeness, Courtesy, Consistency, Accessibility and
convenience, Accuracy, Responsiveness.
Considering dimensions of service quality, and
the impossibility to define some of them precisely,
the question that arises is: how to manage something that is not clearly tangible? On the other hand,
the process of service delivery can be accurately
identified and tracked. Therefore service quality
management can be reduced to the process management that results in the observed service, i.e. to
follow the indicators of a given process. Here we
propose the framework for service delivery process
management, which consists of 9 phases [16]:
1. Developing mission and vision statements,
as well as program orientation of a business
system – the purpose of the company and
where the company wants to go;
2. Creating a service catalogue - identifying
and classifying services as inputs for process
identification;
3. Defining company's measurable goals desired future state and results which has to
be achieved through planned and organized
activities of the company;
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
4. Defining service quality determinants requirements of all stakeholders should be
identified and measured;
5. Process identification and designing process
model – processes are represent in a form
of a catalogue, which represents the process
model of the company;
6. Making a list of preferred, critical and key
processes - selecting processes that fulfillment
of companys’goals depend on;
7. Defining the process performance indicators business system's organizational (measurable)
objectives and customer requirements have
to be translated into process performance
indicators.
8. Key, prior, and critical process - reviewing,
improving and re-engineering (if necessary).
9. Process management – measuring,
monitoring and continuously improving
processes.
Graphical interpretation of the managing processes model that directly provides services is
shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Process management model
3. Case study: Process management in National Employment Agency
National Employment Agency (NEA) is a modern public service that provides services to employers and unemployed individuals in Serbia. NEA
consists of Directorate, two provincial offices, 34
branches, 21 departments and more than 120 of609
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fices in all districts in the Republic of Serbia. NEA
provides services to unemployed individuals and
employers, and services for the development of
entrepreneurship. To meet the needs of customers
in terms of quality and effectiveness, management
of NEA has decided to start a project "Raising the
work quality of NEA´s business system and implementation of ISO 9001 standards˝. The Faculty of
Organizational Sciences was engaged as a consultant on the project that began in March 2006. Solutions from the project started its implementation
in September 2009. Within the project, in addition
to the basic aim defined in its title, the fulfillment
of following special objectives was anticipated:
(1) Effective and efficient operation of the business system and its subsystems; (2) Appropriate
and necessary documentation support to routine
course of business processes within the system; (3)
Creating a basis for effective and efficient process
management; (4) ISO 9001 Certification and recertification; (5) Meeting standards of good practice
in the European Union; (6) Operations flexibility
in relation to the increased type and scope of services, possible expansion of activities, etc. Considering the extensiveness of the project, as well as the
theme of this paper, only the parts that refer to the
management of services quality will be presented.
Having in mind the program orientation of the
business system and the primary users (the unemployed and employers) to whom the services
which NEA provided are intended, the appropriate mission, vision and strategic goals are defined.
Two main strategic goals were to Increase competitiveness and employability of the workforce
and prevention of long-term unemployment and
social exclusion.
Key users of NEA services are unemployed individuals seeking employment and employers. Job
seekers want to work in the jobs that match their
skills, abilities and personality characteristics, and
within organizations that provide good working
conditions, adequate financial compensation for
work, employment security, etc. Employers expect
from NEA to provide them with quality candidates
for specific tasks, in shortest time and without financial compensation for its involvement. Therefore, key determinants of unemployed individuals’
satisfaction with services provided by NEA can be
classified as speed of finding a job, job satisfaction
610
and a way of communication with an advisor during
the job search. Based on the needs of key users two
global services can be distinguished: Services to job
seekers and Services to employers. Each of these
services can be further decomposed on services to
lower levels, depending on the needs of the project.
The initial list of goals for the next period was
made. Then, on basis of the key stakeholders requirements, following quality determinants were
defined: (1) Time for finding a job; (2) Level of satisfaction with finded job; (3) Level of satisfaction
with communication with NEA. These quality determinants are directly related to following measurable goals: G.1 Increasing the level of satisfaction
of a job applicant; G.2 Increasing the number of
free jobs mediated by the NEA for 5% annually;
and G.3 Reducing the inflow of long-term unemployment (12 months) for 2.5% annually.
Based on the previously identified NEA services,
the process catalog was made. The key processes
that directly contribute to the achievement of predefined measurable goals were selected: Creation
of individual employment plan (a set of activities
which should orient the individual to perform certain types of work), Additional education and training (vocational education and training of unemployed individuals), Mediation in employment (a
set of activities undertaken in order to establish links
between the employer with a need for a certain profile of workers and unemployed individuals identified as most suitable for his demands).
At this stage, a translation of measurable objectives of the NEA to performance indicators of
those processes that directly contribute to achieving these goals was made. Dependence of NEA’s
measurable objectives from the key performance
indicators of key processes is given in Figure 2.
The level of satisfaction with job seekers is determined in two ways: (1) by calculating the ratio of
job applicants employed with the aid of NEA, and
the total number of job applicants. This ratio can
be calculated for different time periods. In this example, the observed period is one year; (2) by using questionnaires with the clients of NEA. In this
example, the observed indicators are calculated by
using the first method.
For the purposes of process review and improvement, a team was formed whose members
were process owner, external consultants, and
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employees who directly participate in the process
execution. Representatives of NEA key customers
have been consulted at this stage. A new way of
process execution is given in the form of procedures and instructions.
Figure 2. Dependence of NEA’s measurable objectives from the key performance
Table 1 shows the course of performance indicators of the process in 2008. and the value of
indicators in previous four years. The process performance indicators analysis in the period from
2004 to 2009 shows decline in the value of three
indicators in 2005, namely the number of individual plans, the number of employments based
on individual plans and the number of trained and
retrained individuals. Therefore, processes Creation of individual plans for employment, and Additional education and training were analyzed, in
order to change the indicators’ trend. The decrease
of number of individual employment plans can be
seen in the year 2005. Main reasons for this were
insufficient IT processes support, incomplete databases, undue data inputs by the unemployment
counselors, and unsufficient number of counselors. There was also an increase of technological
surplus arising from accelerated privatization in
that year. Decreased number of unemployed with
individual plan for employment maded by NEA
and increased number of individuals employed
through mediation leads to the conclusion that a
large number of registered unemployed individuals haven’t signed any individual employment plan
within the stipulated time, but instead, they have
found a job through mediation. Detailed analysis of
the accompanying documentation was made, with
the special focus on Individual employment plan.
Table 1. The course of performance indicators from 2004 to 2008
Processes
Indicators
Number of individual
employment plans [1]
Number of employments through
individual employment plans [1]
Number of trained and retrained
Additional
individuals [1]
education
Number of employments through
and training
training and retraining [1]
Number of mediations [1]
Mediation in
Number of employments through
employment
mediation [1]
Total number of job seekers [1]
Total number of individuals employed
with the assistance of NEA [1]
G1. The level of satisfaction of a job applicant
(No. of employed individuals/ Total no. of job
seekers)*100
G2. The number of free jobs achieved through
mediation of NEA [1]
G3. Average unemployment time (months)
Creation of
individual
employment
plan
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Accomplished in:
Branches
2004 2005 2006 2007 B1
B2
B3
B4
Agency
B5 total
1920 1811 2110 2235 632 432 441 520 372
2388
731
211 128 192 210 133
874
1992 1981 2151 2010 520 442 380 391 381
2114
730
831
912
921 251 181 192 210 121
955
387
410
491
507
92
110
86
123
92
503
112
161
165
171
36
44
28
41
26
175
681
720
810
9812 9766 9650 10322 2330 1821 1932 2010 1621 9714
1573 1673 1797 1902 498 353 412 461 280
25
24
24
22
18
19
23
22
23
1421 1350 1320 1281 232 264 251 198 307
2004
21
1252
16,03 17,13 18,62 18,43 21,37 19,38 21,33 22,93 17,27 20,63
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Accordingly, the appropriate applicative solutions
within information system were made.
The activities of direct mediation were specially
emphasized, the process of informing was intensified in order to make a closer approach to users of
NEA services. These activities led to the growth of
individual employment plans trend and number of
employments based on individual plans from 2006.
The year of 2005 also brought the decrease in number of trained and retrained individuals. Accordingly, more realistic analysis of labor market and needs
was conducted. More adequate training programs
were created, and criteria for selecting individuals
who will participate in training were improved. This
ultimately resulted in increased number of trained
and retrained individuals, and the increased number
of individuals employed after the training and retraining conducted from 2006 onward.
Entire project was realized with little or no
resistance among employees, which is not typical when organization is facing major changes.
Although not specifically stimulated to work on
the project, the team members have shown remarkable engagement. This is largely contributed
to the education of the project participants, and
good presentation of project objectives. The organizational unit for QM was performing the audits and adjustments of the document drafts, and
maintained constant contact with consultants. As a
result, 31 procedures and 22 instructions were adopted. All operational jobs in basic activities were
documented with 53 documents. A large number of
documents were redesigned, and some new forms
for performing certain activities were created. The
appropriate IT support was introduced as assistance to process execution and key process management. New NEA web portal was introduced in
October 2008 in order to bring services closer to
customers. Changes in the organization and systematization of jobs led to creation of four new
NEA branches in the country.
5. Conclusion
Striving for quality of service is focused on
safety, capacity and effectiveness of service delivery processes. This is why modern service quality management should be based on controlling
the process of providing such services. One of
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more complex tasks in the process of establishing a system for process management is establishing performance indicators based on measurable
goals and service quality determinants. It is also
important to determine the right ways of collecting necessary data, and to monitor performance
trends of the processes. The aim of this paper was
to theoretically present the framework for establishing a system for process management, and to
demonstrate it on the verifiable example of NEA.
It is particularly important to note that throughout the project a number of opportunities for measurement improvement and process monitoring
were recognized. This was followed by concrete
actions, proposals for improvements, and the implementation of those proposals. This primarily
refers to the system of management by objectives,
defining performance indicators of basic work
processes and their implementation, and monitoring and controlling, as a precondition for continuous review by senior management. However,
there is still big room for improving service quality provided by the NEA. This improvement can be
achieved through establishing a process of resolving customer complaints and constant measuring
of customer satisfaction level with provided services as well as continuous process improvement.
References
1. Moracanin V., Besic C., Dedic S., Kljaic-Dervic M.
(2011), ˝Competence education and training for
quality˝, Journal TTEM-technics, technologies, education, management, Vol. 6, No. 1, (pp.35-39).
2. Apte, U., Maglaras C., Pinedo M.. (2008), “Operations in the Service Industries: Introduction to the
Special Issue”, Production and Operations Management, Vol.17 No.3, pp. 235-237
3. Stojkovic D., Djordjevic D. (2010), Important aspects of customer relationship management concept
in banking quality, Journal TTEM-technics, technologies, education, management, Vol. 5, No. 4,
(pp.749-759).
4. Deming, W.E. (1986), Out of the Crisis. Cambridge:
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Center for
Advanced Engineering Study
5. Rosander, A.C. (1991), Deming’s 14 Points Applied
to Services, ASQ Quality Press, Milwaukee, WI
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6. Behara, R.S., Gundersen D.E.. (2001), “Analysis of
quality management practices in services”, International Journal of Quality & Reliability Management,
Vol.18 No.6, pp. 584-604
7. Camison, C. (1996), “Total quality management in
hospitality: an application of the EFQM model”,
Tourism Management, Vol.17 No. 3, pp. 191-201
8. Li, L. (1997), “Relationships between determinants
of hospital quality management and service quality
performance – a path analytic model” International
Journal of Management Science, Vol.25 No.5, pp.
535-545
9. Winn, B.A., Cameron K.S.. (1998), “Organizational
quality: an examination of the Malcolm Baldrige National Quality framework”, Research in Higher Education, Vol.39 No.5, pp.491-512
10. Davenport, T. H. (1993), Process Innovation: Reengineering Work through Information Technology,
Harvard Business School Press, Boston
11. Hammer, M., Champy, J., (1993), Reengineering
the Corporation: A Manifesto for Business Revolution, HarperCollins Publishers
12. Kancir, R. (2004), Marketing usluga, Belgrade
Business School, Belgrade.
13. Chase, R. (1996), “The Mall is my Factory: Reflections of a Service Junkie” Production and Operations Management, Vol.5 No.4, pp. 298-308
14. Dotchin, J.A., Oakland J.S. (1994), “Total quality
management in services part 2: service quality”,
International Journal of Quality & Reliability Management. Vol.11 No.3, pp. 27-42
15. Nazzal, M. (2006), The Palestinian Health Care
System at a critical and crucial point (The TwoEdged Sword. How does it foster life and death
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16. Radovic, M., Tomasevic, I., Stojanovic, D., Simeunovic, B.. (2009), “An excellence role model:
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Corresponding Author
Dragana Stojanovic,
Department of Industrial and Management Engineering,
Faculty of Organizational Science,
University of Belgrade
Belgrade,
Serbia,
E-mail: stojanovicd@fon.rs
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A novel ultrasonic technique for material testing
Zoran Ebersold1, Nebojsa Mitrovic2, Slobodan Djukic2, Aleksandar Peulic2
1
2
University of Applied Sciences, Augsburg, Germany,
University of Kragujevac, Technical Faculty, Cacak, Serbia.
Abstract
The material defectoscopy method that uses
separate ultrasonic heads for emitting and reception of signals, i.e. ultrasonic transmission defectoscopy, hasn’t been in use in science and engineering that much until now. This method consists
of an ultrasonic head for emitting the signal and a
single ultrasonic head for the reception of the signal. The method described in this paper is named
“Quadrophonic Transmission Ultrasonic Defectoscopy” (QTUD). It is an ultrasonic defectoscopy
method for material testing that uses a single ultrasonic head for emitting and four ultrasonic heads
for receiving the ultrasonic signal. The prime advantage of the QTUD method is its real life applicability even with porous materials, and the
basis for the method on relatively low frequencies
(only a few tens of kHz). Because electronic components are very cheap to acquire, therefore, the
wide application of this method, both in science
and industry, is very likely.
Key words: Method for defectoscopy, ultrasonic transmission defectoscopy, quadrophonic
transmission.
1. Introduction
Sound waves represent constant oscillations
through the spatial spread in solid, liquid or gaseous state [1]. Sound waves are also known as ultrasonic waves or ultrasound, in case when their
frequency level is higher than 20 kHz [2]. Namely,
this frequency is used as a threshold and is often
cited as the upper range limit of the hearing sensitivity for human beings.
Defectoscopy is a scientific discipline concerned with finding the most reliable and efficient
way of locating errors, also known as defects, in
different types of materials. When the ultrasound
is being used for testing, this method can be called
an ultrasonic defectoscopy method. Samples that
are used for ultrasonic testing do not suffer any
614
damage, and therefore this method is listed among
the non-destructive and non-invasive material
testing methods. QTUD method can easily be integrated into any technological process, independent on the scale of production, without interrupting the process itself, or it can be used in a final
stage of semi-finished or finished products as a
part of quality control. Ultrasonic defectoscopy
is applied primarily in optical opaque materials,
materials that strongly absorbs X-rays and in metals where application of electromagnetic signals is
not possible due to the “skin effect”. Until now for
the purposes of using ultrasonic defectoscopy for
solid objects, there have been developed various
methods [3, 4, 5]. Properties and results of these
methods depend on the application and objectives
of the measurement. The standard results obtained
by measuring the ultrasonic defectoscopy are
propagation time and the intensity of ultrasonic
waves. These results are then used as parameters
in applying various mathematical algorithms [6,
7] in analysis of the samples condition. Current
technique of ultrasonic defectoscopy is usually
implemented by using the same ultrasonic head
for transmitting and receiving the signal, which
uses the impulse echo technique. This method is
very common in the literature and in industry. It
can be safely said that the impulse echo method
is currently the main method for the ultrasonic
defectoscopy [8]. The application of the impulse
echo technique method is not exactly ideal because of its high frequencies (several MHz) and
because of the material immerses absorption of
ultrasonic waves within defectoscopy sample.
When the method is used on very porous materials
it would fail to provide any valid results, because
of the porous sample material. The elaborated defectoscopy procedure, presented in this paper, has
been neglected over the years. The method itself is
because of that very under developed. The method
is focused on using separate heads for ultrasonic
broadcast as well as for reception of the signal.
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There are several mentions of this method in the
literature as a process that involves one head for
transmitting the ultrasonic signal and one ultrasonic head for receiving. Intention of this study
is to present a concept and with it a technical solution for improving the ultrasonic transmission
method of defectoscopy used on material samples,
also called Quadrophonic transmission ultrasonic
defectoscopy (QTUD). This method has one ultrasonic head for emitting the ultrasonic signal
and four heads for receiving the signal, apart from
the previous method which only had one for each
task. It aspires to provide a contribution to the development of science and technology in general
by exploring this effective method for defectoscopy of materials, especially with materials that are
porous. Comparing the QTUD method to the previously mentioned ultrasonic impulse echo based
method, the notice to the advantage of QTUD’s
lower frequencies (about a few tens of kHz, i.e. 45
kHz) that are much more suitable for application
on very porous samples gives a complete insight
in the benefits of this method.
Materials that constitute the group of very porous materials in essence are various sintered polymers, sintered metals and many various indirectly
and directly laser-sintered materials. The Figure 1
diagram shows a basic working principle of the
QTUD method assembly. The components noted
in the diagram are: function generator, an ultrasonic transmitter S1, ultrasonic sensors as receivers P1, P2, P3 and P4, adapters A1, A2, A3 and
A4 as the signal pre-amplifiers, the four-channel
analogue to digital converter, and at the very end a
computer for interpreting digital signals as results
in post processing.
In order to interpret the signals the computer
must be equipped with the appropriate software.
Several auxiliary components are used to control
the signal during measurement procedure. Often
used setup consists of an oscilloscope and frequency meter.
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Figure 1. Block scheme of QTUD method
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2. Methodology
Figure 2a. Apparatus for the QTUD method.
Figure 2b. Sample with ultrasonic heads
616
The material sample is positioned on the placeholder that has a purpose of keeping the subject
stable, while the ultrasonic transmitter (S1) and
four ultrasonic sensors (P1, P2, P3 and P4) are positioned so that they always in contact with the surface of the material. The part of the QTUD apparatus setup is shown in the Figure 2a, which indicates
the positions a) and b) that represent the locations of
four ultrasonic sensors and the position of the sample material, respectfully. The Figure 2b shows the
sample inside the apparatus for the QTUD method.
Reasons behind the concept of the QTUD method
as a solution that is based upon one transmitting
and four receivers of ultrasound are multiple. Foremost, because of the fact that the great majority of
machine elements have two way geometries, so in
terms of achieving the ultrasonic defectoscopy the
optimal distribution would be in four spatial quadrants. Localizing the defect and quantification of
the range of the defect inside the sample becomes
possible in each of the quadrants. Second reason for
using the quadrophonic solution is the possibility
of defining spatial coordinates for the source of the
sound on the basis of knowing the spatial coordinates of the four receivers and the time differences
in delays between each other. In the actual defectoscopy setup that is presented here, the coordinates
of the transmitter are also known, so it is possible,
on the basis of the given mathematical setup and
relations, in terms with available result data, come
to the optimal analysis of the sample condition.
Shown in Figure 3 are the positions of individual
ultrasonic heads placed on the sample material.
Points of contact are presented in 3D space marked
with S1, along with coordinates x, y, z. The position
corresponds to the coordinates (x5, y5, z5), where
the ultrasonic heads are in contact with the surface
of the sample material. Positions marked as P1, P2,
P3 and P4, have the following coordinates:
–– P1 (x1, y1, z1),
–– P2 (x2, y2, z2),
–– P3 (x3, y3, z3) and
–– P4 (x4, y4, z4)
as the position of contact with the materials surface of ultrasonic heads. The positions of the ultrasonic head is on the opposite sides of the sample.
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Figure 3. Vectors r1 , r2 , r3 and r4
The distance from the zero coordinate value, of
xyz system, to the point S1 has been presented as
a vector in three dimensional space. Therefore it
is analogue with the distances to the origin points
P1, P2, P3 and P4. Figure 3 presents the relation
ship among the vectors r1 , P1 and S1 . As it is situ
ation for vector r1 we have similar relations for
vectors r2 , r3 and r4 :
→
→
→
→
→
→
→
→
→
r2 = P2 - S 1
r3 = P3 - S 1
r4 = P4 - S 1
When these coordinates are given and by applying mathematical algorithms to the specific needs
in purpose of analyzing the signal, the conclusions
about the state of the material can be achieved. The
conclusions are based on the delay difference of
the ultrasonic waves and the differences of the amplitude that has been transmitted by the ultrasonic
head. The process starts when the ultrasonic head
S1 emits an ultrasonic wave that passes through the
sample. On the other side the receiving ultrasonic
heads P1, P2, P3 and P4 are placed symmetrically
in relation to the spatial coordinates of the transmitters S1. Therefore if we assume that the material
structure of the sample does not contain any deVolume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
fects, the ultrasonic waves that start from S1, are
arriving just as fast to any of the receiving ultrasonic heads P1, P2, P3 and P4. Just to emphasize,
the signals received by P1, P2, P3 and P4 have the
same amplitude, which is of particular importance
for the experimental presentation of this method
that is shown here. When the subject contains a material defect, the largest signal delay will be concentrated at the location of ultrasonic head which
is closest to the defect. Quantitative amount of this
delay is proportional to the speed of sound through
the material from which the material for the sample
was made. Any sample that is subjected for testing
has its physical constants (width, length, height,
weight, density, etc.), and they have to be previously known in order to make a precise calculation.
Systems ability to provide the right amount of precision and ability to register the delay of ultrasonic
signal depends on the quality and resolution of analogue digital converters that are being used in the
process. High-quality digital analogue converters
are very expensive and represent a significant investment. So the high resolution results are directly dependent on the cost of the investment in the
method. When the sample contains a defect, the attenuation of ultrasonic signal amplitude is strongest
at the ultrasonic head which is closest to the defect,
because of the time needed for the wave to cross
the distance. In order to recognize that, the listed
amplitude is smaller than the rest of the amplitudes
a relatively simple and cheap analogue digital converters are used. The QTUD method presented in
this document, gives the possibility of using principles for signal delay and amplitude attenuation.
When the signal has been processed the conclusion
can be made on whether within the sample there is
an actual defect or not.
3. Electronic design
The schematic in Figure 4 shows the design of
an electronic solution.
The setup consists of the following components:
generator of the function G1, ultrasonic emitter S1,
ultrasonic sensors as receptors P1, P2, P3 and P4.
With addition of other components who are preamplifiers of the signal N1, N2, N3 and N4 and analogue digital converters B1, B2, B3 and B4. As an
extra electronic control circuit of the experimental
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setup, laboratory instruments can have an oscilloscope and frequency meter. The solution of QTUD
method can be presented in an electronic scheme.
It is consistent of four electronic measuring chains
that are comprised of the following components:
stimulation from the physical processes in the form
of transmission of ultrasonic signal, the sensor, the
adapter and A/D converter. The computer located at
the end of this measuring chain which does extended signal processing. Relationships between the presented electronic device and computer are presented
with the d1, d2, d3 and d4. The function generator,
denoted as G1, is powered from the standard power
supply grid (up), generating a signal frequency of
45 kHz (voltage us). Then the voltage signal us are
transferred to the ultrasonic transmitter S1, which
represents an ultrasonic head with voltage-controlled crystal. All of the heads for QTUD, the transmitter and the four receiving sensors, are sensors
on the principle of piezoelectric effect created from
lead zirconium titanate (PbZrTiO). The ultrasonic
signal that has been sent through the sample is being
received on the other side more or less weakened,
with more or less delay in receiving waves that flow
to the sensors P1, P2, P3 and P4. When the signal is
received the receiver heads convert mechanical vibrations into analogue electrical voltages. Voltages
from the receiver P1, P2, P3 and P4 are then transferred over to the preamplifiers of the signal N1, N2,
N3 and N4, and the last stage is transfer to the analogue digital converters B1, B2, B3 and B4.
Figure 4. Scheme of electronic solution.
618
With the individual signal analysis, i.e. analyzing the differences in amplitudes of individual
signals and using the described mathematical algorithms, conclusions about the state of the examined sample can show if there is a defect or not in
the sample material that is subjected for testing.
4. System for determination of coordinates
System for determination of the coordinates is a
sub-system that resides in the experimental set and
is consisted of the following components: transmitter of infrared signals E11, E21, E31, E41 and E51;
receiver of infrared signals E12, E22, E32, E42
and E52; along following the signal handlers E13,
E23, E33, E43 and E53. If the ultrasonic head S1,
which is the transmitter of ultrasonic signal and is
positioned on the bottom side of the sample material, is able to mechanically move and change its
position, the components shown on the graph E51,
E52 and E53 are there to support its relocation. The
head S1 is firmly positioned within the experimental setup so that the spatial coordinates are already
known and represent a constant. Figure 5 shows a
scheme of the coordinate’s determination system
and its components, namely the distributor A3 that
is needed for powering the transmitters E11, E21,
E31, E41 and E51 with voltage u3. The necessary
transmitters emit infrared signals by activating the
photo cells so that the photo-transistors, inside the
receivers E12, E22, E32, E42 and E52, react on
precisely directed infrared beam that has been received. The signal handlers E13, E23, E33, E43 and
E53 generate individual voltages u12, u22, u32, u42 and
u52 who then turn on signal handling photo-diodes
D15, D25, D35, D45 and D55. The specified voltages, which are generated by the signal handlers,
are connected to the A3 housing, where the signal
handling photo-diodes are located. The same housing case has been used for distributing the voltage
u3 to the signal handlers.
The receivers of infrared signals are mounted
on mechanical rails so they can be repositioned
if there is any need. When the subject material is
placed and firmly secured in position, next step
is mounting of ultrasonic heads. Every individual receiver of infrared light, mentioned earlier in
text (E12, E22, E32, E42), is being moved along
the rails, until every signalling photo diode (D15,
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D25, D35, D45) gives feedback reaction, after that
the measurement of the sample’s position is performed. This system creates an easy and accurate
way of determining the coordinates for the position of the ultrasonic receivers.
Figure 5. The coordinate’s determination system
rant. The experimental principle applied during the
taking of the measurements, described in the section about the methodology, has been selected for
the economic reasons, with the additional variant
of recording the attenuation of the ultrasonic signal amplitude. Signal weakening of the received
amplitude is largest in the ultrasonic receiver that
is closest to the defect. For these performed experiments instead of the analogue digital converter
B1, B2, B3 and B4 shown in figure 1 and 4, the
digital signals are measured with a digital oscilloscope. The Figure 6 presents the measurement recordings made with digital oscilloscope. Figure 6
shows the recording of the ultrasonic signal heads.
In the presented measurements the frequency was
45 kHz. The Figure 6a shows the recording results
from the heads P1 and P2. The upper part of the
diagram displays the recorded signal from the ultrasonic receiving head P1 and the lower part of
the diagram shows recorded signal of head P2.
Under the P2 head there is no defect and under the
P1 head is a purposely built in defect Dm. In the
signal graph P1, the height of the receiving amplitude u1 is marked, which after time t12 stabilizes to
342 mV. Time t1, marks the time of the transitional
states of the received signal. The ultrasonic head
P2 detected u2 = 544 mV. The difference in amplitudes heights for P1 in relation to the P2 head amplitude, from 202 mV, is caused by the defect Dm.
5. Results
Material sample used in the experimental procedure is deliberately created containing a defect.
The measurement was performed on a porous and
hollow AlSi12 sample made by the direct laser
sintering of metal technology. Material sample
was created at the Fraunhofer Institute of Augsburg, Germany [9] using the SLM 250HL direct
laser metal sintering device by the SLM company
[10] formerly known as MTT. Dimensions of the
material sample are 120mm of length (L), 80mm
of width (W) and height that amounts to 30 mm
(H). Under the location of P1 is the location of the
previously created defect Dm, whose cross section
Dm is equal to 16 mm with a depth of 45 mm. The
defect on the material is an opening that is positioned symmetrically in comparison to the X-Y
plane, while it creates an individual sample quadVolume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
Figure 6a. Results from recording of heads P1
and P2
The time period taken for this measurement
t12 has the length of 22 mS, starting from the first
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registered periods of received signal from the P2.
Time measure shown on graphs Figure 6a amounts
to 5 mS, Figure 6b is 1 mS and Figure 6c amounts
250 µS.
simulated, but rather are created with the exactly
defined volume.
Figure 6c. The second level of result magnification
Figure 6b. The first level of result magnification
Voltage measures are also shown on the graph
with figures 6a and 6b, where it gives 200 mV and
the Figure 6c outputs 100 mV. Figures 6b and
6c are enlarged details of Figure 6a that show the
analysis of the signal delays. The Figure 6b shows
the first level of image magnification. Shown in
the Figure 6c shows the time-delay (the magnified
result sections) of the signal P1 in comparison to
the P2 signal. Total delay amounts to about 360
µS, which actually matches the t2 - t1. Measurement values of the QTUD method clearly show
that it has excellent penetration through the material in the material sample above, which in this
case is cell structured. This can also show how the
measured values are dependable and have a very
clear response to the defects in the materials. The
ultrasonic heads are created from the piezoelectric
ceramic lead zirconium titanate crystal (PbZrTiO).
Sequential measurements done in pattern will
be repeated with feeding the device always with
the same dimensions of material samples with the
difference in the radius and depth of built-in defect, in order to obtain results of measured values.
The group of acquired results from the measurement will provide data for the formation of tables
that will provide information about the existence
of defects within the sample. After that it is easy to
make the relation between the defects that are not
620
6. Conclusion
Ultrasonic defectoscopy is a scientific discipline that seeks the ways of finding errors i.e.
defects in materials by using sound waves especially the defects in optically opaque materials,
materials who strongly absorb X-ray waves and
in metals where the application of electromagnetic
signals due to the skin effect it was not possible.
Until now the engineering and science world generally trended to the method which uses ultrasonic
impulse echo technique that only requires two
heads. In which the one of the heads was used for
broadcasting the signal and the other for receiving of signal i.e. ultrasonic waves. Currently the
impulse echo currently is recognized as the main
ultrasonic defectoscopy method in the world. The
application of this method has its downsides, most
noticeable, its very high frequencies of several
thousand hertz’s, which are easily absorbed when
confronted with porous samples. The procedure
(QTUD) presented in this paper represents an expanded development of a neglected method that
uses separate ultrasonic heads for the emitting and
reception of ultrasonic waves. Method presented
in this paper relies on five ultrasonic heads in total, one for transmitting, and four for receiving the
ultrasonic signal. Electronic solution contains a
generator of function, one ultrasonic emitter, four
ultrasonic sensors as receptors, and components
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for signal amplification, analogue digital converters and a microcontroller unit or optionally a
computer for further processing of digital signals,
which is loaded with the appropriate software. If
we take that the sample contains material defect,
the largest delay of ultrasonic signals will be at the
ultrasonic head which is actually closest to the defect. Also, the attenuation of ultrasonic signal amplitude is strongest in the ultrasonic head which is
closest to the defect. To show that the listed amplitude is definitely smaller than the rest of the amplitudes, is possible by registering it with relatively
simple and cheap analogue digital converters. The
QTUD being shown here gives a possibility of
using signal delay and amplitude attenuation. As
stated above, one simple conclusion can be made,
which as its shown, is the foundation for "seeking
technical failure", and that gives us the most important answer, whether the sample actually have
a defect. The materials being used as samples for
presentation of the results and the measurements,
in the experimental procedures that were conducted, are performed on a porous and hollow AlSi12
sample made by the direct laser sintering of metal.
Material sample was created at the Fraunhofer Institute of Augsburg, Germany [9]. In the month of
October in 2010 the application has been filed for
the recognition of European patent [11] in the central German patent office, for acquiring the rights
for the ultrasonic defectoscope which is based on
the method shown in this document.
6. C. Weissmantel, C. Hamann, "Grundlagen der Festkörperphysik", Berlin, Springer Verlag, 1997.
7. K. Jänich, "Vektoranalysis", Berlin: Springer, 2008.
8. J. Gobrecht, "Werkstofftechnik - Metalle", München,
Oldenbourg Wissenschaftsverlag, 2006.
9. Fraunhofer-Gesellschaft zur Förderung der angewandten Forschung e. V., München, Fraunhofer-Institut Augsburg, Germany. http://www.fraunhofer.de
10. SLM Solutions GmbH, Lübeck Germany. http://
www.slm-solutions.com
11. Deutsches Patent- und Markenamt (DPMA),
(“German patent office“), München, Germany.
Corresponding Author
Zoran Ebersold,
University of Applied Sciences,
Augsburg,
Germany,
E-mail: zoran.ebersold@hs-augsburg.de
References
1. G. Sorge, "Faszination Ultraschall", Stuttgart: Teubner Verlag, 2002.
2. E. Schrüfer, "Elektrische Meßtechnik: Messung
elektrischer und nichtelektrischer Größen", Leipzig:
Hanser Fachbuchverlag, 2007.
3. K.J. Langenberg, R. Marklein, K. Mayer, "Theoretische Grundlagen der zerstörungsfreien Materialprüfung mit Ultraschall", München, Oldenbourg
Wissenschaftsverlag, 2009.
4. V. Deutsch, M. Platte, M. Vogt, "Ultraschallprüfung.
Grundlagen und industrielle Anwendungen", Berlin,
Springer Verlag 1997 .
5. E. Fuhrmann, "Einführung in die Werkstoffkunde
und Werkstoffprüfung", Renningen, 2008.
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Influence of Testing Temperature and Crack
Positioning on Behaviour of Welded Joint
Submitted to Impact Load
Ivica Camagic1, Nemanja Vasic1, Zijah Burzic2, Dzafer Kudumovic3, Tamara Gvozdenovic4, Predrag Pravdic5
1
2
3
4
5
Faculty of Technical Sciences, University of Pristina, Serbia,
Military Institute of Techniques, Serbia,
Mechanical Faculty, University of Tuzla, Bosnia and Herzegovina,
Hydro Power Plants on the Trebisnjica, Bosnia and Herzegovina
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Kragujevac, Serbia
Abstract
Welded joint as a complex and heterogeneous
composition presents a critical point in the welded structure. Therefore, the welded joint structure
safety is estimated based on properties of the whole
welded joint and all of its components. The most
common way to evaluate welded joint behaviour is
by comparing properties of base metal (BM), heat
affected zone (HAZ) and weld metal (WM), but in
a number of cases the behaviour of whole welded
joint defers from the behaviour of weld metal, heat
affected zone and base metal separately.
Testing of specimens with V-notch on Charpy
pendulum, in order to determine impact energy,
gives precious data on local behaviour around
notch tip. That method gain new approaches, new
glances and thoughts in modern application. During the toughness testing, according to Charpy, instrumenting appears as a new approach, and new
glances and thoughts belong to fracture mechanics. The possibility to separate total impact energy,
on the initiate energy and the propagation energy
of a crack, introduces new approach to estimate
material behaviour during impact testing. This is
the most common testing procedure, whether it’s
regarded to the weld metal when specimens are
taken from the additional material applied by special process, or it’s regarded to the testing when
the so called associated tubes are welded to simulate load conditions within the structure. However,
beside significant novelties introduced into procedure of impact testing, data obtained by this testing cannot completely explain conditions of crack
initiation and propagation.
Key words: welded joint, impact energy,
notch, deflection, instrumenting
622
Introduction
The Nionikral-70 is steel chosen for research
of welding technology influence on behaviour
of welded joint components submitted to impact
load. It belongs to the group of low-alloyed steel
with high strength. It has been produced in electric furnace, casted into blooms and flat rolled to
18 mm thick slabs. Strengthening process is combination of classic improvement (quenching and
tempering) followed by grain refinement due to adequate chemical composition, micro alloying and
appropriate deposition. “AKRONI-SLOVENIAN
STEEL” JESENICE delivered the material. Chemical composition of the delivered sheet metal and its
mechanical properties are given in Table 1.
Basic coated, low hydrogen electrode TENACITO-75 is chosen for the plates welding, in diameters of 3,25 mm and 4,0 mm, as defined in
ACRONI Jesenice catalogue. The choice was
made based on the base material properties and
thickness and chosen welding procedure.
Chemical composition of the used electrode
and its mechanical properties are given in Table 2.
Welded joint is butt 2/3 X-weld. Groove preparation is done according to the SRPS C. T3.030.
Impact Testing
Impact testing of the specimen with notch in
base metal, weld metal and heat affected zone
were performed in order to determine the total impact energy, as well as its components, crack initiation and crack propagation energy. The testing
procedure and specimen dimensions and shape, as
shown in Figure 1, are defined according to SRPS
EN 10045-1 and SRPS EN 10045-2, or
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Table 1. Mechanical properties and chemical composition of Nionikral-70
Batch Testing direction Yield strength, Rp0,2, MPa, min. Tensile strength, Rm, MPa, min. Dilatation, e, %
180079
L-T
710
770
14
% mass
C
Si
Mn
P
S
Cr
Ni
Mo
V
Al
0,10
0,20
0,23
0,009
0,018
1,24
3,10
0,29
0,05
0,08
Table 2. Mechanical properties and chemical composition of Tenacito-75
Electrode
Yield strength, Rp0,2,
MPa, min.
Tensile strength, Rm,
MPa, min.
Dilatation,
e, %
Tenacito-75
725
780
% mass
12
C
0,06
Mn
1,45
Si
0,25
Cr
0,55
Impact energy, J
-20°C
110-140
Ni
2,0
-40°C
65-95
-60°C
50-80
Mo
0,35
–– II group - specimens with V-2 notch in weld
metal (WM);
–– III group - specimens with V-2 notch in heat
affected zone (HAZ).
It is possible to calculate the energy needed for
specimen fracture from force-time diagram, Figure 4:
t1
A = ∫ F (t ) ⋅ v(t ) ⋅ dt ....................... (1)
0
Figure 1. Specimen for impact energy determination
ASTM E 23-02.
The notch position in relation to the welded
joint is defined according to EN 875, Figure 2.
The notch is fabricated by milling, in such way
that there are no changes made in material condition. There mustn’t be visible traces of machining
in the notch root.
Liquid nitrogen in alcohol, or petroleum was
used as refrigerant for achieving low temperatures. Testing was performed on the SCHENCK
TREBEL 150 J, instrumented Charpy pendulum,
at room temperature, Figure 3.
Three groups of specimens were fabricated
with different V-2 notch position:
–– I group - specimens with V-2 notch in base
metal (BM);
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Figure 2. Notch position in relation to the welded
joint
Figure 3. SCHENCK TREBEL 150/300 J, instrumented Charpy pendulum
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where:
F(t) - force in function of time;
v(t) - pendulum speed during the fracture in
function of time;
t - fracture duration.
In order to increase ability of impact energy
display, it needs to be decomposed into its components, force and deformation (specimen deflection). Deflection is determined from force-time
dependence. Connection between force and time
is proportional to acceleration properties. Rigid
weight with mass m is used, impact starting velocity is v0, and deformation starts in time point t0.
Deflection is calculated by double integration:
Impact testing results are given in Table 3 for
specimens with notch in BM, in Table 4 for specimens with notch in WM and in Table 5 for specimens with notch in HAZ.
Figure 4. Typical force-time diagram
Dependence of the total impact energy, AT, on
the testing temperature and the V-notch placement
t0
is given in Figure 5, Figure 6 and Figure 7 for
t
three specimen groups tested.
1
v(t ) = v 0 + ∫ F (t ) ⋅ dt . ................. (3)
Testing of impact properties aimed for determim t0
nation of the total impact energy, have all known
Table 3. Impact testing results for specimens with notch in BM
t
s (t ) = ∫ v(t ) ⋅ dt .......................... (2)
Specimen
mark
BM-1a
BM-2a
BM-3a
BM-1b
BM-2b
BM-3b
BM-1c
BM-2c
BM-3c
BM-1d
BM-2d
BM-3d
BM-1e
BM-2e
BM-3e
BM-1f
BM-2f
BM-3f
BM-1g
BM-2g
BM-3g
BM-1h
BM-2h
BM-3h
624
Testing temperature,
°C
20
-20
-40
-60
-80
-100
-120
-140
Impact total
energy, AT, J
118
126
131
120
112
117
123
115
107
117
106
104
107
101
96
93
90
84
80
73
66
41
35
28
Crack initiation
energy, AI, J
43
49
50
47
44
45
50
45
42
44
41
40
42
39
36
39
37
34
37
33
30
24
23
18
Crack propagation
energy, AP, J
75
77
81
73
68
72
73
70
65
73
65
64
65
62
60
54
53
50
43
40
36
17
12
10
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disadvantages connected with probe type and testing conditions. This can be illustrated on example of
the total impact energy shown in Figure 8, for a case
of material with high strength and low plasticity, and
material with low strength and high plasticity.
It is impossible to determine differences in properties of these two steels solely from the numerical
value of the total impact energy, apropos it is not possible to use obtained testing value as comparative in
process of material selection for application. It means
that regardless the obtained values of total impact energy are identical, they satisfy criteria of application
acceptability in first case, and do not in the other.
Since the testing was performed on the instrumented Charpy pendulum with oscilloscope it was
possible to grade affect of notch positioning and
testing temperature on the crack initiation energy
value AI, and the crack propagation energy value AP,
as integral components of the total impact energy.
Areas AI and AP, marked on the force-time diagram, Figure 4, are proportional to crack initiation
and propagation energies [10].
Two types of diagram were obtained during the
testing: force-time and energy-time. Due to the very
large number of testing results and diagrams, a typical example of obtained diagram for each group of
specimens is presented in this paper; group I sample:
OM-3c in Figure 9, group II sample: MŠ-3a shown in
Figure 10 and group III sample: ZUT-1c in Figure 11.
Figure 5. Testing temperature influence on AT for
specimens with V-notch in BM
Figure 6. Testing temperature influence on AT for
specimens with V-notch in WM
Table 4. Impact testing results for specimens with notch in WM
Specimen
mark
WM-1a
WM -2a
WM -3a
WM -1b
WM -2b
WM -3b
WM -1c
WM -2c
WM -3c
WM -1d
WM -2d
WM -3d
WM -1e
WM -2e
WM -3e
Testing
temperature, °C
20
-20
-60
-100
-140
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Impact total
energy, AT, J
47
40
43
28
29
30
23
16
16
7
10
7
5
8
6
Crack initiation
energy, AI, J
Tenacito-75 Electrode
17
12
19
12
12
14
14
6
7
4
6
4
2
5
2
Crack propagation
energy, AP, J
30
28
24
16
17
16
9
10
9
3
4
3
3
3
4
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ure 12 for BM, in Figure 13 for WM, and in Figure
14 for HAZ.
The deflection, Df, represents the value of pendulum trajectory from the moment of contact with
specimen to the final fracture. This value represents significant indicator of plasticity evaluation
of any material, as well as welded joint components in this particular case.
Influence of testing temperature and V-notch
placement on the deflection value, Df, is shown in
Figure 15 for BM, in Figure 16 for WM, and in
Figure 17 for HAZ.
Figure 7. Testing temperature influence on AT for
specimens with V-notch in HAZ
Regarding curve nature, it entirely depends on
V-notch placement and testing temperature. Analyzing obtained curves, almost identical dependence of single curves nature can be seen in every
group at the same temperature, with a difference
between groups solely in the maximal force value,
Fmax, and total impact energy AT. Maximal force,
Fmax, represents the force level on which first crack
initiates and at the same time it is a force of fracture
development slow hold up, Fhu, after which ductile fracture occurs. Simplified, the maximal force
separates the crack initiation energy, AI, from the
crack propagation energy or fracture energy, AP.
Influence of testing temperature and V-notch
placement on the crack initiation energy, AI, and
the crack propagation energy, AP, is shown in Fig-
Figure 8. Force-deflection impact testing diagram
a) high strength-low plasticity
b) low strength-high plasticity
Table 5. Impact testing results for specimens with notch in HAZ
Specimen
mark
HAZ-1a
HAZ-2a
HAZ-3a
HAZ-1b
HAZ-2b
HAZ-3b
HAZ-1c
HAZ-2c
HAZ-3c
HAZ-1d
HAZ-2d
HAZ-3d
626
Testing temperature,
°C
20
-20
-60
-100
Impact total energy,
AT, J
Crack initiation
energy, AI, J
Crack propagation
energy, AP, J
129
124
119
125
129
109
72
91
53
99
48
64
Tenacito-75 Electrode
45
41
39
40
40
36
22
40
10
10
21
47
84
83
80
85
89
73
50
51
43
89
27
17
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a) Force-time diagram
b) Energy-time diagram
Figure 9. Diagrams obtained during impact testing of specimen BM-3c
a) Force-time diagram
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b) Energy-time diagram
Figure 10. Diagrams obtained during impact
testing of specimen WM-3a
a) Force-time diagram
b) Energy-time diagram
Figure 11. Diagrams obtained during impact testing of specimen HAZ-1c
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Figure 12. Ratio between the crack initiation energy, AI, and the crack propagation energy, AP, of
the total impact energy , AT, in BM
Figure 15. Change of the deflection value, Df, in
dependence to the temperature in BM
Figure 13. Ratio between the crack initiation energy, AI, and the crack propagation energy, AP, of
the total impact energy , AT, in WM
Figure 16. Change of the deflection value, Df, in
dependence to the temperature in WM
Figure 14. Ratio between the crack initiation energy, AI, and the crack propagation energy, AP, of
the total impact energy , AT, in HAZ
628
Figure 17. Change of the deflection value, Df, in
dependence to the temperature in HAZ
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Conclusion
Total impact energy values, as well as fracture
process and appearance of fracture surfaces significantly depend on testing temperature, since it
is closely connected to plastic properties of tested
material. Decreasing the temperature is suitable
for creation of brittle state and it is especially characteristic for welded joint as typical heterogeneous
composition. Total impact energy, AT, decreases
with testing temperature decrease successively
from room temperature till -140°C at all specimen
groups (WM – HAZ - BM). Testing temperature
influence is biggest on specimens with V-notch
placed in WM, apropos the biggest drop of the total impact energy appears within these specimens.
Position from which specimens were taken has
influence on the total impact energy value AT, as
well as the V-notch position. Welded joint structure heterogeneity, followed by different mechanical properties of some areas in welded joint (base
metal, weld metal and heat affected zone), has crucial affect on impact properties, more precisely on
the total impact energy value.
Specimens with V-notch in base metal have the
highest value of total impact energy and it is round
125 J, for testing at the room temperature. Specimens with V-notch in WM have the lowest value
of total impact energy and it is round 43 J, for testing at the room temperature. Total impact energy is
round 124 J in case V-notch is positioned in HAZ.
Testing of a specimen with V-notch placed in
BM showed that the ratio between crack initiation energy, AI, and crack propagation energy, AP,
changes in dependence to testing temperature and
notch positioning. In case of specimens with notch
placed in BM the ratio between crack initiation
energy and crack propagation energy at the room
temperature equals 1:1,64, and at temperature of
-140°C it equals 1:1,67. In case of specimens
with notch placed in WM the ratio between crack
initiation energy and crack propagation energy at
room temperature equals 1:1,71, and at temperature of -140°C it equals approximately 1:1. Nature of force-time and energy-time curves at the
room temperature matches the nature of ductile
materials, with low crack initiation energy, AI, and
high crack propagation energy, AP. With reducing of testing temperature the nature of force-time
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and energy-time curves matches the properties
of ductile-brittle materials, with relatively similar values of crack initiation energy, AI, and crack
propagation energy, AP, and respectively for specimens tested at -140°C it matches the properties of
brittle materials. This information is very important for selection of this material for the specific
exploitation conditions.
Specimens with V-notch placed in HAZ have
the most optimal ratio between crack initiation energy, AI, and crack propagation energy, AP. The ratio
between crack initiation energy and crack propagation energy goes from 1:1,98 for testing at the room
temperature up to 1:1,71 for testing at -100°C.
Analyzing the effect of testing temperature and
V-notch placing on deflection values, Df, it can be
seen that deflection, Df, as important component
of material plasticity evaluation, has similar tendency as total impact energy, AT, and respectively
as its components, crack initiation energy, AI, and
crack propagation energy, AP, which benefits to
the previous assertion regarding material plasticity decrees.
Specimens with V-notch placed in base metal
and heat affected zone have the biggest deflection, and respectively the best ductile properties.
Specimens with notch placed in weld metal have
the smallest deflection, and respectively the worst
ductile properties. Thus, the welded joint heterogeneous composition caused that weld metal have
the worst ductile properties.
References
1. Camagic I.: Analiza napona i deformacija zavarenih spojeva niskolegiranih celika povisene
cvrstoce u prisustvu prslina; magistarski rad,
Fakultet tehničkih nauka, Kosovska Mitrovica,
2009.
2. SRPS EN 10045-1: Mehanicka ispitivanja metala,
Ispitivanje udarom po Sarpiju, Deo 1, Termini i
definicije, 1993.
3. SRPS EN 10045-2: Mehanicka ispitivanja metala,
Ispitivanje udarom po Sarpiju, Deo 2, Metoda
ispitivanja, 1993.
4. EN 875: Welded butt joints in metallic materialsSpecimen, location and notch orientation for impact test, 1995.
629
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5. KUDRIN V.: Steelmaking; Mir Publishers, 1989,
pp. 11-12.
6. ASTM E 23-02: Standard Method for Notched Bar
Impact Testing of Metallic Materials; Annual Book
of ASTM Standards, Vol. 03.01, 2002.
7. Kudumovic Dz.: The deformation and stress during
manufactory and a reparation on a welded construction; TTEM, Vol. 1, No. 2, 2006., pp. 53-59.
8. Stojadinovic S., Bajic N., Pekez J.: Micro alloyed
steels weldability and sensibility testing on the
cold and hot cracking appearance; TTEM, Vol. 5,
No. 1, 2010., pp. 218-225.
9. Manjgo M., Medjo B., Milovic Lj., Rakin M.,
Burzic Z., Sedmak A.: Analysis of welded tensile
plates with a surface notch in the weld metal and
heat affected zone; Engineering Fracture Mechanics, Vol. 77, No. 15, 2010., pp. 2958-2970.
10. Djokovic J., Nikolic R., Dzindo E., Catic D.: Estimate of a Power Distributor Life Span Based on the
Fracture Mechanics Criteria; Technical Gazette,
Vol. 18, No. 1, 2011., pp. 103-108.
11. Nagl M. G., Obadović D. Ž., Segedinac M.: Effective Teaching of Physics and ScientificMethod, Tem
Journal, ISSN 2217-8309, e-ISSN 2217-8333,pp
85-90, Vol. 1, No. 2, 2012.
12. Todic A., Nedeljkovic B., Cikara D., Ristovic I.:
Particulate basalt-polymer composites characteristics investigation; Materials & Design, Vol. 32, No.
3, 2011, pp. 1677-1683.
13. Bajic N., Rakin M., Kudumovic Dz., Radosavljevic
Z., Bajic S.: Testing of cracking susceptibility of
high strength micro-alloyed steel; TTEM, Vol. 6,
No. 1, 2011., pp. 3-12.
Corresponding author
Ivica Camagic,
Faculty of Technical Sciences,
University of Pristina,
Serbia,
E-mail: ivica.camagic@pr.ac.rs
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Necessary Skills of Managers in Transition
Countries – The Case of Serbia
Petar Jovanovic¹, Dejan Petrovic², Marko Mihic², Vladimir Obradovic²
¹ PM College, Belgrade, Serbia,
² Management Department, Faculty of Organizational Sciences, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia.
Abstract
The aim of this paper is to investigate and assess whether the skills needed by middle managers in Serbia are the same as the skills needed by
managers in the West. The core of the paper is
the survey which included 500 middle managers
in different companies in Serbia. The aim was to
identify the skills needed by middle managers in
Serbia, in order to effectively carry out their managerial roles and to compare their skills to Western
managers. The survey confirmed the hypothesis
that middle managers in Serbia need similar skills,
as well as managers in developed countries. The
results of this paper can be used in the selection
and recruitment of managers and can help in improving program of education and innovation of
managerial skills.
Key words: Middle manager, Manager’s skills,
Transition countries
1. Introduction
Recruitment, selection and education of managers is a significant issue in any transition country (Alexashin and Blenkinsopp, 2005; Bohle, Greskovits,
2006; Dubois and Rothwell, 2004; Hisrich, Bucar,
and Oztark, 2003; Rivenbark, 2004), Serbia not being an exception. Economic conditions in transition
countries clearly show that it is necessary to train
new-type, modern managers, capable of managing
the firm in the conditions of market economy.
The theory of management defines and analyses competencies as the major skills and abilities
the manager needs to have in order that he/she
should work efficiently, or the knowledge he/she
needs to have in order that he/she should do his/her
managerial job well (Boyatzis, 1982; Dive, 2004;
Hellriegel et al. 2002; Jackson, Schuler, and Rivero, 1989; McKenna, 1998; Neal and Griffin, 1999;
Quinn et al. 1996;). In addition to these theoretical
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
premises, however, the approach of the managers
themselves to the problem is interesting; namely,
their own attitude as to the knowledge, skills and
abilities they need in order that they should work
efficiently and do their managerial job well.
The aim of this paper and of the research that
was conducted was to collect and analyse the attitudes and the practical experiences of upper middle managers in Serbia as regards the skills they
are expected to have mastered and to compare
these to those analysed in similar research abroad.
The findings of this research are meant to help
improve the programme of education and innovation of managerial skills, as well as the selection
of managers.
2. Theoretical background and hypothesis
Upon the completion of the research that took
him several years to do and on the basis of the experiences in a number of companies worldwide,
Jeffery Pfeffer, professor of Stanford University
(1994), concluded that the only real organizational
competitive advantage comes from the human resources and the manner in which these resources
are managed. The only valid way to outdo competition is by people – is the conclusion of numerous
research works (e.g. Harvey and Richey, 2001;
Liu, Combs, Ketchen, and Ireland, 2007; KristofBrown, Zimmerman, and Johnson, 2005; Pfeffer,
1998). But then, people is something every organization has. The organizational culture, the methods of motivating, delegating responsibility to employees, education of employees, etc., however, is
what distinguishes one organization from the others. The political and economic environments do
play and will certainly continue to play a crucial
role in the success of individual organizations in
transition countries and in Serbia, as will the strategies, structures, functions and the technology
631
technics technologies education management
implemented (Luthans, Stajkovic, Luthans, and
Luthans, 1998). It is people, however, who are the
basis of all these.
The managers’ roles, tasks and activities have
been the subject of study of numerous researchers (e.g. Mahoney, Jerdee, and Carroll, 1965;
Mintzberg, 1973; Zaccaro, 2001). Some of these
studies, however, date back several decades ago.
The job of the manager has changed, especially
due to the changes such as downsizing, improvement of technology, or workplace globalization.
Today organizations seek to be ever flatter, with
as few hierarchal levels as possible, however, with
greater responsibility demanded from the managers. Similarly, numerous organizations undertook
downsizing as a response to the need of cutting on
expenses, eliminating unnecessary levels of management and strengthening operations (Blumberg,
1998; Cole and Cole, 1999; McMurtry, 2002;
Sparrow, 2000; Young, 2000). The change in technology, such as e-mail and the Internet, resulted
in the change in the way the manager communicates with his collaborators. The Internet is seen
as the main means of communication, and the ecommerce emerged as a new method of business
doing. Flexible work forms and the capability
of working in a team the members of which are
geographically dispersed is a reality in business
nowadays (Jovanovic, Mihic, and Petrovic, 2004).
Having all these in mind, one cannot but wander whether the managerial skills insisted upon in
the past are still sought for. This issue is especially
important in Serbia, since this country has undergone numerous changes in the recent times and
needs programmes to educate, develop and train
personnel for the future positions of middle level
managers in the organizations of the new era.
Many researches have shown that the level and
the manifestation of certain managerial skills differ among managers at different organizational
levels (Carmeli and Tishler, 2006; Finkelstein,
and Hambrick, 1996; Zaccaro, 2001; Whetten
and Cameron, 2001). The research conducted by
Luthans (1988) has also highlighted important
differences between the top and the middle management levels. However, Luthans focused upon
the difference between the activities of the effective and those of the successful manager. The
effective manager is identified by a high level of
632
performance in the organizational unit he/she is
in charge of, whereas the successful manager is
recognized by his rapid promotion in the organization. The activities characteristic of the effective
manager include substantial time spent in communication and human resources management, the
results of his/her work to be seen after a longer period of time, while the successful manager spends
a larger amount of time in developing connections
and networking, the approach giving results in a
shorter period of time.
The initial presumption of this research is that
it is very important for the economy of Serbia, as a
transition country, that the knowledge and skills of
managers should be improved. The starting point
is that the current situation is not satisfactory and
that it is necessary that areas should be defined,
on the basis of an unbiased analysis and evaluation, which need well thought-out changes. In accordance with the previously discussed points the
following hypothesis was tested:
The required skills of the upper middle managers in transition countries such as Serbia are similar to the required skills of managers in developed
countries.
3. Research approach and methods used
In order to find out what the managers’ attitudes
are as regards the knowledge, skills and abilities
required for an effective and efficient company
management, both secondary information found
in the publications of relevant institutions and organizations, in numerous national and international journals and primary information, collected by
the study conducted in 147 companies towards the
end of 2006 and during 2007 was used. The study
included profit-oriented companies in the fields
of industrial production and services, regardless
of their size and form (the study did not include
non-profit organizations and public administration). The sample included large and medium
companies, private as well as state owned, as well
as companies from different areas of economy –
manufacture, commerce, banking, etc.
The study focused upon the upper middle level
of management, such as functional managers, departmental directors and directors of profit centres in the company. The upper middle managers
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
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in successful organizations are significantly more
included in managing group work, provision of
resources, identification of faulty projects, managing challenges related to programmes, as well as
in evaluation and testing the effects of problematic
projects (Jovanovic, 2007). The aim of the research
was to learn about the attitudes of the upper middle
level management in different companies, taking
into consideration the type of industry, the age, the
field of work and the education of the respondents.
To get the information on the attitudes and
opinions as regards the skills required of upper
middle level managers, a questionnaire was used.
The aim was to have the managers state, on the basis of their own experience, which skills they need
to manage effectively and efficiently. The majority
of questions in the questionnaire were close-ended
questions (30 close-ended questions), while the
open-ended (3) and semi open-ended questions
(1) were much rarer.
The total number of respondents amounted to
558, 549 of which were analysed. Nine respondents were not taken into consideration as their
answers were not reliable. The majority of respondents are employed in organizations in the fields of
manufacture (31.88%) and commerce (29.69%),
whereas the fewest of them are from the field of
agriculture (15.30%). 127 respondents (23.13%)
come from the organizations operating in the field
of information science.
of economy in which they work, their age, the type
of functional manager and the field of education.
Table 1. The required managerial skills according
to the fields of economy
Table 2. The required managerial skills according
to age structure
4. Research results review and analysis
In a poll conducted for the purposes of this
study, the importance of certain skills for the
successful work of upper middle managers was
closely examined. Each examined category was
viewed as regards the economic field, the age of
the managers, the type of functional managers and
the field of education. The list contained 10 skills
most frequently listed in literature, and ratings
were awarded on a 1 to 5 scale.
Each of the quoted skills is important for the
success in the managers’ work, according to relatively high average ratings, as presented in the
above tables and graphs. The tables and graphs of
managers’ ratings are presented in groups according to the criteria that are supposed to have an impact upon the managers’ attitudes, such as the field
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Figure 1. The required managerial skills related
to functional managers questioned
The poll has shown that upper middle managers
believe that the managerial skills are most highly
required, with a very high average of answers of
4.69. The second highest is adaptability skills, rat633
technics technologies education management
ed 4.62, followed by communicative skills, with
response average of 4.57.
Figure 2. The required managerial skills according to field of education
Table 3. Average values for all respondents
Skills
Organizational skills
Managerial skills
Leadership skills
Predicting skills
Communicative skills
Negotiating skills
Incentive skill
Selecting skills
Analytical skills
Adaptability skills
Average
4,17
4,69
4,33
4,26
4,57
4,28
4,24
4,01
4,34
4,62
A high level average of answers given by upper
middle level managers in the poll that the managerial skills are among the most important skills may
be understood as a necessity that certain sectors
of the company and individual processes, or the
company as a whole, should be managed as efficiently and as effectively as possible, in order that
the planned goals of the company be achieved.
The adaptability skills are also characteristic of a
transition economy, in which managers have to adapt
to new situations which often result from a sudden
and unpredictable activities of the environment and
may have a fatal effect upon the company’s further
operations. These skills mean that the managers in
the transition economy have to respond promptly
and find solutions to new, sudden situations, be able
to analyse the consequences of a newly-arising situation for the whole organization and work out and
take adequate steps equally promptly.
634
The communicative skills in a transition economy are understood as a capability to communicate
efficiently both within the company and with the environment in order to create more favourable conditions for business operations. The more successful
the communication, the better the people will understand what they are doing, the more trust they will
have in their managers and the more they will be
included in what is going on in the organization.
The upper middle managers believe, according to the poll, that selecting skills, organizational
skills and incentive skills are least required. The
skills to select people and to make out between
what is important and what is not are, absolutely
speaking, highly rated among the upper middle
managers (4.01), although they are positioned at
the bottom of the list. In the course of his work,
the manager receives a host of information, he/she
is burdened with a large number of problems and
decisions he/she has to make. Upper middle managers in Serbia believe that delegating workload to
collaborators who would solve a majority of problems, while the manager himself/herself would
deal only with those crucial ones, is good enough
a method, therefore they do not attach much importance to these skills.
The upper middle managers rate the organizational skills (4.17) as less important in comparison
to the others, as they believe that these skills are
more important for the managers at lower levels of
management. The incentive skills (4.24) are highly rated, however, they fall into the group of less
important skills. Upper middle managers in Serbia
believe that the incentive skills to start solving different problems and tasks are desirable, but that
they are related to identifying important problems
and tasks and giving them precedence over the unimportant ones, and only then does the initiative
for their resolving follow.
Finally, in view of the responses of upper middle managers as to the skills required taken as a
whole, a conclusion can be drawn that they reflect
the real problems present in transition countries’
economies. It can also be concluded that the attitudes of the managers at the upper middle level are
largely based on their understanding of the overall
political and economic situations in the country
and on the ruling method of selecting and appointing managers. On the basis of the average results
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technics technologies education management
obtained from the answers given by all upper
middle managers interviewed a conclusion can be
drawn that it is necessary to develop the managerial skills, the adaptability skills and the communicative skills in the managers in Serbia.
5. A comparative analysis of obtained findings with the research conducted in developed countries
In order to prove or refuse the first hypothesis,
“The required skills of the upper middle managers in transition countries such as Serbia are
similar to the required skills of managers in developed countries“, we used a published research
of Gentry, Harris, Baker, and Leslie (2007). At
the Centre for Creative Leadership they created a
SKILLSCOPE, a tool for a 360 degree evaluation
of managerial skills. In the periods from 1988 till
1992 (7,389 managers) and from 2004 till 2006
(7,410 managers) the Centre conducted a survey
on which managerial skills are most important.
The managers were required to choose 5 out of 15
groups of skills that they deem most important in
their current job.
The choice and review of skills used in the
research partly differ, nevertheless, some comparison is possible. The comparison of the most
important skills of upper middle managers on the
basis of the research of 2004-2006 period with the
research conducted in this work, led to the following conclusions:
–– The managerial skills in this research as well
as the ability to take action, make decisions,
following through in the research of Gentry,
Harris, Baker, and Leslie (2007) are on the
top of the list.
–– The communicating skills are positioned
third on the list in this research, whereas in
the research of Gentry, Harris, Baker, and
Leslie (2007), communicating information
and ideas occupy the second position.
–– The adaptability skills are not possible to
compare with only one of the identified
skills in the Gentry, Harris, Baker, and
Leslie (2007) research, however, if the
comparison were to be made with the skills
of being open to influence and flexibility,
the difference would be significant since the
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adaptability skills are in the second position
in this research, whereas in the work the
comparison is made with, they are on the
bottom of the list.
–– The leadership skills and the negotiating
skills are of relatively same importance in
both this and the Gentry, Harris, Baker, and
Leslie’s (2007) research.
–– The incentive skills and the selecting skills,
the same as the skills of taking risks and
innovating and the skills to select, develop,
recruit people in Gentry, Harris, Baker,
and Leslie (2007) rank among the least
important skills.
–– The greatest difference is found between the
organizational skills dealt with in this research
and the administrative/organizational skills
since in this research these skills are on the
bottom of the list, whereas in the Gentry,
Harris, Baker, and Leslie (2007) they occupy
the middle position on the list.
As regards the above analyses this research
has proved the starting hypothesis, “The required
skills of the upper middle managers in transition
countries such as Serbia are similar to the required
skills of managers in developed countries“. The
levels of skills of upper middle managers in transition countries, such as Serbia, do not significantly
differ from those in developed countries.
6. Conclusion
The research conducted in transition countries,
especially in Serbia, has shown that the need for
good managers in these countries is urgent. These
countries need managers-professionals, who are
appointed by the owners and whose position depends only upon the results they achieve in managing the company. In addition to general conditions that are to be created by the privatization
processes and by introducing market economy, it
is necessary that managers should be created, educated and trained. The system of education should
produce new, modern managers, and the existing
managers should be included into the system of
permanent training and their skills and knowledge
should be improved and modernized, in order that
they should act as successfully as possible.
635
technics technologies education management
Clearly, Serbia, as well as other transition
countries, needs a large number of new, modern
managers, capable of doing their job professionally. In order that they should accomplish their
managerial roles and tasks efficiently, they need
to have knowledge, skills and abilities. The aim
of the poll carried out in a number of companies
in Serbia was to find out the attitudes of upper
middle managers as to the skills required in an efficient running of the company.
On the basis of the analysis of the findings
obtained, a general conclusion can be drawn that
managers believe that it is managerial skills that
are required most to work effectively and efficiently, whereas the selection skills are the least
necessary. The comparison between this research
and similar research conducted by Gentry, Harris,
Baker, and Leslie (2007) has shown that the upper
middle-management skills in transition countries
such as Serbia are similar to the skills of managers in the developed countries. The comparison of
each of the examined skills with the facts presented in the work of Gentry, Harris, Baker, and Leslie
(2007) has shown that the skills of upper middle
managers required in Serbia does not differ significantly from those in the developed countries.
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Corresponding Author
Petar Jovanovic,
PM College,
Belgrade,
Serbia,
E-mail: petarj@fon.rs
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A New Trend in Vocational Education:
Mechatronics Program and the Preference
Factors
Aksarayli Mehmet1, Çelik Hakan2, Akkan Taner2
1
2
Faculty of Economic and Administrative Sciences, Dokuz Eylül University, Turkey
Izmir Vocational School, Dokuz Eylül University, Turkey,
Abstract
“Mechatronics” has been a discipline of engineering frequently talked about in Turkey as well
as throughout the world in recent years. Mechatronics education given at postgraduate level,
bachelor’s level, associate degree and high school
level has attracted attention in Turkey in the last
decade. Particularly due to its intense preference,
it showed progress the most rapidly in Mechatronics associate degree education by reaching 43 programs in total during the last decade.
This study aims at determining choice factors
of students receiving associate degree education
for Mechatronics program and the effects of type
of high school and departments on choice factors.
The main hypothesis that type of high school and
department of students have an effect on preferring Mechatronics program was tested in the
study. For this purpose, the study was performed
on students of Dokuz Eylül University Izmir Vocational School Mechatronics Program. In this
study, first of all, survey was implemented intended for designating choice factors of students enrolled to the program. Primarily, choice factors of
students were determined via factor analysis and
four factors were found. These factors were constituted respectively as “Consciousness”, “Background”, “School Preference” and “Expectation
after Graduation” in grouping conducted with respect to questions that factors comprised. When
the effects of their demographic characteristics
and high school types and departments on choice
factors were studied, the principal outcome that
high school department has an effect on choice
factors was attained.
Key Words: Mechatronics, Education, Choice
Factors, Vocational School, Factor Analysis
638
1. Introductıon
The term “Mechatronics” was first introduced
by a Yaskawa Electric Engineer in 1969 (Nobuhiro, 1996). Although definitions related to
mechatronics were constructed in the subsequent
years (David, 1996), the most commonly known
definition of Mechatronics is that it is the synergistic integration of mechanical engineering with
electronics and intelligent computer control in the
designed manufacturing of industrial products and
processes (Harashima, 1996). Due to the definition of mechatronics, mechatronics education incorporates the disciplines of Electrical and Electronics, Mechanics and Design, Computer and
Control within itself (Figure 1).
Figure 1. Mechatronics and its components
In Japan since 1983, Toyohashi University runs
a regular ME course in Mechatronics Engineering
and in Europe, mechatronics education commenced
in the middle of 1980’s (Acar, 1996). Mechatronics
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technics technologies education management
engineering courses at undergraduate and graduate
levels, as well as vocational training courses are
rapidly increasing across the word (Acar, 1997).
Today, Mechatronics Engineering education is given in many countries in the world. In the present
day, studies have been carried out on philosophy of
education of mechatronics engineering (Parasuraman, 2002), curriculums (Kayis, 2004 and Kaynak,
1996) and mechatronics’ universal development
as a branch of engineering (Grimheden, 2005) and
mechatronics engineering education was virtually
standardized universally. Although Mechatronics
was brought to the agenda of Turkey in 1993 (Akpinar, 2006), at first the developments in this issue
proceeded slowly. Mechatronics gaining prevalence
in academic and industrial circles could be possible
at the beginning of 2000’s (Akpinar, 2004). Interest
for the discipline of mechatronics has gradually increased in Turkey and throughout the world (Celik
and Akkan, 2009).
2. Study objective and motivation
The objective of this study is to determine the
choice factors of students for mechatronics program and examine the effects of variables such as
type of high school and department, gender, consciousness, background, future expectation on designated choice factors. The main hypothesis that
high school type and department of students in
particular have an impact upon the preference for
mechatronics program was examined in the study.
The world economy carrying on the transformation predominantly with information and technology at a great pace brings qualified human resource, which will professionally compete worldwide, to the fore (Karci, 2003). While rapidly improving technology and constantly altering market
conditions demand for more affordable products
with more quality, customer expectations prefer
multi-functional and more responsive products.
To meet these demands, Mechatronics engineering philosophy is one of the emerged solutions.
The share of automotive industry, which has been
rapidly growing particularly in Turkey, in foreign
trade reached to 21.3 billion dollars according to
the 2007 data. The share of automotive sector in
total exports was 20.1% (The prime minister's office, 2008). The growth in Turkey’s industrial secVolume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
tors primarily in automotive increases the need for
qualified manpower in mechatronics. Vocational
schools (VS) are the schools that can meet the
needed intermediate manpower except engineers
in this field. Consequently, this study’s main motives are the significance of mechatronics education for Turkey and the rest of the world and also
the lack of literature related to preference for mechatronics program.
When the literature examined, it was observed
that studies related to the discipline of Mechatronics, of which their significance gradually increases
in vocational and technical education, were applications with empirical and engineering basis and
national and international studies pertaining to
education and curriculum were quite limited.
It can be asserted that studies related to Mechatronics education and curriculum in Turkey
were carried out in 2000’s and they were quite a
few in numbers. Gurbuz searched for an answer
to the question of how Mechatronics education
in VSs should be in his study performed in 2004
and recommended a sample curriculum for branch
education. Adaptation problems of students, who
studied at the department of Mechatronics teaching in Technical Education Faculty, were studied
by Tuncalp et al. in 2005. Studies analyzing the
development of mechatronics education in Turkey
and the definition of the discipline of mechatronics
as a new branch of engineering were performed by
Akdogan in 2004 and Akpinar in 2006. Goren and
Baser (2008) examined how mechatronics engineering education was carried out in Turkey and
the world and how ideal engineering education
should be and discussed whether ideal mechatronics engineering education is given in four years.
Celik and Akkan conducted a study in 2009 exhibiting the development process of Mechatronics education in VSs in Turkey. They arrived at
the outcomes that technical background was not
taken into account in opening Mechatronics associate degree programs, Mechatronics programs
opened up in industrially less developed regions
and they negatively affected the quality of education. In another study performed by Celik and Akkan in 2010, curriculum structures and problems
of mechatronics programs in vocational schools
were examined. They offered solutions such as
standardizing curriculums and the requirement for
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technics technologies education management
Mechatronics programs to give education with an
option of “electronics” to students with electrical
and electronics background and with an option of
“mechanics and manufacturing” to students with
mechanical background.
Expectations and fears of students receiving education at the department of Mechatronics
teaching in Technical Education Faculty related to
the closing down of Technical Education Faculties and the establishment of Technology Faculties
was studied by Yilmaz et.al in 2010. They emphasized outcomes such as the requirement for eliminating the discrepancies in title and diplomas between students and graduates of Technical Education Faculty and graduates of Technology Faculty.
When the literature examined, it was realized
that there weren’t any adequate studies putting
forward reasons for preference. There should be
many reasons why this program rapidly turned
into a preferred program although not much time
has passed. This study was intended to make up
for the deficiency in this respect.
3. Method
A research was carried out on students studying
at Dokuz Eylul University (DEU) Izmir Vocational
School (IVS) Mechatronics program to determine
the choice factors of students for Mechatronics
program. This study was performed on students,
who enrolled at DEU IVS Mechatronics program,
in 2009. The study consists of two stages.
In the first stage, the data regarding preference
sorting of students, who enrolled at the program in
2007, 2008 and 2009, in the database of the Student Selection and Placement Center (SSPC) and
the data concerning the types of high school and
departments of students in the institution database
were analyzed. In the second stage of the study,
a survey was conducted intended for designating
the choice factors of students. This survey was
implemented on 129 students out of 167 students,
who enrolled at DEU IVS program, in December
2010. Questionnaire form used in the survey incorporates two parts and questions consist of 30
questions in total including demographic characteristics and choice factors. Questions in the first
part comprise questions regarding students’ gender, age, department and type of high school they
640
graduated; questions in the second part comprise
twenty questions, in which students’ reasons for
preference for Mechatronics program and DEU
IVS were questioned. Questions were prepared as
behavior sentences and assessed by a 5-point Licert scale.
In the part, where the obtained data were evaluated and analyses were conducted, factor analysis
was performed to determine the choice factors of
students after frequency distribution for answers
given by students and their demographic structures
were attained. Reliability analyses were applied to
four choice factors arose after factor analysis and
choice variables were attained with respect to factor structures. Descriptive statistics were obtained
regarding four choice factors dealt with and the
effects of independent variables on the designated choice factors were analyzed by performing
statistical comparisons in terms of demographic
structures of students, their views towards IVS
Mechatronics program and opinions concerning
employment and post-graduation with respect to
types of high school and departments from which
students graduated.
4. Present day situation of mechatronics
education in Turkey
Mechatronics entered into the agenda of Turkey in 1993 has been discussed in many platforms
in recent years. Middle East Technical University (METU) has been holding an ‘International
Conference on Mechatronics Design and Modeling’ since 1993 in Turkey. Again, METU started
to publish an international journal named ‘International Journal of Intelligent Mechatronics: Design and Production’ about Mechatronics in September 1994. Mechatronics education in Turkey
commenced with Mechatronics Engineering in
Sabanci University in 1994. In 2003, the department of Mechatronics teaching was established in
Marmara University Technical Education Faculty.
In 2010, Mechatronics Technology Engineering
education commenced with the establishment of
faculties of technology and cessation of student
intake to Technical Education Faculties in 2009.
Mechatronics associate degree programs commenced in Sakarya University VS and Kocaeli
University Gebze Vocational School in 2001. First
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
technics technologies education management
mechatronics departments in high schools commenced education in Balgat (Ankara), Cayirova
STFA (Kocaeli) and Bursa Hurriyet Anatolian Vocational High School (AVHS) in 2003.
Sabanci, Bahcesehir, Atilim, Okan and KTO
Karatay Universities as private non-profit foundation universities and Kocaeli, Yildiz, Erciyes and
Firat Universities as state universities give Mechatronics Engineering education as of 2010. Faculties
of Technology, which commenced their education life in 2010-2011 academic year, within Firat,
Karabuk, Marmara and Sakarya Universities give
Mechatronics Technology Engineering education.
Counterparts of technology engineering are present in United Kingdom, Japan, Germany, U.S.A.,
South Korea and other countries and their graduates
receive the title of application engineer (Vocational
Education, 2010). The Graduate Schools of Natural
and Applied Sciences of Sabanci, Kocaeli, Bahcesehir, Istanbul Technical, Dokuz Eylul, Erciyes and
Karabuk Universities give Mechatronics Engineering postgraduate education. The departments of
Mechatronics teaching in Technical Education Faculties of Marmara and Suleyman Demirel Universities were closed down by the cabinet decision (Official Gazette, 2009). Legal personalities of Technical Education Faculties will be ceased to exist as of
2015-2016 academic year.
First Mechatronics associate degree programs
commenced in Kocaeli University Gebze VS and
Sakarya University Sakarya VS in 2001. As of
2010, Mechatronics associate degree education
is given in 43 vocational schools. Among these
schools, Sakarya University Adapazari Vocational
School has been giving Mechatronics associate
degree education with its internet based distance
learning model since 2003.
5. Dokuz Eylul university Izmir vocational
school mechatronics program
DEU IVS was established in 1982 (Izmir VS,
2010). Izmir VS Mechatronics program started
education in 2007. Specific experiences, which
served as a basis for the program during the period
until Mechatronics program started, were attained.
Education, which started as Instrumentation Program during the first years after the establishment
of Izmir VS, turned into Control Systems TechnolVolume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
ogy Program afterwards and the program carried
education on with this name since 2002. In 2002,
“Control Systems Technology” program within
the context of Program Development Project in
VSs was transformed into Industrial Automation
program (Balci, 2003). This program, which continued education since 2007, was turned into Mechatronics program taking the sector’s demands
for qualified man power in this field into consideration in 2007. The program that commenced education in 2007 admits 90 students with 45 students
for formal education and 45 students for evening
education. At the same time, this program is the
first Mechatronics associate degree program set
up in the Aegean region.
6. Admission percentages in Izmir vs and
respective statistical information
It was mentioned above that Mechatronics students’ interest for the program increased rapidly. It
can be observed that this interest reflected to preferences. When preference sorting of students admitted into Izmir VS Mechatronics program presented
in Table 2 was examined, it can be seen that preferences for students concentrated in first choice.
As it is presented in Table 1, when the percentages of students, who gained admission to their first
choice, were checked, it can be observed that they
were 85.00% in formal education in 2007, 68.89%
in 2008 and 73.33% in 2009. These percentages attract attention as quite high percentages. It can also
be seen that students attending evening education
putting their program in first choice were lower
than students attending formal education. However,
this situation stems from that students mostly used
their first choice for evening education.
Table 1. Admission Percentages in First Choice
Year Quotas
2009
2008
2007
45
45
40
Normal Education Evening Education
1. Preference
%
1. Preference
%
33
31
34
73.33
68.89
85.00
13
11
6
28.88
24.44
15.00
Mechatronics associate degree programs in
Turkey admit students from many departments of
vocational and technical high schools. These departments predominantly consist of departments
641
technics technologies education management
giving electronics and mechanical based education. Distributions of students admitted into Izmir
VS with respect to high school types and departments are presented in Figure 2. Distribution in
terms of high school types is 40.72% for Anatolian Technical High School (ATHS), 29.34% for
Technical High School (THS), 28.74% for Anatolian Vocational High School (AVHS) and 1.2%
for Industrial Vocational High School (IVHS).
Distribution in terms of high school departments
is 36.53% for Electronics, 20.96% for Electrical,
19.16% for Automatic Control, 7.78% for Industrial Automation (Mechanics), %7.19 for Machinery, 4.79% for Industrial Automation (Electronics), 2.40% for Ship Machinery and 1.20% for
Molding. The greatest percentage belongs to the
department of Electronics among this distribution.
Figure 2. Admission Percentages for School
Types and Departments
boy students. When they were evaluated in terms
of high school types, it was observed that 45%
of students came from Anatolian Technical High
Schools (ATHS), 30.2% came from Technical
High Schools (THS), 24% came from Anatolian
Vocational High Schools (AVHS) and only 0.8%
came from Industrial Vocational High Schools
(IVHS). It was seen that Electronics had the highest percentage with 41.9% among high school
departments of students and the departments of
Automatic Control and Electrical followed with
19.4% for both departments.
8. Analysis and findings
In this section, first of all, questions asked
regarding students’ preferences for their departments and expectations were evaluated. Afterwards, factor analysis was applied to the scale
with 17 behavior sentences aimed at determining
the choice factors of students. Reliability analyses
were performed on factors emerged after analysis
and statistical variables were calculated for factors
with adequate reliability levels and statistical analyses and evaluations were carried out concerning
these variables. Subsequently, effect level of high
school type and department of students on choice
factors was studied by applying the t-test and variance analysis on handled choice factors.
8.1 Frequencies and Choice Factors
7. Demographic information
Demographic characteristics of people participated in the study are presented in Table 2. It was
detected that 5 (3.9%) of study participants are
girl students and 124 (96.1%) of participants are
Answers given by students to questions about
their reasons for preferring DEU IVS and Mechatronics program is seen in Figure 3. It can be seen
that the first factor for school preference was DEU
with 32.6% and the effect of Izmir VS remained
Table 2. Demographic Characteristics of Students (n=129)
Variable Count
Gender
Female
5
Male
124
High School Type
IVHS
1
THS
39
AVHS
31
ATHS
58
642
%
3.9
96.1
0.8
30.2
24.0
45.0
Variable
Age
18
19
20
21
21>
Count
32
46
40
11
0
%
24.8
35.7
31.0
8.5
0.0
Variable
High School Department
Electronics
Automatic Control
Electrical
Machinery
Industrial Automation (Mechanics)
Industrial Automation(Electronics)
Molding
Ship Machinery
Count
%
54
25
25
9
8
5
2
1
41.9
19.4
19.4
7.0
6.2
3.9
1.6
0.8
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
technics technologies education management
at 12.4%. DEU is a significant motive for student
preferences. Two factors came into prominence
among reasons for preference for Mechatronics
program. The first factor with 44.2% percentage
was the perception that Mechatronics program has
vast employment opportunities and the second
one with 41.1% was that it is their favorite branch.
Figure 3. Reasons for Preference for School and
Program
The question of “what is it that you want to do
first after graduation?” was directed in order to
measure expectations of students regarding postgraduation. 57.4% of the participants responded
to this question as making vertical transfer to an
undergraduate program, 21.7% responded as getting a job, 10.1% responded as setting up a business, 6.2% responded as re-entering the university
examination and studying a different major and
4.7% responded that they haven’t decide what to
do post-graduation yet.
8.2 Determining the Choice Factors
First of all, common variance levels (communalities) were checked in factor analysis, it was
observed that there weren’t any variables having
a value lower than 0.40 and factor analysis proceeded. Factors of which eigenvalues are greater
than 1 were obtained as choice factors. As a result
of factor analysis, a structure of 4 factors with 14
questions presented in Table 3 was attained. Eigenvalues of factors were respectively found as
3.563; 2.203; 1.361 and 1.225. The first factor explains 26% of total variability, the second factor
expresses 16% of total variability, the third one explains its 10% and the fourth one explicates its 9%
and all four factors explains approximately 60%
of total variability in total. Factor rotation was performed to designate variables are situated under
what factor and the acquired factors and questions
they contain are presented in Table 3.
When the reliability levels of choice factors in
Table 3 examined, reliability coefficient of Factor
1 was detected as 0.72, reliability coefficient of
Factor 2 was found as 0.64, reliability coefficient
of Factor 3 was found as 0.35 and reliability coefficient of Factor 4 was obtained as 0.49. It was
determined that reliability levels of Factor 1 and 2
were acceptable. It is suggested for other factors
that questions, which generated factors, should be
reviewed by upgrading the scale for subsequent
studies and if necessary, appropriate questions
should be added to the experimental group. Factors
were constituted respectively as “Consciousness”,
Table 3. The Results of Factor-Reliability Analysis and Distributions of Factor Loads
Factors Component Extraction Factors’ Load Eigenvalue Change % Cumulative Change
Q30
0.582
0.713
Q26
0.670
0.711
Q35
0.574
0.693
Factor 1
3.563
25.447
25.447
Q25
0.471
0.609
Q23
0.651
0.586
Q34
0.551
0.582
0.663
0.763
Q22
0.749
2.203
15.739
41.186
Factor2
Q21
0.590
Q28
0.561
0.650
Q27
0.523
0.696
Factor 3
Q24
0.545
0.645
1.361
9.724
50.911
Q33
0.595
0.637
Q37
0.749
0.861
Factor 4
1.225
8.750
59.661
Q32
0.627
0.574
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
Alpha
0.721
0.639
0.349
0.493
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technics technologies education management
“Background”, “IVS Preference” and “Post-grad- As in Factor 3, this factor had a low reliability as
uation Expectation” in grouping conducted with well. It is suggested that this factor should also be
respect to questions that factors comprise and they improved and if necessary, appropriate questions
are presented in Table 4.
should be added to the experimental group.
Six items constituted “Consciousness” factor.
At this stage, the effects of gender, high school
This factor was named as “Consciousness” factor type and department of students on choice factors
because it consisted of questions including that were analyzed. “Consciousness” and “Background”
students consciously preferred Mechatronics pro- factors, of which their reliability was found approprigram, they intend to work in this field and if there ate, were extracted as choice factors. Besides, comis still a chance for preference, they will prefer this parisons in terms of gender couldn’t be performed
program again.
because almost all students are boys. In the study,
It was seen that questions that examine the suit- the principal hypothesis that high school type and
ability of vocational and technical backgrounds of department of students in particular had an effect on
students were situated in Factor 2. Three questions preferring Mechatronics program was tested. This
form this factor. Questions, which denote that high principal hypothesis were statistically expressed and
school type and department is suitable for mecha- tested with two hypotheses as given below.
tronics program and for this reason, education will
H1: High school type had an effect on choice
be easier, were determined as “Background” factor. factors (1)
When three items situated in Factor 3 examined,
H1: High school department had an effect on
it was observed that they were particularly related choice factors (2)
to receiving education in Izmir VS. Therefore, Factor 3 was named as IVS. However, its low reliabil8.3 The effect of high school type and departity put forward the need for improving this factor. It
ment on choice factors- Hypothesis Testing
is recommended that researchers, who will use the
Variance analysis was conducted in order to descale, should improve this factor and adjust it with
respect to institution, where research is conducted. termine the effect of high school type, from which
Two items are situated in Factor 4 and this students came, on “Consciousness” and “Apfactor was named as “Post-graduation” because propriate Background” factors. It was found that
these items contained students’ opinions regard- high school type affected “Consciousness” factor
ing after graduation from Mechatronics program. (Ftest=3.360; p=0.038) and did not have any effect
Table 4. The Results of Factor-Reliability Analysis and Distributions of Factor Loads
Factors
Component
Q30 If I have a chance to choose again today, I would like to study this major again
Q26 I feel myself luck as a student studying Mechatronics program
Consciousness Q35 I recommend Mechatronics program to those, who would like to study it
(Factor1)
Q25 I consider that mechatronics technician is a suitable profession for me
Q23 I think that I consciously preferred Mechatronics program
Q34 I would like to work in a field related to Mechatronics after graduation
Q22 I suppose that department where I graduated from high school is compatible with
Mechatronics program
Background
Q21 I think that education I received in high school from where I graduated provided me
(Factor2)
adequate background to study Mechatronics program
Q28 I think that studying Mechatronics program is easy
Q27 I encountered an educational environment suitable for my expectations in IVS
IVS
Q24 I wouldn’t want to study at another VS other than IVS
(Factor3)
Q33 I think that I will equip myself thoroughly to be able to perform my profession successfully
after graduated from this school
Post-graduation Q37 It will be easy to get a job related to my profession after my graduation
(Factor4)
Q32 I believe that I can find a job related to my profession after my graduation
644
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
technics technologies education management
on “Appropriate Background” factor (Ftest=3.015;
p=0.053). Charts of confidence interval with assessments of students on choice factors of “Consciousness” and “Background” with respect to high school
type at a 95% confidence level are presented in Figure 5. As can be seen in charts, “Consciousness”
factor is a greater reason for preference in comparison with other choice factors in every school type.
At the same time, when comparisons regarding difference among school types were checked, a statistically significant difference (ttest = 2.445; p=0.019 <
0.05) was only found among THS and AVHS graduates for “Consciousness” factor. It can be argued that
THS graduates made their choices more consciously compared to AVHS graduates.
tor is a greater reason for preference in comparison with other choice factors for departments in
general. At the same time, when comparisons concerning difference among high school departments
were checked, statistically significant differences
were attained among graduates from Electrical
and Automatic Control (p=0.000 <0.05), graduates
from Electrical and Industrial Automation Technology- Mechanics (IAT Mechanics) (p=0.000 <0.05),
graduates from Automatic Control and Electronics
(p=0.000 <0.05), graduates from Automatic Control and Machinery (p=0.000 <0.05), graduates
from Electronics and IAT Mechanics (p=0.000
<0.05), graduates from IAT Mechanics and Machinery (p=0.000 <0.05) and graduates from IAT
Mechanics and IAT Electronics (p=0.032 <0.05). In
particular, it can be argued that students of IAT Mechanics and Automatic Control made their choices
on the grounds of background compatibility.
Figure 5. Choice Factors with Respect to High
School Type
Variance analysis was conducted in order to
determine the effect of high school departments
of students on “Consciousness” and “Appropriate
Background” factors. It was found that high school
department affected “Appropriate Background”
factor (Ftest=14.664; p=0.000) and did not have
any effect on “Consciousness” factor (Ftest=0.577;
p=0.718). Charts of confidence interval with assessments of students on choice factors of “Consciousness” and “Background” with respect to
high school department at a 95% confidence level
are drawn in Figure 6. Although there weren’t any
distinction among departments, as can be seen in
Figure 2, it was found that “Consciousness” facVolume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
Figure 6. Choice Factors with Respect to High
School Department
645
technics technologies education management
9. Discussion and conclusıon
It can be asserted that “Mechatronics” and
Mechatronics education that rapidly develop in
the world and Turkey are important subjects to
be dwelt upon. The lack of literature draws attention on Mechatronics education, in which a lack of
planning is still recognized although it is rapidly
growing. These issues were tried to be clarified in
the study. In particular, choice factors of students
for Mechatronics program were studied and significant findings were acquired.
Students’ reason for preference for DEU is understood from both the numbers of people, who preferred it, in 43 programs in Turkey and from the Student Selection and Placement Center (SSPC) statistics, in which it is ranked in first places with respect
to placement scores, as well as findings of this study.
In the study, it was drawn a conclusion that
students’ choices can be explained by principal
factors of “Consciousness”, “Background”, “IVS
preference” and “Post-graduation expectation”.
It was put forward that scale is reliable for “Consciousness” and “Background” factors but scales
of “IVS preference” and “Post-graduation expectation” are required to be upgraded and they should
be adjusted regarding the experimental group.
It was seen that students made their preferences consciously and their vocational and technical
backgrounds affected their preferences. This situation is summed up in Table 5.
Table 5. Table for Study Hypothesis Outcome
Summary
High School type
Graduation
department
Consciousness Background
Effects
No effect
No Effect
Effects
It was found that high school type had an effect
on consciousness levels in student preferences. It
can be argued that in particular Technical High
School graduates made their choices more consciously than Anatolian Vocational High School
graduates. It was detected that high school type
had no effect on suitability of vocational and technical backgrounds of students in their preferences.
In other words, it can be said that technical and vocational backgrounds of students that affect their
preferences are independent of high school type.
646
When students’ factors that determine choices
with respect to high school types were compared,
it was ascertained that students being conscious is
a greater reason for preference in comparison with
other choice factors in every school type.
It was also found that high school department had
no effect on consciousness levels in students’ preferences. Although there wasn’t any difference among
high school departments, it was found that consciousness levels in students’ preferences were greater than
choice factor levels. Another significant finding is
the outcome that students preferred Mechatronics
program because it is suitable with background of
departments from which students graduated.
High consciousness level of Mechatronics associate degree students and as a result, its reflection to placement preferences contains a quite
striking outcome. In general, students being conscious of their preferences and they being able to
be placed into their first choices are an expected
situation for entire university education. When it
is handled in terms of Mechatronics students, it is
seen that guidance in vocational high schools affected university preference positively.
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Corresponding Author
Aksarayli Mehmet,
Faculty of Economic and Administrative Sciences,
Dokuz Eylül University,
Turkey,
E-mail: mehmet.aksarayli@deu.edu.tr
647
technics technologies education management
Demographic influence on students’
performance - case study of University of
Belgrade
Sonja Isljamovic, Milan Vukicevic, Milija Suknovic
Faculty of Organizational Sciences, Belgrade, Serbia.
Abstract
The recent integration of the University of Belgrade into the Bologna Declaration and adoption
of accreditation standards caused many changes:
restructuring of study programs, teaching materials, formats of exams etc. In this paper we analyzed whether these changes have had a positive
effect on the success of students at the University
of Belgrade based on average grades and studying time. Further, we examined the influence of
the Bologna Declaration on students that are coming from different regions in Serbia, especially focusing on their studying success. Finally we are
suggesting a strategy for presentation of Faculty
in order to attract more students and to suggest appropriate study program to them.
Key words: higher education, student success,
Bologna Declaration
1. Introduction
Globalization, technological changes and increased international competition for scarce highskilled labour highlighted the importance of making
European higher education institutions attractive
and competitive world wide. The establishment of
the European Higher Education Area (EHEA) is a
result of a decision made by 30 Ministers of Education upon the signature of the Bologna Declaration
[4]. In1999, 29 European countries reformed their
higher education system and implemented the Bologna Declaration which comprises the following
accreditation standards of the study programs: the
structure, purpose and objectives of the curricula,
competences of the graduates, curriculum, quality
and international compliance of study program, enrolment of students, their grading and promotion,
the faculty staff, material resources, quality control
and distance learning. The purpose of the Standards
648
for Accreditation of study programs is improving
quality of the program, which is a prerequisite in
students’ obtaining competence and consequently,
creating high-quality and competent human resources. Study program quality control implies constant and systematic monitoring of its realization,
and taking actions for the improvement of the quality regarding the curriculum, teaching, professors,
assessment of students’ course books and required
literature. These measures aim to ensure obtaining
competence and academic skills which are socially
justified and useful [3].
Higher education (HE) is identified by Pausits
and Reisky [17] as one of the main pillars for development of the West Balkan countries and their
reintegration in the European and global economy.
HE plays a key role as an engine of modernization and driving force of competitive advantages
through human resource development. They also
suggest that the new elite of society, coming from
HE institutions, would stabilize and improve the
economy and society.
Out of all West Balkan countries, Croatia was
the first to introduce the Bologna Declaration in
2001; two years later, in 2003, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia and Macedonia did the same thing
and lastly Montenegro started with their reorganization of higher education system based on the
Bologna Declaration in 2007.
Before the Bologna Declaration has been effective, in the Balkan region the average time to
finish faculty was the longest between Serbian
students. Nowadays, education system in Serbia
comprises of four levels: pre-school (not obligatory), primary, secondary, and higher. Out of all, the
all young people in the Serbian education system
in 2008/2009, 53% would be in primary education
system, 26% and 21% would be in secondary and
higher education system, retrospectively, [21].
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
technics technologies education management
In this paper we analyze the adaptation of the
Bologna Declaration and the adoption of Standards
of Accreditation in Serbia has influenced students’
success. By rendering the Serbian Law on Higher
Education [18] where decisions of the Bologna
Declaration process were applied and conducted,
all Faculties of University of Belgrade implemented the Bologna Declaration for every studying
degree (basic academic, basic professional, master
studies-specialist and Ph.D. studies).
It is shown in Ćirić [3] that in Serbia wages rise,
whereas the unemployment rate falls with higher
education levels, and that more and more people
see education as an investment that would provide
them with a job, higher earnings and a better quality of life. Additionally it is shown that the difference between the average salary and the employment rate between highly educated employees and
unqualified workers is very significant in all regions in Serbia (the detailed data can be found in
reference above). The author also emphasized the
need for investment in human capital, as higher
education has a significant role in the development
of an individual, as well as an economy.
This was the main motivation for empirical
examination we undertook, to assess whether the
adoption of the Bologna standards had positive
on the number of highly educated people in University of Belgrade. We analyzed the influence of
the demographic and the economic indicators on
students’ success in higher education by analyzing students’ success with respect to the different
demographic regions. Finally, we considered benefits of the implementation of the Bologna Declaration into higher education system in Serbia. The
analysis pointed to potential benefits for students,
from differently developed regions, in order to
attract more students in higher education institutions. Also, results of our research signify a potential of using the same approach for suggesting
appropriate study programs for students who are
enrolling in Faculty.
2. Related work
Previous research in the field of implementation of the Bologna Declaration has been focused
on examining benefits for faculties, universities and
students, cooperation between universities from
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
different countries, with particular focus on the introduction of the two-cycle degree system [13, 22],
examination of policy goals, quality [19] etc. One
of the first research studies that examined changes
in Western Europe between higher education and
its referential community in terms of the Bologna
Declaration [7, 10, 16] determined that universities
are accountable to new education system and highlighted importance of including historical and cultural factors in the reform of the higher education
system. Some of the commonly analyzed topics
associated with the Bologna Declaration represent:
management, development and synchronization of
curriculums [6], importance of students exchange
program, research and practice [5], but also improvement and promotion of the education system
based on the Bologna Declaration [2, 11]. In recent
times, influence and development of the Bologna
process was analyzed for specific fields of education, such as Medicine [5], Engineering [9, 20],
Toxicology [6], Psychology [12].
The implementation of the Bologna Declaration in Slovenia conceded with the start of modification and changes of the education system in
all levels. Abersek [1], described development of
vocational education and training system in Slovenia, emphasized importance of HE based on
the Bologna Declaration standards which would
include social, technological and educational dimension. Restructured HE system in Slovenia, allowed a relatively high degree of students mobility on international level, promoting their acquired
methodological and methodical knowledge at university. In a similar way, reform of HE is conducted in Bosnia and Herzegovina, with significant issue on competence of education and training for
quality higher education system.
Parallel with adopting the Bologna Declaration, universities and faculties in Serbia developed
their own strategies and programs in order to adapt
changes and current market trends, focusing on
continual monitoring of education needs. In order
to define the target group whose education needs
should be fulfilled, faculties intensify cooperation
with secondary schools, provide assistance with
professional orientation for students as well as in
promotion of their own curriculum [8].
Influence and the possible benefits of the Bologna Declaration on transitional West Balkan coun649
technics technologies education management
tries was analyzed in Ćirić [3] and Pausits and Reisky [17] from the institutional aspect (e.g. HE politics, stakeholders, finance, strategy, management
etc.). The previous research studies performed by
Mladenovic and Knebl at the end of the 20th century [14] indicated that the socio-economic status,
personal characteristics, and the economic and political climate affected a students’ propensity at Faculty. However to the best of our knowledge there is
no empirical evidence of influence of the Bologna
Declaration process on a student’s success, particularly in relation to socio-economic regions of students in transitional countries.
of employees of the working-age population. The
Eastern Serbia region is the least populated region
and the region with the lowest incomes. The citizens
of the Central Serbia are by employment and average incomes a little above the average, compared
to the average for the entire country. The Western
region of Serbia, despite the good natural resources,
is not sufficiently developed, as is shown by high
unemployment rate and low average incomes.
3. Socio-economic situation in Serbia
Serbia is one of the so-called West Balkan
Transitional Countries, which in the 1990s adopted a parliamentary democracy and market economy in exchange for a socialist state system. With
the beginning of the transition period, when the
previous main conception of agreed socialism was
starting to be substituted gradually by the conception of the market economy, changes in the business market became important in Serbia. Observing the demographic, economic and social situation in Serbia, we will give a brief review of the
country's key welfare indicators for its six main
regions (Vojvodina, Belgrade region, Central
Serbia, Eastern Serbia, Southern Serbia, Western
Serbia), (source: Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia, Communications-Employment and
Earnings [21]). Taking into consideration the situation in the regions according to the population,
employment, average income, the Belgrade region
is in the best position. Although it encompasses
the smallest area, this region has the largest number of residents and employees, and has the highest income per capita - almost for one third higher
than in other regions. Based on that fact, it can be
expected that the largest number of young people,
who continue with their education after finishing
high schools, is coming from the Belgrade region.
The current situation in Serbia indicates that
the highest rate of unemployment and the lowest
salaries (per capita incomes) are in the region of
South Serbia. Vojvodina represents an agricultural
region with the largest area and the highest number
of inhabitants, but also with the highest proportion
650
Figure 1. Serbian population in six regions
Taking into consideration the indicators of the
population in every region (Figure 1), the size
of the region, the number of people working per
1000 inhabitants (Figure 2), and the average income, in Euros (Figure 3), we can conclude that
the Belgrade region, Vojvodina and Western Serbia represent the higher developed regions, from
where a greater number of students that wish to
continue with higher education can be expected to
come from.
Figure 2. Number of employment per 1000 inhibitions in each region
Based on the previous income indicators, the
percentage of young people that have the opportunity and could afford to continue education and
training away from home is relatively small. On
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
technics technologies education management
the other hand, in order to improve the situation,
and progress of the region, it is necessary to educate as many young people as possible, through
the process of higher education. Therefore, it is
needed to have a strategy to help young people
from regions with lower income and low rate of
employment to continue their education and development. At the same time, it is necessary to
motivate those young people to return to their
home region after graduation, to contribute to the
progress and development of the region and country, with their new knowledge and skills.
4). This difference is even greater, considering that,
Non-Bologna students had more time to finish the
Faculty, by the time the data was collected.
Figure 4. Number of graduated Non-Bologna
and Bologna students at Faculty
Figure 3. Average salaries in Serbia
In next sections we discuss how examined the
students’ success, with respect to different regions
and study programs, and try to suggest adequate
study programs and measures that would allow
efficient studying for potential students from less
developed regions.
4. Influence of the Bologna Declaration on
students success
The empirical analysis of the paper used data
about the success of the students, collected from the
Faculty of Organizational Sciences, University of
Belgrade (in further text Faculty). The data are divided into two groups: records about the graduated
students that enrolled in Faculty in the academic
years from 2000/2001 to 2002/2003 (in further
text Non-Bologna students) and records about the
graduated students that enrolled in Faculty in the
academic years 2003/2004 to 2006/2007 (in further text Bologna students). First, we analyzed the
number of Non-Bologna and Bologna students that
enrolled in the Faculty and graduated. The number
of graduated students has increased by 16% after
implementation of the Bologna Declaration (Figure
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Further, we analyzed if implementation of
the Bologna Declaration into the Serbian higher
education system had a good influence on average grades and average years of study. Average
grades grew, from 8.13±0.2884 for Non-Bologna
students to 8.42±0.3346 for Bologna students and
average time of study decreased from 6.45 ± 1.52
on 5.09 ± 0.53 years in average (Table 1). Beside
shorter studying period, it is important to highlight
that Bologna students study period also has smaller variance, which resulted in almost all students
finishing Faculty in less than 68 months.
Table 1. Variables Average grade and Average years of study for Non-Bologna and Bologna students
Variable
Average
grades
Average
years of
study
Groups
Non-Bologna
students
Bologna students
Non-Bologna
students
Bologna students
Average Variance
8.424769 0.334603
8.130521 0.288460
5.09380
0.537366
6.452055 0.518274
The very important issue that we wanted to raise
is potentially significant difference between NonBologna and Bologna students Average grade numbers and Average years of study numbers. First,
we used Kolmogorov-Smirnov test (Table 2) and
determined that variables weren’t distributed normally: Average grade (Z=2.607, p<0.01), Average
years of study (Z=8.025, p<0.01). Consequently,
we used non-parametric test for further analyses.
Using non-parametric test for the two independent samples (Mann-Whitney test), we found that
651
technics technologies education management
there exists a significant difference between NonBologna and Bologna students in Average grade
and in Average years of study, with significance
level below 0.01. Table 3 shows detailed results of
statistical test.
Table 2. The results of used Kolmogorov-Smirnov
test for variables Average grade and Average years of study for all students
One-Sample
Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test
Average
grade
Average
years of
study
N
1359
8.22355
.574960
2.607
.000
1359
5.82
1,234
8.025
.000
Mean
Normal
Parameters
Std. Deviation
Kolmogorov-Smirnov Z
Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)
4.1 Analysis of students success by the regions
Analyzing the number of Non-Bologna and
Bologna graduated students from different regions
of the country, we show in Table 4 that the largest
number of students who enrolled in Faculty and
graduated is from Belgrade region (which is expected because of the best economic situation, as
well as closeness of residence and place of study).
Data from the Table 4, indicates that after the
implementation of the Bologna process, the number of students from Central Serbia and Vojvodina
have increased, especially from Vojvodina where
the number of students who finished the Faculty
increased by 76%. This can be interpreted as the
result of high employment rate, i.e. a good standard of living, and the awareness of benefits of
HE, in that region.
A lower interest for attending the Faculty is
noted by students from Eastern and Southern Serbia, probably because of low income and low employment rates, or insufficient information about
the possibilities for continuing education (see
Section 3). Further analysis of students success,
as presented in this section, showed that students
from these regions have good average grades.
That fact makes these regions to be suitable as
the main focus for a) defining adequate promotion
strategies to increase the interest for HE, and b)
applying measures that could help students to enroll in the Faculty (e.g. lower scholarships, easier
payment procedures, student loans and grants, internship program etc.).
We analyzed the average grades and average
years of study of Non-Bologna and Bologna students by the regions. It can be seen that the introduction of the Bologna Declaration had a good
influence by both criteria in every region: At the
Faculty level, Average grades are higher and Average years of study are lower level for Bologna
than Non-Bologna students (Figure 5).
Table 3. The results of Mann-Whitney test for variables Average grade and Average years of study
Non-Bologna students
Bologna students
Mann-Whitney U
Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)
Average grade
Average years of study
Mean Rank
Sum of Ranks
585.42
427356.00
789.77
496764.00
160541.000
.000
Mean Rank
Sum of Ranks
880,78
642971,00
446,98
281149,00
83014.00
.000
Table 4. Number of students that enrolled in the Faculty from 2000 to 2006 year and graduated
Region
Belgrade region
Central Serbia
Eastern Serbia
Southern Serbia
Vojvodina
Western Serbia
Grand Total
652
Non-Bologna students
392
98
13
31
25
70
629
Bologna students
452
134
10
16
44
74
730
% change
15,31%
36,73%
-23,08%
-48,39%
76,00%
5,71%
16,06%
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technics technologies education management
a)
b)
Figure 5. Studying Success of Bologna and NonBologna students (a) average grades (b) average
years of study
With respect to average years of study, the largest improvements are achieved in regions with
better socio-economic situation: Belgrade region,
Central Serbia and Vojvodina (Figure 5b). According to the new educational system, average grade
for these 3 regions exceeded the threshold (doorstep) of 8.42. Before the introduction of the Bologna Declaration, the Belgrade region and Vojvodina had the worst average time of study and with
the Bologna Declaration the best average studying
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
time is in Vojvodina. The major change in average grade is recognized for students from Eastern
Serbia, where average grade have changed from
8.223 to 8.881.
The lowest impact from introduction of the
Bologna Declaration is recorded in regards to students from Southern Serbia, where the average
grade showed had the smallest change, from 8.316
to 8.355, and their average grade is still below the
average for entire country. Before the introduction
of the Bologna Declaration students from Southern Serbia had the highest average grade, however
after the implementation of the Bologna Declaration these students had the lowest average grade.
Additionally, after implementation of the Bologna Declaration, a less number of students from
Southern Serbia succeeded to enroll in and finish
Faculty. This indicates the need for adequate recommendation of study programs for students from
this region, which will be discussed in the next
section.
If we take into consideration average time of
studying, the best improvement is noticed in Vojvodina, where average time of studying was reduced by 1.6 years (4.92 years for Bologna students). In Belgrade region the average studying
time was reduced by 1.54 years (from 6.54 to 5.04
years). The smallest improvement has been noticed in South Serbia (from 5.87 to 5.22).
For investigating potentially significant differences between Non-Bologna and Bologna students’ success (using variables Average grade and
Average years of study) from different regions we
performed non parametric Mann-Whitney test for
two independent samples, with 5% significance
level. Results indicated the existence of significant difference (p<0.01) between Non-Bologna
and Bologna students from same regions. Table
5 shows that Bologna students from all regions
have significantly fewer years of study time compared to Non-Bologna students from the same
region. The statistically significant increase in average grade between Non-Bologna and Bologna
students was only not noticed in Vojvodina and
Southern Serbia (p>0.05).
653
technics technologies education management
Table 5. Results of significant differences between success of Non-Bologna and Bologna students
Region
Belgrade region
Central Serbia
Eastern Serbia
Southern Serbia
Vojvodina
Western Serbia
Statistical indicators
Mann-Whitney U
Z
Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)
Mann-Whitney U
Z
Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)
Mann-Whitney U
Z
Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)
Mann-Whitney U
Z
Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)
Mann-Whitney U
Z
Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)
Mann-Whitney U
Z
Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)
Average grades
62010,000
-7,537
,000
4630,000
-3,840
,000
27,000
-2,363
,018
234,000
-,315
,753
74,500
-,992
,321
1744,500
-3,386
,001
Average years of study
29190,500
-17,445
,000
2651,000
-8,078
,000
22,500
-2,870
,004
159,500
-2,101
,036
42,000
-2,212
,027
1141,500
-6,124
,000
Table 6. Students success by study program at Faculty
Average grade
IS
MN
QM
MN
OM
Grand Total
Non-Bologna students
8.21
8.02
8.10
7.95
8.08
8.13
Bologna students
8.49
8.38
8.27
8.40
8.65
8.42
4.2 Identification of good study programs for
Bologna students from different regions
From the previous results we can conclude that
the implementation of Bologna Declaration on Faculty had a good influence on average grades and
years of study. Additionally, we analyzed the Bologna students’ success by regions and study programs
and tried to identify adequate study programs for
students from different regions. On Faculty of Organizational Sciences (part of University of Belgrade,
Serbia) there are two study programs: Information
Systems (IS) and Management (MN). The Information System study program offers students a contemporary learning experience in the fields of information systems and technology. The Management
study program is based on a contemporary business
and development program in management, market654
Average year of study
Non-Bologna students
6.25
6.74
6.44
6.99
6.64
6.45
Bologna students
5.09
5.06
5.09
5.12
4.78
5.09
ing, economy, finance, human resources, operations
management, quality management, project management and investment management, in a local and
international environment. The Management study
program is further divided on three sub-programs:
Quality management (QM), Management (MN)
and Operational management (OM).
Non-Bologna students who attended the Information Systems program achieved higher average
grades and less number of years to complete Faculty than students that attended the Management
program.
Additionally, the average grade of Bologna students of Information Systems program is higher
than the average grade of the Faculty, and the average number of studying years is lower than the
Faculty standard, as it is shown in previous table.
For Bologna students the best results are achieved
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
technics technologies education management
by students of the Operational Management subprogram (the number of years to complete studies
is decreased from 6.64 to 4.78 years).
Figure 6. Success of Bologna students by study
program
The similar type of improvements after the
implementation of the new system of education
is least noticeable amongst students whose subprogram is Quality Management. The average
grade of this sub-program has increased from 8.10
(before the implementation of the Bologna Declaration) to 8.27 (after the implementation of the
Bologna Declaration) during the period of three
years, and the average grade is still under the grade
average of the overall Faculty. The most notable
increase in average grades is accomplished in the
Operational Management and Management subprograms, where average grades have increased
by 0.57 and 0.45 respectively.
According to the analyzed results achieved by
of students of different sub-programs, it can be
concluded that there are relevant improvements in
the Information Systems and Operational Management sub-programs due to the Bologna Process.
Additional improvements of educational program
in the Quality Management are necessary where
the better adaptation to new standards, curriculums, requirements of educational program and
the teaching approach is highly recommended.
Table 7 shows the average grades of Bologna
students by regions and study programs. Bold font
denotes the best, and cursive the worst average
grade on every study program and sub-program.
Last two columns show average grade on Management study program (incorporating sub-programs: Quality Management, Management and
Operation Management) and average grade for
both programs (for all students), respectively.
It can be observed that students from Southern
Serbia have the best average grade on the Information System program and Operation Management sub-program. Further, students from Eastern
Serbia have the best average grade, cumulative on
both programs, and, moreover they are the best
on the Management program. Belgrade region is
not the best in any study program (in fact it is the
worst in Information System program and Operation Management sub-program). This indicates
that there is a need for better promotion of the
Faculty in less developed regions in order to attract more students by recommending adequate
sub-programs to them.
Based on previous analysis, we determined
that in the Information System program students
from Southern Serbia have the best grade average,
therefore we investigated if there are significant
Table 7. Average grades of Bologna students by regions and study programs
Bologna students
Belgrade Region
Central Serbia
Eastern Serbia
Southern Serbia
Vojvodina
Western Serbia
Grand Total
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
IS
8.461479
8.501489
8.59
8.888571
8.57375
8.476
8.48996
MN
QM
8.291127
8.183636
9.02
8.1425
8.4
8.245
8.274038
MN
8.40875
8.351515
9.148333
8.185333
8.565
8.205625
8.401349
OM
8.650909
8.591429
/
8.88
/
8.7175
8.654348
MN Total
8.386
8.348235
9.13
8.2
8.535882
8.287
8.381768
IS + MN
8.413342
8.421735
8.880769
8.355484
8.548
8.395
8.424769
655
technics technologies education management
differences with average grades of students from
other regions (Table 9). Variable Average grade
for a study program in Information systems had a
Normal distribution, Z=0.691, p=0.727 (we used
the same test as in Section 4). In line with these
results, we used parametric t-test for independent
samples. The issue that we wanted to investigate
is the evidence of a significant difference between
average grades of students from different regions
enrolled in Information Systems program.
Analyzing the results of the t-test (Table 9) we
can conclude students from Southern Serbia have
significantly better average grade than students
from Central Serbia, Western Serbia and Belgrade
region. This implies that Faculty should motivate
students from Southern Serbia, Eastern Serbia and
Vojvodina to enroll Information Systems program.
As for students from the Management study
program, the best average grade is achieved
among students from Eastern Serbia. As variable Average grade for Bologna students from
Management program have Normal distribution
(Z=0.655, p=0.785), we repeated the same test as
for the students from Information Systems.
Table 10 shows that students from Eastern Serbia
have statistically better results than students from
any other region. Asides from using the average
grade achieved during the studies, the number of
years spent studying can also be used as a measure
of a students’ success. Analyzing the average time
spent on studying by using Kolmogorov-Smirnov
test (Table 11), we determined that the variable Average studying time did not have a Normal distribution (Z=7.577, p<0.05). Therefore we used nonparametric tests for investigating and analyzing the
studying time based on variable Average study time.
In total, the shortest average study time is recorded with the students from the Information
Table 8. Statistical differences of average grades between Southern Serbia and other five regions for
Information Systems program
Region
Southern Serbia
Eastern Serbia
Vojvodina
Central Serbia
Western Serbia
Belgrade region
Mean (Average grade)
8.88857
8.59000
8.57375
8.50149
8.47600
8.46148
Std. Deviation
0.359418
0.818755
0.766755
0.580783
0.584807
0.608910
Independent Samples Test (Sig. (2-tailed))
0.437
0.323
0.034
0.027
0.019
Table 9. Statistical differences of average grades between Southern Serbia and other five regions for
Information Management program
Region
Eastern Serbia
Vojvodina
Belgrade region
Central Serbia
Western Serbia
Southern Serbia
Mean (Average grade)
9.13000
8.53588
8.38600
8.34824
8.28700
8.20000
Std. Deviation
0.381750
0.725440
0.550053
0.523629
0.533881
0.492597
Independent Samples Test (Sig. (2-tailed))
0.017
0.002
0.001
0.000
0.000
Table 10. Average years of study of Bologna students from different regions and study programs
Bologna students
IS
Belgrade Region
Central Serbia
Eastern Serbia
Southern Serbia
Vojvodina
Western Serbia
Grand Total
5.08
5.19
5.17
4.57
4.88
5.15
5.09
656
MN
KV
4.97
5.18
5.00
5.88
4.67
5.30
5.09
MN
5.07
5.24
4.83
5.20
5.00
5.63
5.12
OM
4.64
4.86
/
5.00
/
5.00
4.78
MN Total
IS+MN
(Total)
5.02
5.18
4.86
5.42
4.94
5.43
5.09
5.04
5.18
5.00
5.23
4.92
5.27
5.09
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
technics technologies education management
system study program that are from Southern Serbia (4.57 years), while the longest study period is
noticed among students from Western Serbia in
a Management sub-program (5.63). The average
study time for students from the Quality Management and Operation Management sub-program
are at the Faculty’s overall average level.
By using non-parametric tests for k independent
samples, Kruskal-Wallis Test, we tested the possible correlation between all six regions in terms of
average study time. At the level of statistical significance of p=0.05, it is concluded that there is no
significant statistical correlation between average
study time and region from which students come.
4.3 Discussion
Results from this section showed that implementation of Bologna declaration at the Faculty
had a good influence on students’ success, as
measured by average grades and average years
of study. Here we summarize results for Bologna
students and propose measures that could further
improve the quality of the studies and number of
graduated students.
Considering the success of the Non-Bologna
and Bologna students from different regions we
can conclude that the implementation of the Bologna process have a positive effect on studying
time and average grades. The best results were
achieved by students from Vojvodina, Belgrade
region and Eastern Serbia. The fact that Bologna
students from Vojvodina have the shorter studying
time is very important for motivating future students from that region, although Vojvodina has the
largest positive change in number of enrolled students after implementation of the Bologna Declaration. Even though the number of graduated
students decreased, students from Eastern Serbia
have the highest average grade, and therefore it
would be beneficial to better promote higher education in that region. To students, from regions
with low income and low employment rate, such
as Southern and Eastern Serbia, it would be good
to provide lower scholarships, easier payment procedures, student loans and grants.
The highest number of students enrolled in the
Faculty is coming from Belgrade region, which
can be explained by high density of that region
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
good economic situation and the vicinity between
places of living and studying. Students from Belgrade region are almost equally interested in Information Systems and Management programs. After the analysis, we established that students from
Belgrade that have chosen the Operation Management sub-program have the best average grade and
they need less time to finish their studies. Even
though there is a great interest in Information System program, students from Belgrade region, who
choose Information System program needed more
time to finish their studies. On the other hand the
students in the Quality Management sub program
needed shorter time for their studies, but they had
the worst grade average among the students from
Belgrade region.
Vojvodina represents the region with the biggest population, greatest employment rate and it
is on the second place by average income. Therefore a larger number of students from this region
is expected, but there are only 6% of students
from Vojvodina. That small number of students
can be attributed to a larger number of faculties
and University in Novi Sad, which have similar
HE programs. In total number, students from Vojvodina have the shortest average time of studying, which allows them to acquire current knowledge at the Faculty, and implement this knowledge in everyday business as soon as they finish
their studies. The largest number of students who
come from Vojvodina chose Information System
program and those students, in comparison with
other students who come from this region, have
the highest average grade (8.573). Recommendation for these students is to choose the Information System program or the Quality Management
sub-program where the least time is needed for
studying. From this region the smallest numbers
of students enroll in the Operation Management
sub-program, and the longest period of studying is
on the Management sub-program, therefore those
two sub-programs need to be more promoted and
popularized among students.
Among students from Central Serbia great interest is for the Information System program and
Quality Management sub-program, but, at the
same time, those students have the longest period
of studying. Students who decided to participate
in Operation Management sub-program have the
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best average grades and one of the shortest periods
of studying. However this program needs to have
more intensive promotion since a small number
of students chose this program. For potential students from Central Serbia recommendation is to
enroll in the Information System program, where
students have the best average grade, but lack motivation in completing their studies faster.
Students from Eastern Serbia, at the Faculty
level, have the best average mark (8.88), but from
this region come the smallest number of students
(only 2%). The reason for this is bad social and
economic situation in this region. Youngsters from
this part of Serbia should be provided with the
ability to continue their education and specialization after finishing high school. This can be done
by providing different benefits in paying their
scholarships and dormitories, giving scholarships
to the best students, but also enabling them for
remote studying (as they can educate themselves
in their place of living). Students, who chose the
Management program, have the greatest success
in the Quality Management sub-program and the
Management sub-program, where they achieved
high grade averages during studying. As students
of Management sub-program have one of the
shortest periods of studying, recommendation for
future students from Eastern Serbia is to enroll
students in the Management sub-program.
Because of the similar economic situation as in
Eastern Serbia, in Southern Serbia small numbers
of high school students leave their place of living
in order to get a higher education. This group of
students is, by number, almost on the last place
at the Faculty. Information System students who
come from Southern Serbia achieve one of the best
average grades and finish with their studies in 4.57
years. This is, at the same time, the best average
time for finishing studies for students of the Information System program, although, in general,
students from Southern parts of Serbia spend the
longest period on their studies. Students from this
region, which enroll in the Quality Management
sub-program, have the longest studying time and
achieves an average grade under the Faculty average. Based on that fact, the conclusion can be that
it is not recommended for students from Southern
Serbia to enroll in the Quality Management subprogram. On the other hand, students from South658
ern Serbia are advised to choose the Information
System program.
The Operation Management sub-program
needs greater promotion, as students who enroll
in this program have good grades, but, in general,
fewer students are interested in this program. It is
important that young people from developing regions, as it is case with Eastern and Southern Serbia continue their education process, as the knowledge acquired while finishing their studies will enable them to have contribution in the development
and prosperity of their origin regions.
Region of Western Serbia is at the third place
by number of students that enroll and finish the
Faculty, although those students have the highest average period of studying (5.27 years). For
students from this region it is recommended to
choose the Operation Management sub-program,
where students achieve the highest average grade
and have the shortest period of studying. Students
from Western Serbia, who have chosen Management sub-program, have the lowest average grade
and they require the longest period to finish their
studies. Therefore they should be motivated to do
the opposite. Also, even though the most students
from this region enroll in the Information System
program, the time they spend on studying is above
the average for the Faculty.
5. Conclusion and future work
Implementation of Bologna declaration on the
Faculties in Serbia gave obvious advantages for
students: students mobility, study program quality
control, improvement of quality regarding the curriculum, teaching, assessment of students course
books etc.
In this paper we investigated if those advantages had positive influence on student’s success as
measured by number of students graduated, average grades and average time of studying. Experimental evaluation of the results before and after
the Bologna Declaration implementation showed
that there is significant improvement of the student’s success expressed in all three measures.
Further, we analyzed influence of demographic
and economic indicators on students’ success in
higher education. We showed that these factors
have influence on students’ success. Out of this
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technics technologies education management
analysis, we developed a model for recommendation of adequate study programs for students from
different regions. The application of this model
could result in faster graduation and better average grades at Faculty, which is important considering that in all regions of Serbia higher education
levels means higher rise and smaller unemployment rate [3]. Higher education has a particular contribution to a country’s development and
strengthening of the national economy, so developing a historical-data based model for suggesting
more or most appropriate or most suitable education program for young people, can represent a
good way for a knowledge-based economy and
the development of a country.
As a future work, in terms of continuation of
this research, the plan is to apply the model for recommendation of programs for students on remote
study programs. Additionally, more factors (such
as student’s cognitive styles) will be included in an
effort to apply more sophisticated techniques (e.g.
machine learning and data mining) for prediction
of adequate study programs.
Acknowledgements
This research is partially funded by a grant
from the Serbian Ministry of Science and Technological Development, project ID III 47003.
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4. Confederation of EU Rectors’ Conferences, Association of European Universities. (1999). The Bologna
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5. Davies, R. (2008). The Bologna process: the quiet
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Corresponding Author
Sonja Isljamovic,
Faculty of Organizational Sciences,
Belgrade,
Serbia,
E-mail: isljamovics@gmail.com
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technics technologies education management
The impact of privatization on insurance risk
management in transition countries – The
Case of Former Yugoslavia
Marijana Lemic-Saramandic1, Ilija Cosic2, Mensura Kudumovic3
1
2
3
Faculty of Technical Sciences, University of Novi Sad, Serbia,
Faculty of Technical Sciences, University of Novi Sad, Serbia,
University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Abstract
This article examines the impact of privatization on insurance risk management in Serbia and
other former Yugoslav countries. In last two decades, these markets were very attractive for new
entrants. We observe several risk management
models depending on market development level.
We find that in transition period less developed
markets are more opened to foreign investments
than developed markets. Supporting the strategic
focus hypothesis, we find that there is a certain
transition period needed for privatized companies
to adopt and understand risk management procedures prescribed by parent companies. We also
find that effectiveness of risk management depends on understanding of risk and risk management options and engagement of all stakeholders
in risk management strategy development.
Key words: risk management, privatization,
insurance, integration.
1. Introduction
During the past few decades, the financial services industry in Central and Eastern Europe has
changed dramatically, due in part to privatization
processes performed in these countries. In general, in
1990s the insurance industry in this region was dominated by state owned companies. Today, in almost
all these countries, foreign ownership is dominant.
This article investigates privatization trends in insurance industry, from a risk management perspective.
In 1994, the Third Generation Insurance Directive (TGID) deregulated the European insurance
market significantly. Since then, European insurance firms have been allowed to operate across national boundaries to encourage foreign competition.
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
This process was speeded up by trend of globalization and opening of former socialistic countries to
foreign investments. Deregulation and globalization of financial market led to integration and internationalization of financial institutions.[1]
The integration process in insurance industry
has introduced numerous changes. In formerly
rather protected insurance markets, entrance of
new players meant a distinct break with the past.
Insurance markets which were once well-developed, deteriorated significantly after the disintegration of Yugoslavia. Because each of the six
newly formed countries of the former state have
different institutional and legal structures, and
also because of differing impact of the political
problems, these insurance markets are at different
stages of re-development. For all of them, however, the aspiration of joining the European Union
encourages reforms which have positive benefits
for insurance market development.[2]
From the insurance market’s point of view, the
European integration process reveals many obstacles to establishing viable private insurance markets. In analysis of the transition from centrally
planned economies [3] several significant issues
are identified:
–– no recent history of private insurance,
–– no recent history of risk management,
–– little respect for insurance institutions,
–– unstable currencies and inflation,
–– undeveloped accounting standards,
–– ‘foreign’ insurance regulation without local
legal precedents,
–– little managerial expertise, especially in
insurance,
–– little actuarial data,
–– difficulty valuing former state enterprises,
–– absence of regulatory experience.
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technics technologies education management
In this article we analyze development of insurance sector in light of ownership, risk management
and regulatory changes. Using the Serbian insurance market figures for the period 2004-2010, we
monitor risk management models implemented in
new or acquired companies and compare insurance
market indicators of all former Yugoslav countries.
2. Literature Review , Hypotheses Development, Data and Methodology
Understanding of risk management differs
widely from organization to organization. Increasingly, risk management is being seen as a core business practice with broad implications for strategy
as well as day-to-day operations. There continues
to be a debate over right approach to developing
and maintaining risk management metrics and accountability in terms of how risk is reported and
measured, how the metrics are defined, and how
to incorporate the metrics into employee priorities
and reviews. While many organizations are considering how best to measure and report risk, very
few have directly tied risk management metrics to
employee performance measures.[4]
In Literature [5], risk management is defined as
‘the identification, assessment, and prioritization
of risks followed by coordinated and economical
application of resources to minimize, monitor, and
control the probability and/or impact of unfortunate events.
The strategies to manage risk include transferring the risk to another party, avoiding the risk,
reducing the negative effect or probability of the
risk, even accepting some or all of the consequences of a particular risk.
According to [6] risk management should:
–– create value
–– be an integral part of organizational processes
–– be part of decision making
–– explicitly
address
uncertainty
and
assumptions
–– be systematic and structured
–– be based on the best available information
–– be tailorable
–– take into account human factors
–– be transparent and inclusive
–– be dynamic, iterative and responsive to
change
662
–– be capable of continual improvement and
enhancement
This article investigates the impact of new market players’ behavior on insurance industry. We
research phases and models of risk management
and implications of implemented procedures to
the insurance practice. In light of the observed restructuring, we hypothesize the following.
H1: In the transition period, less developed
insurance markets are more opened to foreign investments.
H2: Restructuring of insurance industry in
transition countries is characterized by adoption
of ‘foreign’ insurance regulation and implementation of risk management procedures prescribed by
parent companies.
H3: Companies which are new players in a
particular market are in the early stages of risk
management.
Our research is based on primary database that
consists of regulatory statements of insurers and
reinsurers licensed by insurance supervisors of all
former Yugoslav countries. The data cover the period 2004–2010.
We also orally interviewed 30 representatives of
senior and middle management in the companies
that experienced integration processes through
foreign investments via acquisition, green-field
or privatization in former Yugoslav countries, and
these remarks helped in qualitative analysis of risk
management procedures.
In our research we are comparing achieved results in different markets, analyze development
trends and their impacts on both market indicators
and professional knowledge.
3. Insurance Industry Structure and Measurement Indicators
This section discusses the structure of the Serbian insurance industry and how it has developed
over time.
Since 2004, the Serbian insurance sector has
experienced little real growth and remains small
and underdeveloped. In 2009 the industry accounted for only 4.6 percent of total assets and
5.6 percent of total surplus capital (equity) of the
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Serbian financial sector. With consumption of €76
and €10 per capita for non-life and life insurance,
respectively, Serbia lags behind most of its neighbors in Southeastern and Central Europe [7].
life premium in total premium in 2010 amounted 16%, Croatia 26%, Bosnia 16%, Montenegro
13%, Macedonia 5%, Slovenia 31%, while average for 27 EU countries was 61%. [10]
As a consequence of restructuring of the market, in all former Yugoslav countries the share of
life premium is increasing over time (See Figure
1, Source: [8,9,10] ).
Figure 1. Gross Premium Written per Capita in
former Yugoslav countries, comparison 2004 and
2010
The low level of insurance penetration in Serbia is primarily the result of protracted economic
stagnation in 2005–08. This was followed by a
considerable economic decline in 2009 due to the
impact of the global economic crisis. In addition,
for a long time, the development of the sector was
hindered by the lack of effective insurance supervision, low disposable incomes of the Serbian
population, poor record of claims performance of
the industry, and the dominance of socially-owned
companies, which stifled the competition.[7]
Figure 2. Serbian Insurance Market - Premium
structure for period 2006-2010
Source: NBS data
According to National Bank of Serbia [8, 11], insurance indicators for 2010 are encouraging. After
2009 crisis, Serbian insurance market showed signs
of recovery in 2010. Total premium increased, as
well as share of life insurance in total premium.
It is a common rule that the share of life premium indicates the level of development of a particular insurance market. In Serbia the share of
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Figure 3. Premium in former Yugoslav countries,
2010
From the figure 3. we can see that Slovenian insurance market with the gross premium written of
over EUR 2 billion, is by far the most developed
of all former Yugoslav countries. From the insurance market’s point of view Slovenia is the leading
new member of European Union. Gross written
premium in 2010 in Croatia was EUR 1,2 billion,
Serbia EUR 0,53 billion, Bosnia and Herzegovina
Euro 0,24 billion, Macedonia 0,1 and Montenegro
EUR 0,06 billion. This figures reflects differences
in both insurance sector and country economies.
The number of companies operating in these
markets changed significantly. After independence Slovenia had only one Slovene insurance
company which dominated the whole market. The
market shares of the insurance companies from
other Yugoslav republics was small, so there was
absolute Triglav’s monopoly. This problem was
solved by dividing Triglav in four parts, making
it previous branches separate companies [2]. In
2004 Slovenia had 15 and in 2010 there were 21
(19 insurance + 2 reinsurance) registered companies operating in this market.
The opposite example is Serbia. In Serbia in
2004, there were 38 insurance companies, 2 reinsurance companies, 149 firms engaged in insurance
brokerage, agency and other insurance activities
that had operating licenses issued by the Ministry
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technics technologies education management
of Finance. Subject to the Insurance Law and Law
on Amendments and Supplements to the Law on
the National Bank of Serbia from 2004, insurance
supervision has been assigned to the purview of
the National Bank of Serbia. In 2004, the National
Bank defined and published its strategic goal in the
field of insurance – to create and maintain a secure
and stable insurance sector and restore public confidence in that sector with a view to protecting interest of the insured and third parties.[11]
The restructuring of the insurance industry
started in 2004. and already in 2005 the number of
insurance companies declined by 50% (from 40 to
19); four companies undertook voluntary liquidation proceedings and there was one merger.
On 31 December 2005, there were 19 insurance
companies in the market, of which 16 engaged exclusively in insurance activities, 2 only in reinsurance and 1 in both insurance and reinsurance activities. By the end of 2009, 25 insurers were operating
in the market; of these, 18 were foreign owned. In
the second quarter of 2009, there were also 66 insurance brokerage and agent firms and 8,190 individual
licensed insurance agents. In addition to independent insurance agents, the insurance industry employs around 12,000 people, which makes it, by far,
the biggest employer in the Serbian financial sector.
Dunav remains the only socially-owned insurance
company, accounting for less than 28 percent of
gross insurance premium written. Although in
the past, two state-owned companies accounted
for more than 60 percent of GPW, with the recent
privatization of DDOR and the increasing competition in the market, market concentration is becoming less and less pronounced. [7]
Breakdown by ownership shows that 19 companies were in majority foreign and seven in majority domestic ownership. As a result of privatization in the past period and the entry of foreign companies based on greenfield licenses (11
companies since 2005), in 2010, foreign-owned
companies have dominant share in life premiums
(92.5%), non-life premiums (61.1%), total assets
(66.7%) and employment (65.6%).[8]
Figure 5 (based on [9-10] data) shows that the
share of foreign capital in gross written premium
is the lowest in Slovenian insurance market which
is the most developed one, while the highest share
of foreign ownership is in Macedonia and Montenegro which are the most undeveloped markets.
Figure 5. Foreign capital share in Gross Written
Premium, 2010
Figure 4. Number of insurance and reinsurance
companies licensed in Former Yugoslav countries
in years 2004 and 2010
Number of companies operating in Croatia
and Bosnia and Herzegovina was stable, while in
Macedonia and Montenegro, number of companies increased over time. (Figure 4, Source [9,10]).
With completion of the sale of DDOR to Fondiaria-Sai (Italy), In Serbian insurance market,
664
When analyzing insurance market structure of
former Yugoslav countries, we can see that almost
the same regional players are present in all these
markets. According to answers received from our
representative sample, we find the following risk
management phases in development of ‘new’ market players (new as a green-field or because of a
new ownership structure):
1. Early stage - In this stage new market
players are focused on compliance with
external regulatory requirements and the
need to meet immediate expectations from
their boards, analysts, auditors and other
stakeholders. In these cases, information
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regarding the organization’s risk profile is
generally communicated in one direction
(up) and often used for a single purpose (to
determine the state of the organization’s risk
management practices) [4].
Our data implies that risk management
in these organizations means ‘copy and
implementation of risk management
procedure prescribed by parent companies’.
Senior and middle management representatives were unified in their perception that
there was a certain period of time needed
for new risk management procedures to
be implemented. This period vary from
company to company but is assessed
as period from 2-5 years. Analyzing
respondents’ remarks, we concluded that
majority of companies operating in Serbian
market are still in this phase.
2. Advanced stage – According to [4] companies
in this stage have adopted collaborative
techniques to support cross-functional
understanding of risk and risk management
options. By establishing productive dialog
with internal (and where appropriate
external) stakeholders to determine risks and
opportunities, these organizations are able to
develop consensus regarding risk management
priorities as well as metrics that will be used
to both measure and monitor risk over time.
Stakeholders at all levels (board, management
and staff) are involved in identifying existing
and emerging risks.
As per respondents answers, we can say that
in the insurance markets of former Yugoslav
countries, there are just a few companies
that are close to this stage.
3. Mature stage – To be a mature performer,
organization must move from a defensive
posture on risk to incorporating an offensive
approach to taking risk. Companies whose
risk management efforts are still driven
by regulatory, rating agency or financial
institution pressure are reacting defensively,
and these are not considered positive
motivators for an integrated enterprise risk
management approach [4].
According to our analysis there is no
insurance company operating in region
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of former Yugoslavia in this level of risk
management development.
Effective enterprise risk management approaches help organizations answer questions,
such as: What are the biggest risks to the organization? How are we going to manage these risks?
How do we know that we’ve identified the right
risks? Have we invested the right resources, time
and attention?
Answering these questions requires allocations of resources as well as adequate time and
attention from both the board and management
to ensure understanding and responsive decision
making. Without senior-level support, the work of
‘risk management’ may easily be perceived as bureaucratic exercise that fails to achieve significant
value for the organization. According to [4] companies have been fairly successful in engaging senior management in the enterprise risk management process, but less so for middle management
(Figure 6, Source [4]).
Figure 6. Level of Understanding of enterprise
risk management objectives %
4. Results
The different results in former Yugoslav countries imply different goals set in front of domestic
and foreign companies. Domestic insurance companies are led by the imperatives, such as: budget
filling, development of insurance market, justification of existence and the further growth and
development, while targets of international groups
present in these markets are led by diversification,
investment story for investors, and competition
for leading regional positions. These companies
are very focused on cost reduction and permanent
growth.
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technics technologies education management
Even though in the short term all these groups
might have different goals, in the long run, return
on equity and return on investment, rate the importance of concentration in relation to the size of
the market. [10]
In line with integration processes and aspirations to join to EU, all these countries had to
adopt regulation according to EU standards. Some
of them completed these processes successfully,
while others still have a long way to pass.
5. Conclusion
Economies in transition have a number of specific characteristics, which affect the way of running the economy. Basic problems of government
in the transition period are insufficient economic
growth, high unemployment and inflation, and
a number of social problems. At the same time,
there is a serious problem of investment limits and
capital available for restructuring.[12]
The results of integration trends showed that
foreign investments came in former socialistic
countries through mergers, acquisitions, greenfield investments and takeovers. Privatization was
just the method of acquisition characteristic for
former socialistic countries.
These processes led to development of new
products, new sales channels (for example bank insurance), and increased investment in information
technologies. These processes brought know-how
but only to the certain extent. Trying to establish risk
management program throughout the organization,
regional players were truing to gather risk basedinformation in a consistent manner, which develops
capability and data to integrate risk management to
core decision processes such as planning and budgeting. However, in many cases, day-to-day practice showed that implemented copied procedures of
risk management were inefficient in local environment as they did not incorporate the local insurance
standards and practice. In many cases these copied
procedures caused changes in consumers behavior,
increased negotiated power and caused low degree
of insurers loyalty in local level.
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6. References
1. Bikker, J., Gorter, J. : "Restructuring of the Duch
Non-Life Insurance Industry: Consolidation, Organizational Form and Focus", The Journal of Risk and
Insurance, 2011, Vol. 78, No.1, pp. 163-184
2. Kozarevic, S., Regan, L., Gibbons, J.R.: "The European Union Integration Process and Insurance Market Development: The Case of the Former Yugoslav
Countries", International Insurance Foundation,
Waschington, DC, 2008.
3. Dorfman, M., Ennsfellner, K.: "The Coming of Orivate Insurance to a Former Planned Economy: The
Case of Slovenia", International Insurance Foundation, Washington, DC, 1998.
4. AON "Global Enterprise Risk Management Survey
2010", pp. 3-32
5. Hubbard, Douglas: " The Failure of Risk Management: Why It’s Broken and How to Fix It", John
Wiley & Sons, 2009, p.46
6. International Organization for Standardization: "Comitte Draft of ISO 3100 Risk Management", 2007,
pp.1-2
7. Gurenko, E.: International Monetary Fund Country
Report No. 10/154: Technical Note - Insurance Sector, 2010
8. National Bank of Serbia: Annual Report 2010
9. SORS 2005 – 16th Meeting of Insurers and Reinsurers:
Insurance Market Presentations for Slovenia, Croatia,
Montenegro, Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina and
FYR Macedonia, Sarajevo, 2005 (http:/sors.ba/)
10. SORS 2011- 22nd Meeting of Insurers and Reinsurers: Insurance Market Presentations for Slovenia,
Croatia, Montenegro, Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and FYR Macedonia, Sarajevo, 2011 (http:/
sors.ba/)
11. National Bank of Serbia: Annual Reports 2005,
2006, 2007, 2008, 2009
12. Karahasanovic, D., Avdic, A. Cinjarevic, M., "Improving of Sustainable development indicator with
special focus on transition countries", TTEM, Vol.
5, No 4, DRUNPP, Sarajevo, 2010, p.765.
Corresponding Author
Marijana Lemic-Saramandic,
Faculty of Technical Sciences,
University of Novi Sad,
Serbia,
E-mail: m.saramandic@gmail.com
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
technics technologies education management
Development of technical innovation in
secondary vocational school students
Novica Pavlovic1, Goran Petkovic2, Vanja Voskresenski2
1
2
Business School Professional Studies, Novi Sad, Serbia,
Technical University “Mihajlo Pupin”, University of Novi Sad, Serbia.
Abstract
In regards of the Educational System on all levels there is no real analysis of the educational process, they happen in a unorganized and simultaneous way. This approach basically influences the
quality and the quantity of technical innovation
and creativity in secondary school students. Hence
there are less achievements of greater value.
Technical innovation and creativity has been
regarded in various ways in the field of science.
There are many psychological approaches to the
theory of creativity such as psychoanalytical, associative, “gestalt” , existential, intellectual theory
of creativity transfer, interpersonal and cultural.
All these theories have one thing in common:
studying creativity based on an individual and
completely neglecting team creativity.
Modern education should be focused on the
future. The speed and quality of development in
countries that are in the process of transition is in
direct connection with their educational system.
Today, as science, engineering and technologies are
evolving quickly all over the world, many countries
are carrying out fundamental changes to respond to
the challenges and requisites of the 21st century.
Key words: process, education, technical innovation, creativity theories, modeling, managing,
organizing.
1. Introduction
Humans are technically innovative and creative
beings and the greater part of their personality
strives towards creativity, detection and invention
of new, simple and quality solutions. A smaller
portion of human beings demonstrates destructive behavior, which violates technical innovation
and creativity of men. Innovation and creativity in
the field of techniques could be small, common
things that make everyday life easier, or major
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brilliant inventions and patents which mark the
time. Those brilliant inventions are few and they
change the outlook of the world and speed up the
progress of civilization.
Educational process is a special issue since it
should brace young people for innovative and creative problem solving in technical science. Since
there is no clearly defined methodology of training, the process is left to the will and capability
of teachers and other factors that influence the
development of personal technical innovation and
creativity. There is a need for a solution that will
clearly determine a program and set the way of
studying and enabling students for a technical innovative and creative activity.
In the subject called “General Technical Education” the grammar school teacher modifies the classes to personal affinities. Later, in secondary education, technical innovative processes are somewhat
more favorable, but those are still not completely
regulated. Through mathematics and technical science classes students are encouraged to develop creativity, especially when working on technical calculations and studying engineering methodology.
Besides the term “technical innovative process” which implies innovativeness in engineering, we are also using the term “creative process”
which implies creativity in general. The highest
achievement of human mind is invention.
2. Models of technical innovative and
creative process
The development of abilities of an individual
can be regarded in terms of the development of internal and external influences. Rigid behavior disables creativity, it is the inability to adapt to new
situations, to solve issues in a new and distinctive
way. Barron and Stein concluded that rigid personalities, opposite to creative and inventive ones,
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technics technologies education management
are characterized by inability, lack of initiative,
narrow interests, lack of curiosity, conventional
behavior, ununiqueness, lack of confidence, lack
of flexibility and tolerance, low threshold of frustration, anxiety etc1.
Innovation and creativity as a special phenomenon of science has been studied in psychology at
first. Set thesis about personal innovation and creativity are result of different schools of psychology. There we have different approaches such as:
–– Psychoanalytic theory of creativity,
(according to Freud), is based on the concept
of creative sublimation, i.e. substitution of
libido (instinctive lust) with higher spiritual
activities (art or science). The creative
process takes place in the realm of the
unconscious, not the conscious.
–– Associative theory of creativity, (according
to Malzam and Mednick), tells that creativity
is a process transformation of associative
elements into new combinations. They state
that creativity is a remake of associative
elements into new combinations and the
further those elements are, the more creative
the solution is.
–– Gestalt theory of creativity (Werheiter)
teaches us that a new idea is not a result
of logic, but imagination and it occurs
suddenly.
–– Existential theory of creativity (Maye,
Schachel) states creativity comes through
an individual's communication with the
environment.
–– Intellectual theory of creativity (Guilford)
states creativity comes through understanding new information and bringing the
old ones into new relationships.
–– Interpersonal, cultural theory of creativity
says the prerequisite of creativity is in the
person, social and cultural environment2.
–– Previous research has shown that schools
neglect the development of skills of
productive and divergent thinking. Research
1 Lipovac, M. (1992.): Education and inventive-innovative creativity, Technical Faculty "Mihajlo Pupin",
Novi Sad, p. 24
2 Lambic, M. and others (2006.) engineering and innovation in practice, the Union of inventors and authors of
technical solutions, Zrenjanin, p.120-121
668
––
––
––
––
––
conducted by Hutchingson had the task to
determine if the process of creative thinking
of students can be improved. The results
indicated the following conclusions:
Traditional teaching methods stimulate
cognitive memory, convergent and routine
brain responses while inhibiting divergence
and evaluation.
Using modified teaching procedures the
amount of routine responses has been
corrected and the percentage of responses
in divergent and evaluating categories is
increased.
There is no increase in knowledge between
the experimental and control group regardless of the amount of assimilated work.
Traditional teaching methods correspond
more to intelligent students and less to
the ones who are less productive and less
creative.
Students with higher intellectual and
creative abilities adopt teaching materials
easiest3.
Models of technical innovative and creative
processes in problem solving issues have three
different approaches: trial and error (blind selection), sudden reorganization and progressive analysis (step by step).
Innovative and creative technical production
consists of key stages that help in the process of
problem solving. There are some models named
after their founders: Johnson, Dewey, Merrifield
and the most mentioned Wallas model. These
models could be used as the example of technical
innovation of secondary school students.
Figure 1. Stages by Wallas
3 Lipovac, M. (1992.): Education and inventive-innovative creativity, Technical Faculty "Mihajlo Pupin",
Novi Sad, p. 28
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technics technologies education management
The table shows stages of evolution in the process of solving a specific problem. The first step
or stage is collecting necessary information of
distinct technical issues. Then follows the stage of
processing the collected data in the sphere of the
subconscious, followed by the sudden occurrence
of the technical solution and the last stage of verification of the found technical solution.
Figure 3. Technical and technological inventions
and innovations
Applying techniques of creative thinking can
be practiced because, in accordance to scientific
researches, that kind of thinking is not congenital. There are more techniques to develop creative
thinking: listing properties, morphological synthesis, checklist and synectic method.
Figure 2. Stages by Roseman4
All these models have in common the linear
course from spotting the problem to solving it.
These models include: active and passive relations to the surroundings, ability to ask questions,
focusing on the problem, surprise, passion to the
object and distancing from it, objective dedication, possession and obsession. For a technical
innovation to be worthy it is necessary that the innovation has social value.
The theories of technical creativity mentioned
above mostly have psychological meaning which
does not fully explain this phenomena. Educational science, anthropology, social studies and engineering also demonstrate interest in this field.
In this presentation there will be no further deliberation.
Spontaneous interventions and innovations in
technical science are mostly individual while the
programmed ones are the result of team work. By
originality and complexity they can be: useful suggestions, technical improvements and patents. By
exercise they can be individual, group or team work.
4 Lambic, M. and others (2006.) engineering and innovation in practice, the Union of inventors and authors of
technical solutions, Zrenjanin, p.121
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3. Modeling of a technical innovative and
creative process
The simplified model of this process in a binary
form is the relation idea-solution. In this model the
stages that precede the idea are left out, as well as
the elements and processes between the idea and
solution and the stages after the primary solution.
Figure 4. Creative process in a binary form
The creative process in techniques has more
stages. The first stage is spotting the technical
problem, the recognition of the problem as a new
or existing one, where the desire to resolve the
problem by constructing a system or elements
should be. Finally, there has to be an original
technical solution or innovation if there is not one
already. Usually this type of technical innovative
and creative process is less in use due to the limited time which could be the obstruction for creating a solution.
Innovative and creative technical problem
solving can be more complex when the desire becomes a drive that is spontaneous or programmed.
When individual creators are observed, the
whole process takes place in one person. When a
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technics technologies education management
problem occurs the simple procedure is to define
the projected task.
Figure 5. Complex model of the creative process
By observing and setting possible solutions the
preliminary solution is obtained, which, through the
process of further analysis, projecting, constructing
and realization, leads to the identification of the existing solution or to a new solution. It could also
happen that there is no suitable solution which could
lead to renouncement and further deliberation.
Figure 6. Model of the two way solution
When bringing the performance to the end, it
is of no less importance where the result is a well
known technical solution rather than an innovation, in fact, the process is not entirely uncreative.
This does not lessen the creative abilities of a person. This is actually a proof that the person does
think correctly and in a creative manner. There are
bigger chances, in some other instances, of using
the same procedure to achieve a new solution or a
technical improvement.
Symbiosis that results in a modification, improvement, simplification and efficiency is already
a technical improvement and sometimes a patent.
Levels of invention could rank in three classes:
670
–– The first class implies a technical solution
that is considered an important novelty
and the solution is not based on already
known technical solutions, but is an original
solution to a technical problem.
–– The second class implies a significant level
of originality.
–– The third class implies a technical solution
or novelty that is not an epochal discovery or
has no elements of already known solutions.
This is mainly integration of existing
technical solutions which have some
function but only improves the quality. This
class is also represented by a lower degree of
creativity and a smaller number of elements.
4. Managing and Organizing Technical Innovation Processes
Innovative processes in technique represent
implementation of novelty and creation of new
original technical ideas among students. By the
structure these processes are complex and because
of the success there has to be a dynamic and ongoing interactive connection and management.
Dynamics should be demonstrated in influences, activities, consequences and time. At the
same time, the process is stable and enables the
pattern of the process which can be demonstrated
with block diagrams and algorithms. Where the
activities in segments of the process are dynamic,
as well as the whole structure of an innovative
technical process, the structure of the pattern has a
stable configuration.
Figure 7. General diagram of managing innovative processes in technique5
5 Lambic, M. and others (2006.) engineering and innovation in practice, the Union of Inventors and Authors
of Technical Solutions, Technical Faculty "Mihajlo
Pupin" Zrenjanin, p. 135
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technics technologies education management
In economy, for example, the success of introducting technical and technological innovation is
demonstrated by the ratio of realized innovations
and the number of projects of developmental researches whose role was to implement innovations into the manufacture processes.
The successful managing of innovative processes is shown by the number of applied innovations and offers for new technical solutions. Also,
there is the profit as a result of innovative work.
The review of the results gives us the accurate picture of innovative processes and successfully applied models of innovation managing.
This example could be applied in the educational system in the field of development of technical innovations in secondary schools.
5. Conclusion
Many innovative, legal, organizational, program and method changes in school come to realization very slowly due to indolence and stupor.
Technical innovation, inventiveness and creativity
could not be achieved where the teaching procedures are limited to lecturing and demonstration
only. Beside these negative factors mentioned
above, the problem is also in passive and receptive learning, studying limited to conditioning and
mimic, simple memorizing and repeating lectures.
These kinds of teaching procedures could be labeled as anti-innovative and anti-creative.
The limiting factor of technical innovation
and creativity of students could be a result of the
school methods. To achieve technical innovation
and creative expression it is necessary to have an
open approach to students with full appreciation
of their personalities, as well as open communication and freedom of exploring and experimenting.
Very rarely reprimands are used, but still incentive, praise and awards are missed out.
Actualization and modernization of teaching
procedures in technical science is an important
and ongoing process which promotes education.
The main issue that preoccupies scientists and
researchers in education is the level, quality and
quantity of technical and technological knowledge
and skills. Lack of efficiency in teaching procedures in relation to the syllabus should be pointed
out. This issue, from the educational point of view,
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is manifested as a low extent of retention of the instructional content that directly affects the level of
technical innovation and creativity of polytechnic
school students.
Actualization of teaching procedures and innovation of technical profile, implementation of new
scientific, technical and technological achievements, appropriate education of teachers and
modernization of teaching procedures are the key
issues that need to be addressed fully in the future.
Reformation procesess of education in European countries brought many changes in recent
years towards modernization of teaching procedures, especially in traditional teaching subjects,
as well as in the introduction of new content. The
objective of these processes is to educate and train
students for further educational levels, development of technical innovation and pioneering spirit
that will prepare them for life in the 21st century.
6. References
1. Grupa autora (1996.) : Prilog strategiji tehnološkog
razvoja, Tehnički fakultet „Mihajlo Pupin“, Zrenjanin,
2. Juzbašić Kostić, B. (2005.): Statističko praćenje
obrazovanja, odabrani indikatori – Zavod za statistiku, Beograd.
3. Lambić, M. (1992.): Tehničko stvaralaštvo i obrazovanje, Zbornik radova naučno stručnog skupa Politehničko obrazovanje i tehnološki razvoj, Novi Sad,
4. Lambić, M. (2005): Inženjerstvo i inovacije, Tehnički
fakultet "Mihajlo Pupin", Zrenjanin,
5. Maksić, S. (2006). Podsticanje kreativnosti u školi.
Institut za pedagoška istraživanja, Beograd,
6. Matić.V., Hotomski, P.,Voskresenski, K., Personal
computer in use of ecological education pupils vocational schools, Technics Technologies Education
Management - TTEM, (ISSN 1840-1503) (Rad je
recenziran i biće objavljen u jednom od narednih
brojeva časopisa)
7. Odadžić, V., Miljanović, T., Voskresenski, K., Possibilities and effects of use of innovative didactic models in teaching biology in grammar school, Nastava i
vaspitanje 2011, vol. 60, iss. 2, pp. 249-261
8. Popov, S., Jukić, S. (2006) Pedagogija. Novi Sad:
Centar za razvoj nauke, tehnologije i informatike,
9. Prosvetni pregled (2005.): Između stvarnog i nemogućeg, Beograd,
10. Petković, G.(2008.): Kriterijumi za utvrđivanje
inovativnosti kod učenika srednjih škola, naučni
časopis „Efikasnost i razvoj“ Banja Luka,
11. Petković, G.(2009.): Struktura nastavnih sadržaja
iz oblasti tehnike u srednjim školama, naučno671
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12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
stručni skup „Menadžment, inovacije i razvoj”,
Vrnjačka Banja,
Petković,G.(2012.): Analiza tehničke inovativnosti
učenika srednjih škola, Technics Technologies Education Management,Vol.7,No1
Voskresenski, V., Voskresenski, K., Odadžić, V.,
Curriculum as cybernetic model for tuition planning - reference to electrical engineering teaching,
Technics Technologies Education Management
- TTEM, Published by DRUNPP, Sarajevo, Vol. 5
Number 2, p. 360-366, 2010. (ISSN 1840-1503)
Voskresenski, K.: Psihološko-didaktički aspekti
interakcije i komunikacije u nastavi, Simpozion
International »Educatia in schimbare«, Arad
Rumunija,, 1994,
Voskresenski, K.: Perspektive i granice
individualizovane nastave, Simpozion International
»Educatia in schimbare«, Arad Rumunija, 1995,
Voskresenski, K.: Curriculum kao teorijski koncept
i strategija vaspitno -obrazovnog rada u nastavi,
Simpozion International »Educatia in schimbare»,
1996,
Voskresenski, K.: 5. Različite metodoliške
orjentacije i didaktički modeli kao podsistemi
sistemske didaktike, Simpozion International
»Educatia in schimbare,Arad Rumunija, 1997.
Corresponding Author
Goran Petkovic,
Technical University “Mihajlo Pupin”,
University of Novi Sad,
Serbia,
E-mail: goranp@zrint.edu.rs
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technics technologies education management
Natural and geological conditions of coal
mining in the pits of the brown coal mine
“Rembas” - Resavica
Mile Bugarin2, Mirko Ivkovic1, Vesna Ljubojev2, Milenko Ljubojev2, Dragoslav Rakic3
1
2
3
Public Company for Underground Exploitation Resavica, Serbia,
Mining and Metallurgy Institute Bor, Serbia,
University of Belgrade, Faculty of Mining and Geology, Belgrade, Serbia.
Abstract
This paper presents the investigation results of
natural-geological conditions in the area ResavaMoravian coal basin in order to evaluate the possibilities of modernization the system (methods and
technologies) of mining.
Key words: mine, coal, exploitation, mining
methods
Introduction
Natural-geological conditions of exploitation,
present in the coal deposit, have a decisive influence on a selection of mining system and its technical-technological and economic parameters.
For the efficient and rational mining of coal
seams in the pits, the conditions of working environment have to be thoroughly investigated and,
based on the results of the same, to make a selection of the mining system and suitable mining
mechanization.
It is important to point out that only on the basis of complex conducted investigations, the mining conditions can be defined and established a
method of expressing the selected technological
process of the work environment.
Exploitation conditions in the pits of mine
"Rembas" - Resavica are highly variable and characterized by:
–– the expressed tectonics
–– relatively unfavorable physical-mechanical
properties of the working environment
–– larger thicknesses of coal seams
–– coal tendency towards spontaneous selfignition
–– the presence of dangerous coal dust and also
hazardous gases in some pits.
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Each of these properties has a significant impact on technical and technological solutions of
the exploitation process and their effects, as well
as safety and security of work, therefore these
properties need to be thoroughly investigated and
introduced.
Coal mining in the Resava-Moravian coal basin has been carried out since 1853, and the coal
excavation was done on a number of sites, and today, in terms of production, there are three active
pits, as follows:
–– the pit “Strmosten“
–– the pit “Jelovac“
–– the pit “Senjski Mine“,
as well as the pit "Ravna Reka-IV block" in the
opening phase. As the dominant systems of mining in deposits of this basin, the classical pillar
mining methods were applied in different forms
and, for a time, the longwall and mechanized mining was in use.
In the "Senjski mine" the remaining coal reserves for mining exploitation are low and the
mining will be come to an end for several years.
Similar situation is with the pit "Jelovac", where
the remaining reserves are somewhat higher, and
among them it does not need to count on the new
technological solutions of mining.
In the pits "Strmosten" and "Ravna Reka-IV
block", it is necessary to seek solutions for more
efficient and economical excavation, and the solutions have to be adaptive to the natural-geological
conditions.
According to the Book of coal reserves, the
state of reserves at 31.12.2010 amounted to:
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Table 1. State of coal reserves in BCM “Rembas“ (in tonnes)
Deposit
Strmosten
Jelovac
Ravna Reka
Senjski Mine
Class
Balance
Off-balance
Total
Balance
Off-balance
Total
Balance
Off-balance
Total
Balance
Off-balance
Total
Cateegory
A
41,000
71,600
112,600
123,840
123,840
201,890
21,120
223,010
Basic geological data on the basin
The Resava-Moravian coal basin is located in
the western parts of Eastern Serbia and, in the geographic sense of view, the basin extends from the
villages Lipovica and Panjevac, on the north, to
the villages Čestobrodica and Smoljinac, on the
south. Total length of the basin is about 45 km,
and width of 7 km. Terrain of the area of the Resava-Moravian coal basin is built of sedimentary,
metamorphic and magmatic rocks, which are of
the Paleozoic, Mesozoic, Tertiary and Quaternary
age. Figure 1 gives the geological map of the area,
and Figure 2 shows the geological column.
Review of natural operations conditions in
deposits
The coal deposits “Strmosten” has a syncline
form whose wings extend to the southwest. The
Permian red sandstones in the field structure have
a dominant share and they are pulled over the Miocene coal-bearing series and Mesozoic limestone.
The deposit “Strmosten” has a developed seam
of carbon with a complex structure which is in the
northeastern part of the deposit stratified in three
parts and, in the central, eastern and western part
of deposit, in two parts. The investigations have
established a gradual shift of footwall sandstone
into a coal seam with coal inclusions in the upper
parts of floor sandstone. Total thickness of a coal
seam in the deposit "Strmosten" varies from 0.5
to 25.3 m, the average of 7.33 m. Coal thickness
674
B
2,013,600
2,013,600
1,085,440
299,860
1,385,300
998,500
998,500
144,340
144,340
C1
1,706-940
1,706-940
514,600
147,500
662,100
926,200
926,200
192,480
192,480
A+B+C1
3,761,540
71,600
3,833,140
1,723,880
447,360
2,171,240
1,924,720
1,924,720
538,710
21,120
559,830
is approximately 5.87 m. Waste sediments in the
layer are built of marl and coal clay, marl, clayey
sandstone and sandstone. Elevation of coal seam
roof varies from - 10.2 m to 213.6 m, and elevation of the footwall - 17.9 m to 212.9 m.
Elevated part of the coal seam is preserved in
the northeastern part of the deposit, while in the
other parts it is completely destroyed during pulling over of the red Permian sandstone. Elevated
sediments of a coal seam of the "Strmosten" are
presented with whitish-gray marls, clays and clayey gray-green sandstones.
The deposit "Jelovac" and the wider surroundings are made of rocks of different lithological composition. Miocene coal-bearing series is
wedged between the Cretaceous limestone and
dacite, which made the paleorelief, and the Permian red sandstone, which, partly destroys the roof
of a coal seam, pulled over them. Transgressively
over the Permian sandstones, which represent the
roof of a coal seam, the Quaternary sediments lie.
The deposit has a polygonal form and covers
an area of 1.246 km2. The deposit has a developed
coal layer of complex structure that is extremely
disturbed by the gravity-type faults. The thickness
of coal seam in the deposit “Jelovac” varies from
0.08 m to 25.60 m, average thickness of 4.38 m,
and the thickness of clean coal varies from 0.08 to
8.50 m, mean thickness of 1.09 m. Coal from the
deposit belongs to a group of semi-gloss brown
coal, high content humite, a relatively high content of liptinite and low content of inertinite.
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Figure 1. Geological map of the Resavica surroundings
stone, thickness of 0.3 to 2.1 m. In some parts of
deposit, these interlayers are completely absent
and the coal seam occurs as a compact layer without interlayers.
The thickness of coal seam varies in the range
from 18.10 to 2.20 m, out of which the thickness
of clean coal is from 12.05 to 0.5 m, while the
mean thickness of clean coal is 4.54 m. Direction
of the coal seam, generally, is east - west with a
fall of 12º-15º in the north.
The deposit "Lipov deo – Senjski Mine" has
developed a coal seam of variable thickness.
Variability of thickness is genetic (primary) and
majority part is epigenetic (subsequent). Primary
thickness is mainly preserved in the eastern part of
deposit and ranges from 1 m to 8 m. In the central,
western and northwest part of deposit, the changeability of thickness is tectonic, in the range from
1 m to 20 m. The seam was exposed to the strains
in the process of pulling the red sandstones, what
caused the crushing of coal mass in the seam and
moving from the higher pressure zone in the zone
of lower pressure.
In this way there was a sudden appearance of
coal wedges on one side and accumulation up to
20 m on the other side. Average thickness is about
7 m. Undisturbed coal seam is clean, without dirt
bands while, in the tectonic parts, the coal contains
the waste zones, thickness up to 1 m.
Overlapping the coal seams is reflected in the
slip planes along which the barren interlayers,
shales and sandstones appear or spreading the
hanging wall marls within the coal seam.
Specific characteristics
Figure 2. Geological column of the Resavsko –
Moravski Basin
In the deposit "Ravna Reka"-IV block in the
coal-bearing horizon, there is a seam of good quality coal of the complex stratified structure in two
branches. Interlayer waste is presented by coal
clay, thickness of 0.2 to 4.7 m, and clayey sandVolume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
These characteristics include physical-mechanical and engineering characteristics, appearance of gas, coal tendency towards spontaneous
self-ignition and characteristics of coal dust.
Basic physical-mechanical characteristics of
coal and associated sediments in the deposits of
Resava-Moravian basin are given in Tables 2-5.
Gaseousness of deposit, coal self-ignition
and explosiveness of coal dust
Occurrences of methane in the deposits - pits
"Strmosten" and "Senjski Mine" are very rare and
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Table 2. Average values of physical-mechanical characteristics of coal and associated rocks from the
deposit “Strmosten”
Type of rock
Density
g
(gr/cm3)
Coal
Red sandstone
Footwall sandstone
Clayey sandstone
Coal clay
1.331
2.57
2.31
2.42
2.21
Tensile
strength
si
(daN/cm2)
31.46
51.23
15.00
11.50
-
Compressive
strength
sc
(daN/cm2)
245.33
652.00
134.20
97.00
47.78
Cohesion
c
(daN/cm2)
111.50
122.70
28.80
28.80
-
Angle of
internal friction
j
( o)
38o
56o47’
50o36’
50o
52o
Table 3. Testing results of physical-mechanical characteristics of coal and associated rocks from the
deposit “Jelovac”
a. Basement rocks in a coal seam
Type of testing
Density (t/m3)
Compressive strength (daN/cm2)
Tensile strength (daN/cm2)
Angle of internal friction (o)
1.
2.
3.
4.
Clayey sandstone
2.37 – 2.39
69.33 – 65.47
8.98 – 6.97
49.09 – 52.21
Sandy slate
2.08 – 2.30
27.6 – 12.83
5.0 – 4.01
b. Rocks within a coal seam
Type of testing
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Density (t/m )
Compressive strength (daN/cm2)
Tensile strength (daN/cm2)
Angle of internal friction (o)
Cohesion (daN /cm2)
3
Coal
1
1.32
399
-
2
1.32
262
-
3
1.32
290
-
Marls
4
1
2
1.3
1.88 1.95
308.12 133.53 189.53
17.51 9.92 16.2
61044' 57055' 55048'
43.45 21.11 31.38
3
2.22
336
-
4
2.23
434
-
5
2.22
316
-
c. Rocks from the roof of a coal seam
Type of testing
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Density (t/m )
Compressive strength (daN/cm2)
Tensile strength (daN/cm2)
Angle of internal friction (o)
Cohesion(daN /cm2)
3
Roof sandstone
1
2.41
70.19
8.46
50020'
13.63
2
2.42
68.01
8.34
50003'
13.30
3
2.65
34.3
0
28 36'
10
Roof marls
4
2.45
14.7
0
9 18'
5.3
1
2.38
41.40
0.22
46037'
8.33
2
2.15
32.09
3.15
53039'
5.71
3
2.24
32.09
7.27
38053'
8.07
Table 4. Testing results of physical-mechanical characteristics of coal and associated rocks from the
deposit ”Senjski Mine”
γ1
γ
σ c2
σi
σ
c
τ
σ
E
ED
3
3
2
2
2
2
2
0
2
gr/cm gr/cm daN/cm daN/cm daN/cm daN/cm daN/cm
()
daN/cm daN/cm2
Red sandstone
2.37
2.8
976
61
189
140
136.5
33
450000 412000
White sandstone 2.31
2.41
30.5
2.3
11.7
6.5
15.4 380 40” 9700
0
”
Coal
1.31
1.43
47.5
3.8
10.2
8.5
30.6 26 40
4700
Gray sandstone 2.31
2.41
194.6
2.26
56.0
34.7 270 30” 97000
-
Type of material
676
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
technics technologies education management
Table 5. Testing results of physical-mechanical characteristics of coal and associated rocks from the
deposit “Ravna Reka- IV block“
Sample
SR-143
SR-143
SR-147
SR-147
γ
(g/cm3)
1.30
2.54
2.64
1.31
σc
(daN/cm2)
80.70
14.02
511.93
77.94
σi
(daN/cm2)
2.85
.96
31.10
3.83
s
(daN/cm2)
9.29
2.14
74.28
10.33
γ = density, σc = compressive strength, σi = tensile strength, s = cohesion, φ = angle of internal friction
φ
(o)
67045'
59007'
60049'
63041'
Table 6. Properties of coal dust from the pit BCM “Rembas“
Pit
Parameter
Dust ignition temperature ( C)
Dust ignition temperature under the action of constant heat
source (oC)
Lower limit of explosive mixture coal dust - air 2%CH4
o
low and, in relation to the concentration, they belong to the order of non-methane pits, while the occurrences of methane in the deposit - pit "Jelovac"
are constant follower of mine works and the pit is
methane. Based on the experience from previously excavated parts of the deposit "Ravna Reka",
it is also expected that the pit "Ravna Reka - IV
block" would be with the methane mode of operation. Coal from these deposits in the basin is prone
to the self-ignition process, as it was confirmed by
a series of pit fires of endogenous character. The
performed laboratory tests also confirmed the tendency of these coals to the self-ignition as follows:
–– natural index of self-ignition for the coal
deposit "Strmosten" is 64-138 oC/min, the
deposit “Jelovac” 70-110 °C/min, the deposit
"Ravna Reka - IV block" 75-162°C/min.
According to the realized investigations of the
coal dust hazardous properties from all deposits, it
was determined that it has flammable and explosive properties, as follows:
Conclusion
According to the present knowledge on the
specific natural geological conditions in the current active pits of the Resava-Moravian coal basin, it can be estimated that the systems of column
excavation with blasting technology will be furVolume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
Strmosten
500-550
Jelovac Senjski Mine IV block
505-610
450-530
-
280-290
300
260-300
250-280
180
230
200
75
ther dominant. In some mining fields in the pits
"Strmosten" and "Ravna Reka - IV block", there
are conditions for use the mechanized method of
short forehead, where the decisive factor for their
use is the length of block caving per strike of coal
seams.
References
1. Ivković M.: Rational System of Underground Mining
the Coal Seams of Large Thickness in the Complex
Conditions of Exploitation , Ph.D. Thesis, Faculty of
Mining and Geology Belgrade, 1997 (in Serbian);
2. Milić V., Pantović R., Svrkota I.: Applied Mining
Methods in Serbian Underground Coal Mines, 34th
International October Conference on Mining and
Metallurgy, Bor, 2002;
3. Popović R., Ljubojev M., Bugarin M.: Basics Settings of Mechanical Models of Support Interaction in
the Rock Mass, Journal Mining Engineering, No.12/2006, Bor, 2006 (in Serbian);
4. Bugarin M.,: Monography "Geology of coal", Copper Institute Bor, 2006
5. Ljubojev M., Popović R.: Monography „Basis of Geomechanics“, Copper Institute Bor, 2006
6. Dragosavljević Z., Denić M., Ivković M.: Strategy of
undergraund mines developing in Serbia in the frame
of developing of coal mines basins with graund exploitation, Journal Mining Engineering, No.1/2009,
Bor, 2009 (in Serbian);
677
technics technologies education management
7. Ivković M., Ljubojev M. : Endanger evaluation of
explosive coal dust in undergraund coal-mins in
Serbia, Journal Mining Engineering, No.1/2009, Bor,
2009 (in Serbian);
8. Miljanović J.: Influential Factors in Realization the
Anticipated Coal Production in the Underground
Mines in the Republic of Serbia, Journal Mining Engineering, No.1/2011, Bor, 2011;
9. Vidanovic N., Ognjanovic S., Ilincic N., Ilic N., Tokalic R.: Application of unconventional methods of underground premises construction in coal mines, Technics Technologies Education Management - TTEM,
Volume 6, Number 4, 2011
10. Ljubojev M., Popović, R., Rakić D.: Development
of Dynamic Phenomena in the rock mass, Journal
Mining Engineering, No.1/2011, Bor, 2011;
11. Ivković M.: Systematization of Natural and Geological Conditions Affecting the Choice of the Underground Mining System in the Active Coal Deposits
in Serbia, Journal Mining Engineering, No.2/2011,
Bor, 2011;
12. Ćorić S., Čakić D., Rakić D., Jotić S., Ubiparip
B., Ljubojev M.: Three-dimensional aspects of the
slope stability analysis, Journal Mining Engineering, No.3/2011, Bor, 2011;
13. Ivković M., Figun Lj., Živojinović I., Ivković S.: Optimization of natural –tehnical parameters for the
pillar method of coal excavation, Journal Mining
Engineering, No.4/2011, Bor, 2011;
14. Djukanović D.: Analysis of Technological Process
of Coal production in the Mines JP PEU - Resavica, Proceedings of the II Symposium "Mining 2011"
Vrnjačka Banja, 2011 (in Serbian);
15. Plasto M.: Analysis of risks and hazards registered
in the brown soal mine Kakanj, Journal Mining Engineering, No.4/2011, Bor, 2011;
Corresponding Author
Dragoslav Rakic,
University of Belgrade,
Faculty of Mining and Geology,
Belgrade,
Serbia,
E-mail: rgfraka@rgf.bg.ac.rs
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technics technologies education management
Green Information Technology/Information
System Education: Curriculum Views
Alok Mishra1, Ali Yazici1, Deepti Mishra2
1
2
Department of Software Engineering, Atilim University, Ankara, Turkey,
Department of Computer Engineering, Atilim University, Ankara, Turkey.
Abstract
Green information technology (Green IT) is an
emerging discipline and issues related with it are
of growing concern for the business, social and
environmental impact in the 21st century. Sustainability is becoming an important topic in IT to
safeguard our future, and as evolving market segment. Recently more specific focus on “greening”
information technology (IT) and information systems (IS) has been evident all over the world. An
increase in green jobs is also occurring with many
of those associated with information technology.
The main constraint with green jobs related with
IT or otherwise, is finding educated and qualified professionals. Due to this, there is a growing
demand for green computing/information technology/information system education. The objective
of this paper is to review such an available green
IT/IS curriculum recently introduced by leading
universities and organizations.
Key words: Green Information Technology,
Green Information System, Curriculum, Benefits,
Strategies
Summary
The continued growth of information and communications technologies place an increasing concern on the climate. Green information technology
(green IT) is an emerging discipline and issues related with this are of growing concern for the business, social and environmental impact in the 21st
century. In contrast to harmful effects on the environment, green IT can have positive impacts, with
the potential to reduce global emissions. Green IT
addresses energy consumption and waste associated with the use of hardware, software and tend to
have a direct and positive impact. For instance, improving the energy efficiency of hardware and data
centers, consolidating servers using virtualization
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
software, and reducing waste related with discarded
equipment. Recently, many universities have initiated the process of introducing green IT course in
their already existing engineering, information
technology, business management programs or as
an entirely new program at the graduate level. The
objective of this paper is to review few green IT
curriculums recently introduced by leading universities and organizations. It has been argued that
green IT holds the promise of being instrumental
in combating the negative environmental effects of
the world’s rapidly developing economies.
Introduction
The continued growth of information and communications technologies (ICT) places an increasing burden on the environment. In contrast to harmful effects on the environment, ‘Green’ IT can have
positive impacts, with the potential to reduce global
emissions by 15% [1]. Green IT refers to information technology and system initiatives and programs
that address environmental sustainability [2]. Due to
rising cost of energy, depletion of natural resources,
and increasing concern for the environment by people created interest in different issues of green computing. Going green indicates reducing energy use
and pollution. Green Computing is a discipline that
studies, develops and promotes techniques for improving energy efficiency and reducing waste in the
full life cycle of computing equipment from initial
manufacture, through delivery, use, maintenance,
recycling and disposal in an economically realistic
way [3]. A recent survey by PricewaterhouseCoopers found that more than 70 percent of customers
expect moderate to strong demand for green technology in the next two years [4]. Forrester Research
has estimated that the market for green information
services will reach $4.8 billion by 2013 [5]. McKinsey forecasts that the ICT sector’s carbon footprint
will triple during the period from 2002 to 2020 [6].
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technics technologies education management
For office buildings, ICT typically accounts for
more than 20% of the energy used, and in some offices up to 70%. Although energy costs typically
comprise less than 10% of an overall IT budget, in a
few years, they could rise to more than 50% according to a 2006 Gartner report [7]. For informationintensive organizations, data centers can account for
over 50% of the total corporate carbon footprint as
data centers are the primary source of green house
emissions [8]. In 2007 there were approximately
44 million servers worldwide consuming 0.5% of
all electricity [9]. According to the Department of
Energy (DOE) reports that data centers consumed
1.5% of all electricity in the US in 2006, and their
power demand is growing 12% a year and with this
rate, they will consume 100 billion kwh of energy at
an annual cost of 7.4 billion USD by 2011. Federal
government wants this energy consumption to be
reduced by 10% by 2011, which is an energy saving equivalent to electricity consumed by a million
average household.
Green information technology which addresses
energy consumption and waste associated with the
use of hardware and software, tend to have a direct
and positive impact [10]. For instance, improving
the energy efficiency of hardware and data centers,
consolidating servers using virtualization software, and reducing waste related with discarded
equipment [11]. It has been argued that IT holds
the promise of being instrumental in combating
the negative environmental effects of the world’s
rapidly developing economies [12]. Green IT research has to date focused primarily on hardware
design and energy-efficient use of IT [13,14].
The objective of this paper is to review few
green IT and information system education programs and curriculums recently introduced by
leading universities and organizations. The remainder of the paper is organized as follows: In section 2, benefits of green IT are discussed. In section
3, current green information technology curriculums of leading organizations and universities are
reviewed and presented. Finally, the paper concludes in section 4.
Benefits of green it
Green computing benefits the environment
by improving energy efficiency, lowering green
680
house emissions, using less harmful materials,
and encouraging reuse and recycling. Accurately
quantifying information and communications
technology’s footprint is a critical first step toward
reducing its environmental burden. Green IT includes a number of focus areas and activities [15].
–– Design for environment sustainability
–– Energy-efficient computing
–– Power management
–– Data center design, layout, and location
–– Server virtualization
–– Responsible disposal and recycling
–– Regulatory compliance
–– Green metrics, assessment tools, and
methodology
–– Environment-related risk mitigation
–– Use of renewable energy sources; and
–– Eco-labeling of IT products
The increasing reliance on electronic data is
leading to rapid growth in the size and number of
data centers. This growth is due to rapid adoption
of Internet communications and media, the computerization of business processes and applications
and disaster recovery. Disaster recovery strategies
that prescribe duplicate records increases demand
further in this regard. Furthermore, many federal,
state, and local government agencies have adopted
e-government strategies that utilize the Web for public information, reporting, transactions, homeland
security, and scientific computing [16]. Much of the
green computing movement’s focus today is on data
centres for their wasteful consumption of electricity.
By applying following applications of information technology as green IT innovation can lead
the way to sustainability in ICT:
–– Telework can reduce not only automobile
travel but overall energy use by reducing the
amount of dedicated office space
–– By using data compression
–– Incorporating data deduplication and File
deduplication
–– Deploy tiered and solid state storage
–– Smart energy applications adjust energy
consumption to real time need patterns
and climate conditions, resulting in drastic
reductions in waste
–– Virtualization can eliminate wasteful network
equipment, reducing energy and floorspace
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
technics technologies education management
–– As a storage technology, tape is the clear
notable in energy efficiency
Using green IT techniques can significantly
curtail an organization’s and ultimately a country’s carbon footprint.
Current green information technology/
information systems curriculum
Educational systems are the foundation area in
terms of working towards green and energy-saving
technologies. Therefore, educational systems should
move as a role model in this direction as they are
inspiring other domains to go green. Educational
systems are also major users of energy-consuming
devices and equipments in order to deliver the curriculum contents. Thus Educational Systems or curriculum contents have a relationship with energy, and
this view should be considered in the curriculum for
future careers [17]. A number of terms linked with
ecological sustainability such as “Green," “sustainable," “environmentally friendly," “pro-environmental” and “ecological” have often used been used in
the literature [18]. Today “Green” is used most often
to refer to new technology and products that improve
the sustainability of the natural environment [19].
An analysis of existing IS literature demonstrates
that a number of concepts are used in the pairing
of “Green” and “IS” among IS researchers. On the
Green side, while some use “sustainability” [20, 21,
22] and others “eco-sustainability” [23, 24], the rest
prefers “Green” [15, 25, 26]. Similarly, IT and ICT
are used interchangeably [20, 21] and other times
differently [23, 26], Some have preferred Green Information Technologies and Systems [27]. Green
Information Technology is an emerging discipline
and issues related with this are of growing concern
for the business, social and environmental impact in
the 21st century. The almost-universal adoption of
Information & Communication Technologies (ICT)
is leaving a significant carbon footprint. Even though
unemployment rates have been higher than normal
over the past three to four years, an increase in green
jobs is predicted [28] with many of those jobs focused
on IT [29]. The dilemma with filling green jobs, IT
or otherwise, is finding educated and qualified workers to fill them. Due to this there is growing demand
for green computing education [30, 31]. Recently,
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
Sendall et al. [32] noted that the demand for green
computing knowledge by those in industry is only
slowly making its way to the academic world [32].
They investigated the current status of the Green IT/
IS courses and found that 33 universities and institutions across the globe were offering some kind of
green IT/IS courses. England and Bartczak [30, 31]
observed that a number of popular themes to include
green computing concepts/terminology are power/
energy management, data center/server consolidation considerations, virtualization, cloud computing,
carbon footprint assessment, recycling/reuse/disposal, green IT laws/regulations, and green IT strategies/implementation. They further noted that green
organization culture, green accreditation/credentials,
audits, standards/metrics, grid computing, telecommuting, green IT maturity models, and procurement
of green IT products/services got lesser coverage in
the current body of knowledge. There are number of
organizations conducting green IT or related courses
on short-term basis but still there are very few universities all over the world to introduce such a course
at undergraduate or graduate level in information
technology/information system/computer science.
These short term courses are on Green IT project
management: Data center energy efficiency, foundation certificate in green IT, Green IT Strategies, etc.
Leeds Metropolitan University has introduced M.Sc.
– Green Computing, which includes following modules [33]:
Core Modules
–– Develop Green IT Strategies
–– Green Computing Technologies
–– ICT and the Environment
–– Responsibly Green
–– Sustainable Computing
–– Research Practice
–– Dissertation
In this program, all core modules have weighted
of 20 credit points while dissertation is of 30 credit
points. As part of this postgraduate program it has
been envisaged that student will investigate green
ICT technologies, assess the environmental impact
of ICT and study that how organizations can streamline their systems, increase sustainability and save
energy costs. Research and design real-life practical
strategies that provide sustainable computing for
the future will be part of the curriculum.
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technics technologies education management
Recently, Australian Computer Society has also
introduced the course on Green technology strategies (Green IT or Green Computing) which imparts
the study and practice of using computers and telecommunications in a way, which maximizes positive environmental benefit and minimize the negative impact. This subject is derived from practices
being developed in the public and private sectors
in Australia and internationally. Implementation
methodologies and assessment tools currently being field-tested are introduced. At the completion of
this subject, the student will be able to:
–– Estimate the carbon footprint of the ICT
operations of an organization
–– Assess ways to reduce the carbon footprint
of an organization, by changes to polices
for procurement of ICT, changes to the ICT
operations and revising business processes
Green technology strategies course will target
The Skills Framework for the Information Age
(SIFA Level 5) competencies:
–– Ensure, advise: Broad direction, supervisory,
objective setting responsibility
–– Influences organisation
–– Challenging and unpredictable work
–– Self sufficient in business skills
The course consists of four major topics (modules) each with three sub-topics [34]:
1. Politics, Science and Business of Sustainability: Review the principles of environmental
sustainability and the science of climate change.
Determine how to estimate the carbon footprint of
ICT systems. This module includes sub topics:
a. Introduction to Green ICT Strategies
b. The global ICT footprint
c. Enabling ICT: Dematerialisation, smart
motor systems, logistics, buildings and grids
2. Technical strategy and planning - Emerging technology monitoring: Identify existing, new
and emerging hardware, software and communication technologies for energy saving and materials
reuse in ICT. Sub-topics included in this module are:
a. Energy saving - Data Centres and Client
Equipment
b. Materials Use
c. Methods and tools
682
3. Business/IS strategy and planning: Apply
improved ICT technology and practices into organizational processes, strategic planning and management. This module includes sub components:
a. Business process improvement
b. Improving Data Centre Energy Efficiency
c. Enterprise Architecture
4. Procurement and management support:
Develop green ICT requirement documents for
products and services. To make certain that processes meet sustainability and quality standards.
Sub-module in this are:
a. Procurement
b. Energy Star Program and Quality Management
c. Compliance Audit
The following Table 1 provides summary of
presently available Green IT/IS programs offered
by Universitities and Colleges.
Conclusion
Green information technology related courses
and programs at an undergraduate, and graduate
level are still in very early stage. We believe in due
course of time this will further grow in terms of
a number of courses, programs, green computing
technologies, simulated software to make an assessment of the carbon footprint towards sustainable
Computing. As currently very few text books and
reference books are available on this topic so online
references and available material can be used for
teaching purpose. Assignments, discussion, case
studies should be areas of assessment in this course.
Further, presently there is no standard syllabi on this
topic, but we hope in future ACM, IEEE and other
similar organizations will initiate efforts in this direction towards establishing the body of knowledge
and frameworks as guidelines for universities. Due
to the globalization of online education, higher education institutions and corporate organizations are
increasingly offering online programs, classes, and
trainings that involve students and learners from
multiple countries and cultures [35]. Therefore, this
can be used as a good platform for green information technology/system courses. It is interesting
to note that Gatlin International, an international
e-learning provider offers course Green IT certifiVolume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
technics technologies education management
Table 1. Green IT/IS Education/Training Program Offered by Universities, Colleges and Socities
University/Society Course Title/Code
University of
Bradford, UK
Leeds
Metropolitan
University, UK
Middlesex
University, UK
Calderdale
College, UK
M.Sc. in
Sustainable
Computing (In
Development)
M.Sc. in Green
Computing
M.Sc/M.A. in
Sustainable
Environmental
Management
Course in Green
Computing
Objectives
Designed to provide high level,
skilled, cross-disciplinary
graduates in sustainable
computing, ready for leading
roles in industry, public services
and NGOs, with the requisite
knowledge and expertise
to tackle the environmental
issues presented by evolving
computing technologies.
To investigate Green
Information & Communication
Technology (ICT) issues,
Evaluate the environmental
impact of ICT and provide
consultancy that how
organizations can streamline
their systems towards green
ICT, increase sustainability and
save energy costs
To provide awareness of the
causes and possible solutions to
a range of environmental issues.
Develop the ability to evaluate
the constraints and opportunities
facing a variety of institutions.
To acquire knowledge and
skills required to influence and
implement policies and to make
them more sustainable.
How to ensure the longevity of
their hardware and softwares
Linkoping
University,
Sweden
Course
(TDDD50)
Provides basic knowledge about
the impact of the ICT on the
environment
The University
of California at
Berkeley, USA
Survey course
Principles of
Green IT for
Sustainability
The course covers green
information technology
concepts and examines green IT
from economic, environmental,
and corporate social
responsibility view
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
Contents Summary
It includes sustainable computing
technology, computing for the
environment, developments
and frameworks for sustainable
computing, including critical
contexts.
Theory, research and design of
practical systems that provide that
sustainable and green computing
issues in detailed. It is joint project
with Leeds Metropolitan University.
It includes courses such as Global
Environmental Issues, Policies and
Institutions, Law and Governance,
Integrated Learning & Work,
Global Biodiversity Management,
Disaster Mitigation in the
development context, Flood risk
Management, Dissertation
Learning of new tools to minimize
the impact of computing on the
environment, including cloud
computing, telecommunting,
material recycling, terminal servers
and power management.
Metrics to measure impact of ICT
on the environment, Computational
techniques to mitigate its impact,
Global ICT footprint, the life cycle
of the ICT, data centers, networks,
mobile devices and applications.
It includes the basic terminology
of the emerging green IT industry,
explores key drivers of current
green IT investments, and addresses
the typical barriers and challenges
CIOs and IT managers face with
respect to “greening” operations
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technics technologies education management
To examine green computing
from a systems perspective
Draws from multiple disciplines
such as industrial ecology,
mechanical and industrial
engineering, economics. Topics
include energy efficient system
designs ranging from data centers to
embedded devices, Evaluating the
carbon footprint of manufacturing,
use and disposal of design
To provide awareness on green
computing & ICT issues
This includes the topics of cloud
computing, social networking,
mobile telephony, datacenters
and energy efficient and
environmentally friendly desktop
computing
Green Computing
Seminar (course
691GC).
This seminar focuses on the
greening of computing—the
design of green servers, storage
and networks etc.
It also includes topics such as use of
sensor networks and computing for
estimating and reducing the carbon
footprint of physical infrastructure
such as buildings.) green energy,
smart-grids, and their use in the
computing context
Green
Computing: A
Cyber-Physical
Problem
Building of more energyefficient computing systems
as well as applying computing
technology that increases
energy-efficiency of other
physical systems
A comprehensive scope is included
ranging from single device issues
to algorithms for reducing power
consumption of data centers,
transportation systems, and smart
buildings
Green
Information
Technology
(course CS504)
Enable students to reduce the
energy use, waste, and other
environmental impacts of IT
systems while reducing life
cycle costs, thereby improving
competitive advantage.
Provides knowledge to measure
computer power usage, minimize
power usage, procure sustainable
hardware, design green data centers,
recycle computer equipment,
configure computers to minimize
power, use virtualization to reduce
the number of servers, and other
green technologies.
Saint Xavier
University,
Chicago, USA
Green Computing
and Technology
(course CMPSC
107)
Understanding the significance
of technology and its impacts
on the environment. This
course explores the capabilities
to lower the carbon footprint
associated with technology use.
It includes power consumption,
e-waste, recycling, information
technology environments, and
green design and usage. Developing
the green computing scorecard/
conducting green computing audits
Swathmore
College. PA,
USA
Socially
Responsible
Computing
(course CS91)
Investigate how computers can
be used to ease suffering, reduce
poverty, empower women,
improve the environment, or
just make life better.
Topics include the open source
software issues, access technologies
for people with disabilities,
computer literacy and the digital
divide, reusing and recycling
computers, and green computing
The University
of California at
Santa Barbara,
USA
Green Computing
(CS 290N)
Arizona State
University, USA
Topics in Green
Computing and
Communication
(course CSE
591/494)
The University of
Massachusetts,
USA
The University if
Illinois UrbanaChampaign, USA
Boston
University
Metropolitan
College, USA
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technics technologies education management
University of
British Columbia,
Canada
Green IT
Transition
certificate
conducted by
Continuing
Studies
Department.
It is delivered
100% online and
includes three
courses in the
program
The Australian
National
University
Green Information
Technology
Strategies (course
COMP7310)
The University of
the South Pacific,
Fiji
Advances in ICT
(course IS413)
It is a professional development
program that provides a
comprehensive understanding
of the planning and
implementation of a Green IT
strategy
The program cover the green
computing essentials, such as
energy and carbon management,
life cycle assessment, creating
Green IT baselines and metrics,
measuring the environmental and
social impact of IT operations
How to reduce carbon emissions
and improve organizational
efficiency
To provides a comprehensive
view of the advances
in Information and
Communication Technology
(ICT) including Green IT
Includes business services for
economic, ecological and social
benefits using cloud computing and
green computing
*Information in the above table is based on the information provided by respective universities/organizations on their web sites.
cation and Communications Technology for a Sustainable Future which is designed to prepare working professionals and university-level students to
be the sustainability leaders of the future. Students
are educated on the basics of sustainability and technology. They are taught practical tools used in
managing the rapidly growing eco-footprint of the
ICT systems and how to use ICT as an enabling tool
to drive sustainable development.
As a limitation of the study we have not included number of certificate programs currently available in Green IT/IS and sustainable computing.
As a future work, it would be interesting to compare different green information technology curriculums on different attributes, dimensions and
adoption levels (eg., undergraduate and graduate
levels). It would also be interesting to study curriculum applications in real-life scenario, teaching
methods, field studies, case studies development,
national scenario and curriculum development.
References
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the low carbon economy in the information age. Paper presented at the The Global Sustainability Initiative, Brussels, Belgium.
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
2. Siegler, K., & Gaughan, B. (2008). A practical approach to Green IT. Webinar, Retrieved July 14, 2008
available at http://www.itmanagement.com/land/green-it-webinar/?tfso=2058
3. Masanet, E and Horvath, A. (2006) Enterprise Strategies for Reducing the Life-Cycle Energy Use and
Greenhouse Gas Emissions of Personal Computers.
Proceedings of the 2006 IEEE International Symposium on Electronics and the Environment, pp. 21-26.
4. PricewaterhouseCoopers’ Report, 2008. Going green: Sustainable growth strategies available at www.
pwc.com/images/techconnect/TEC5.pdf
5. Forrester report, 2008. The Dawn Of Green IT Services available at www.forrester.com/Research/Document/Excerpt/0,7211,43731,00.html
6. (Green IT, 2011) McKinsey forecasts http://www.greenit.net/whygreenit.html
7. Gartner, 2006. Gartner Estimates ICT Industry
Accounts for 2 Percent of Global CO2 Emissions available at http://www.gartner.com/it/page.
jsp?id=503867
8. Harmon, R.R. Auseklis, N. Sustainable IT services:
Assessing the impact of green computing practices,
PICMET 2009 Proceedings, August 2-9, Portland,
Oregon USA, IEEE Computer Society, 1707-1717.
9. Dietrich, J. and R. Schmidt, “The Green Data Center,”
IBM Global Services, white paper, 21 pages, May 2007.
10. Jenkin, T.A., Webster, J., McShane, L. (2011) An
agenda for ‘Green’ information technology and
systems research, Information and Organization,
21(1), 17-40.
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11. Watson, R. T., Boudreau, M. C., Chen, A., & Huber,
M. H. (2008). Green IS: Building sustainable business practices. In R. T. Watson (Ed.), Information
Systems. Athens, GA, USA: Global Text Project.
12. Erek, K., Schmidt, N.-H., Zarnekow, R., Kolbe,
L.M., 2009. Sustainability in information systems:
assortment of current practices in IS organizations.
In: Proceedings of the Americas Conference on Information Systems (AMCIS). San Francisco, August
2009 (paper 123).
13. Gabriel, C., 2008. Why it’s not naive to be green.
Business Information Review 25 (4), 230–237.
14. Berl, A., Gelenbe, E., Di Girolamo, M., Giuliani,
G., De Meer, H., Dang, M.Q., Pentikousis, K., 2009.
Energy-efficient cloud computing. The Computer
Journal. doi:10.1093/comjnl/bxp080 (August).
15. Murugesan, San. Harnessing Green IT: Principles
and Practices. IT Professional, January/February
2008, 24-33.
16. Fanara, A., Report to Congress on Server and Data
Center Efficiency: Public Law 109-431, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency: Energy Star Program,
133 pages, 2007. available at http://www.energystar.
gov/ia/partners/prod_development/downloads/EPA_
Datacenter_Report_Congress_Final1.pdf.
17. Samuel, S. & Rajadorai, K.P. (2011) Green learning
in computer science education system International
Conference and Workshop on, Current Trends in Information Technology (CTIT), 2011, 26-27 Oct. 2011
18. Ijab, M, Molla, A, Kassahun, A and Teoh, S. (2010)
'Seeking the "green" in "green IS": A spirit, practice
and impact perspective', in PACIS 2010 Proceedings, Taipei, Taiwan, 9-12 July 2010, pp. 433-443.
19. Simula, H., Lehtimaki, T., & Salo, J. (2009). Managing greenness in technology marketing. Journal of
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20. Elliot, S. (2007). Environmental sustainable ICT: A
critical topic for IS research? Pacific Asia Conference Information Systems 2007, 4-7 July, Auckland,
New Zealand.
21. Elliot, S., & Binney, D. (2008). Environmentally
sustainable ICT: Developing corporate capabilities
and an industry relevant IS research agenda. Pacific Asia Conference Information Systems, 4-7 July,
Suzhou, China.
22. Maruster, L. F., Faber, N. R., & Peters, K. (2008).
Sustainable information systems: A knowledge perspective. Journal of Systems and Information Technology, 10(3), 218-231.
23. Chen, A. J. W., Boudreau, M.-C., & Watson, R. T.
(2008). Information systems and ecological sustainability. Journal of Systems and Information Technology, 10(3), 186-201.
24. Erek, K., Schmidt, N.-H., Zarnekow, R., & Kolbe, L.
M. (2009). Sustainability in Information Systems:
Assortment of Current Practices in IS Organizations. Proceedings of the Fifteenth Americas Conference on Information Systems, 6-9 August, San
Francisco, California.
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25. Sacchero, S. D., & Molla, A. (2009). Environmental Considerations in ICT Infrastructure Decision
Making. 20th Australasian Conference on Information Systems, 2-4 December, Melbourne, Australia.
26. York, P. T., Watson, R. T., Boudreau, M.-C., & Chen,
A. (2009). Green IS: Using information systems to
encourage green behaviour. Paper presented at the
2009 Academy of Management Annual Meeting,
7-11 August, Chicago.
27. Jenkin, T., & McShane, L. (2009). Green Information Technologies and Systems in Organizations:
The State of Practice. Paper presented at the 2009
Academy of Management Annual Meeting, 7-11
August, Chicago.
28. Bureau of Labor Statistics. (n.d.) (B.L.S., 2011).
Retrieved September 14, 2011 from http://www.bls.
gov/green/greencareers.htm
29. Green IT jobs (2012) availabe at http://greenitjobs.
org/green-it-jobs
30. England, E. and Bartczak, S. (2012) Green IT/IS
Education and Training: An Assessment of Curriculum Content, 61-66, available at www.swdsi.org/
swdsi2012/proceedings_2012/papers/.../AB125.pdf
31. England, E. and Bartczak, S. (2012) Where Can
Green IT/IS Education and Training Be Found Today? An Initial assessment of Sources, Available at:
http://www.jsedimensions.org/wordpress/content/
where-can-green-itis-education-and-trainingbe-found-today-an-initial-assessment-of-sources_2012_03/
32. Voskresenski K., Deretic O., Voskresenski V.: Education System In The United Kingdom Of Great
Britain And Northern Ireland And Its Implications
On The Education System In The Republic Of Serbia, Tem Journal, ISSN 2217-8309, e-ISSN 22178333,pp 23-32, Vol. 1, No. 1, 2012.
33. Sendall, P. Shannon, L., Peslak, A. Saulnier, B.
(2010). The Greening of the Information Systems
Curriculum, Proceedings of the 2010 ISECON, vol.
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34. Leeds Metropolitan University, 2011 M.Sc. Green
Computing available at http://www.findamasters.
com/search/CourseDetails.aspx?CID=16754
35. Green Technology Strategies (elective course
of ACS Computer Professional Education Program at masters-level) available at
http://www.acs.org.au/cpeprogram/index.
cfm?action=show&conID=greenict
36. Mishra, A., Mishra, D. (2011) E-Learning Experience at Various Universities:Academics Perspective, Technical Gazette, 18, 1(2011), 133-140.
Corresponding Author
Alok Mishra,
Department of Software Engineering,
Atilim University, Ankara,
Turkey,
E-mail: alok@atilim.edu.tr,
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
technics technologies education management
Contemporary Methods of Determining
Energy Losses in Structures
Tosa Ninkov1, Vladimir Bulatovic1, Vladimir Malenkovic2, Milivoj Vulic3
1
2
3
Faculty of Technical Sciences, University of Novi Sad, Serbia,
Coal Mine Velenje, Velenje, Republic of Slovenia,
Faculty of Natural Sciences and Engineering, University of Ljubljana, Republic of Slovenia.
Abstract
The paper points at the importance of determining energy losses in construction objects for
the purpose of remedying problems of energy loss
and issuing energetic passports. Two contemporary
methods for the collection of information based on
the principles of thermography are presented. The
first method refers to the application of a remote
sensing system that includes sensors from the infrared part of the electromagnetic spectrum. The
second method uses LIDAR technology to collect
point cloud data and thermal images from a moving
vehicle. This data not only permits the construction
of 3D models of urban environments, but also, in
combination with thermal recordings, provides the
basis for an analysis of a large number of structures,
their thermal properties and a significant energy resource for the issuance of energetic passports.
Key words: energy losses, thermal recording,
remote detection, LIDAR.
1. Introduction
The detection and quantification of energy
losses in structures in urban areas is a still insufficiently standardised problem. Exploring the
means and methods of data collection would contribute to resolving this problem, as on the basis
of the collected exact data, unambiguous instructions for the issuance of energetic passports would
be ensured, as would the development of energy
restoration projects and the rehabilitation of each
individual structure. The collected data concerning energy losses can be used for many other purposes related to the planning of energy resources
and their distribution in urban areas.
Trends to do with the use of renewable sources
of energy and strategies of sustainable development cannot even be imagined without energy
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savings. Consideration of the energy loss in structures in urban areas raises the need to develop a
methodology aimed at collecting relevant data
and building databases. Relevant information includes: general information about the building (its
address, cadastral parcels, floors and surfaces),
climate data, information about thermotechnical
systems in the building, data about the thermal
encasing of the building, data about the heating
system, about the manner of regulation, and about
energy requirements and losses [1].
Gathering all this information from scratch for
structures in urban areas would be a costly and
painstaking process. An alternative to it is the use
of existing spatial data, such as cadastral data,
along with the data that is a product of certain
rapid thermal recording methods, all with the aim
of reducing the amount of data that must be collected on each structure through direct inspection
in mind.
2. The Principle of Infrared Energy
IR thermography is a contactless method of
measuring temperature and its distribution from
the surface of a body. This method is based on
measuring the intensity of IR radiation from the
observed surface. As a result of the measurements
obtained, a thermogram, or an encoded image of
the surface temperature distribution on the surface
of the observed structure, is produced.
IR light belongs to the domain of the electromagnetic spectrum, with wavelengths ranging from
740nm to 1mm. This range of wavelengths includes
most of the thermal radiation emitted by structures
at room temperature. IR light is emitted or absorbed
by molecules during their vibrational-rotational
movements. The IR spectrum is divided into:
–– NIR, 750 - 1400nm
–– SWIR, 1400 - 3000nm
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–– MWIR, 3000 - 8000nm
–– LWIR, 8000 - 15000nm
–– FIR, 15000nm - 1mm
Longwavelenght infrared, LWIR, is also called
the thermal region, in which passive sensors can
register thermal radiation without an external thermal source.
Systems used for thermography usually consist
of a thermal camera and a computer unit used for
the processing of a thermogram. The camera contains IR optics, an IR radiation sensor, a unit used
for converting an electrical signal to a video signal
and a certain amount of memory used for storing
data. The optics used in these systems must be permeable to IR radiation. The sensor measures the
amount of energy that corresponds to the intensity
of the radiation of the IR spectrum. The energy
that is registered by the sensor is equal to the sum
of all energies (emission and reflection) coming
from the observed body, the energy going through
the body and the energy coming from the environment. So, as to be able to calculate the correct
value of the temperature of the observed structure
based on the intensity of the radiation the sensor
registers, it is necessary to be aware of certain parameters, such as the distance, temperature and
humidity external to the camera, the temperature
of the surrounding structures and surface properties of the structure, the temperature of which is
being measured.
In addition to the numerous fields of application, thermography has also found itself generously applied in the construction industry, where
it helps with quality control during the implementation of new structures, and assessment of existing structures [2]. Thermography enables insight
into the thermal insulation of a structure, as well
as detection of defects, damage and the possible
presence of moisture or thermal bridges.
3. Remote Detection of Energy Losses
As a method of recording, remote detection involves collecting data from sensors from different
ranges of spectral values. Using the principles of
Figure 1. A thermographic image of the facade prior to and after the reconstruction of a structure
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photogrammetry in combination with the position
of a sensor, a multi-channel recording is obtained,
which can then be used to generate a multi-channel orthophoto plan during processing. To obtain
an orthophoto plan in colour, it is necessary to perform sensor imaging from the domains of the red,
green and blue spectra. Using additional sensors,
other relevant information, such as thermal emission, absorption and reflection of solar radiation
and similar, can be gathered.
Increase in urban surfaces, industrial production, agricultural growth and other imminent processes contribute to the changing environmental
conditions and threats to the environment. To this
end, remote detection has been recognised as a
highly effective tool in the understanding and
monitoring of natural processes. Also to this end, a
number of satellites that continuously collect spatial information have been launched.
The recently launched Worldview-2 is the first
commercial high-resolution satellite from the company Digital Globe, and generates 8-channel multispectral images in the visible infrared range, in
which each sensor is focused on a specific range of
the electromagnetic spectrum sensitive to a certain
area on the ground. It allows for the generation of
high-resolution panchromatic images and 8-channel multispectral images (8-band), of which 4 relate
to the standard colours (red, green, blue and nearinfrared). The new channels are as follows [3]:
–– Coastal Band (400-450 nm) – which allows
the identification and analysis of areas with
vegetation, underwater bathymetric studies,
and research of techniques to do with
athmospheric correction,
–– Yellow Band (585-625 nm) – which allows the
identification of the yellow spectrum, which
is of extreme importance in applications that
relate to vegetation, and which helps generate
better true-colour images,
–– Red-Edge Band (705-745 nm) – which helps
in the analysis of vegetative states and in the
increase of sensititvity to plant material,
–– Near Infrared 2 Band (860 - 1040 nm) –
which overlaps with the NIR1 channel, but is
less sensitive to atmospheric effects in terms of
scattering, and supports special analyses tied
into the thermal radiation of entities in space
and studies to do with vegetation and biomass.
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Each of the frequencies emitted from different
sensors bounces off the surface in a different way.
Whether it is the radiation from a visible or from
an invisible part of the spectrum that we are concerned with, multi-channel recordings are obtained
as a result. More accurately, the number of channels
refers to the number of sensors with the aid of which
the recording was made. Processes of multispectral
analysis, or rather the identification of the manner
in which the radiation from individual sensors is reflected from the surface that is being recorded, and
the combining of these findings, offers a possibility of defining the principles which contain a string
of information about the structure or about the surface of the structure. Particularly useful information
can be obtained through multispectral analysis of
the channels in the near-infrared spectrum. These
sensors can clearly detect surfaces that emit or reflect heat radiation. The result of such an analysis
is not only confirmation that a certain surface gives
off heat energy, but that there is the possibility of
obtaining information about the quantity and temperature of the emitted heat. This opens up the possibility of creating thematic maps that use a colour
scale to represent different degrees of heat emission
or reflection. These maps, depending on the surface
materials and colour, could generously contribute to
the ability of drawing conclusions related to the detection and quantification of energy losses in urban
areas. Besides the colour scale, other methods of visualisation, such as isotherms, could also be used.
With the aid of Worldview-2 high-resolution
images, the creation of interactive maps of urban
areas in order to better maintain city services, resource management, road network maintenance,
and the detection of large energy loss zones without field measurements is possible. With a spatial
resolution of 0.5m to 1m, these satellite sensors
consistently demonstrate the ability to classify
surfaces of different heat levels in urban areas,
based on a variety of housing types, the separation
of paved and unpaved roads and so forth. Even
when the spatial resolution is decreased, but the
spectral properties are increased, 8-channel recordings allow for the extraction of various types
of roofing and their heat levels. As for the Worldview-2 sensor and generation of the 8-channel recordings, their accuracy is dramatically improved
in comparison to previous VNIR imagery.
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Figure 2. The classification of a surface according to its heat level.
4. LIDAR in the Detection of Energy Losses
LIDAR (Light Detection And Ranging) is a system for surveying from a vehicle or an aircraft in
a move that integrates several devices: a GPS, an
inertial system, a laser scanner and an optical sensor. LIDAR has a very simple principle of measurement. The scanner emits pulses of high frequency
and is reflected from the surface and back to the
instrument. The mirror inside the laser transmitter
is moved while rotating in a perpendicular manner
to the direction of tacking, which enables measurement in a wider area. The time elapsed between the
emission and return of each pulse and the angle of
deflection from the vertical axis of the instrument
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are used for the determination of the relative position of each measured point. The absolute position
of the sensor is determined by the GPS whenever
possible, and positions when not possible are determined by a prediction aided by the inertial system,
which also happens to ensure orientation. Laser
scanning data is combined with the position of the
scanner and orientation to obtain a three-dimensional coordinate of the laser footprint on the surface of
the terrain. Emitted air may have multiple reflections, which can then cause that a certain point has
the same coordinates, but a different height. The
first reflection may originate from vegetation or an
edge of a structure, water or similar, while the last
reflection most probably originates from the surface of the Earth or an artificial object. If the first
pulse is almost identical to the most recent pulse, it
is most frequently the surface of the Earth that is the
cause. There is no information on whether the reflection originates from the Earth's surface or from
the structure [4].
The DEM (Digital Elevation Model) is a continuous mathematical model representing the Earth's
surface. The height is the function of positional coordinates. It is important to point out the two types
of DEM: the Digital Surface Model (DSM), i.e.
a digital model of the surface that represents the
Earth's surface, including all of its natural and artificial structures on the ground, such as houses, buildings, and vegetation, and the Digital Terrain Model
(DTM), i.e. a digital model of the terrain that represents Earth's “bare” surface, without including any
vegetation or artificial structures. During the development of topographic plans and in the various
stages of design, both models are extensively used.
In order to obtain the DTM, it is necessary to
apply intelligent algorithms to complete a classification of items into three categories: a point
belongs to the Earth's surface, structure or vegetation. Without going into greater detail, the principles of classification are as follows [5]:
–– Points are identified according to the
principle of first and last from those similar
in height. Based on the identified points,
polygons are created.
–– All points from the last echo that fall into a
detected polygon and have a similar height
in the first and last echoes most probably
belong to a structure.
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–– All points from the first echo that fall into
a detected polygon and have a significantly
different height in the first and last echoes
most probably belong to vegetation.
–– Based on the points that are classified as
points belonging to the terrain, a model is
created. This kind of model is represented
by the DTM.
Based on RGB and NIR images and the DSM
of the first echo, orthorectification and georeferencing are performed, and orthophoto plans in colour and in a near-IR spectrum are obtained as a final result [6]. Through the classification of LIDAR
point data and the creation of models from points
belonging to the terrain, the DTM is obtained.
The DSM of the first echo, the DTM and the
orthophoto plan obtained from the RGB and NIR
images all represent a set of data that together
forms a three-dimensional orthophoto plan. With
the aid of this set of data, a number of analyses
using GIS technology and the extraction of secondary content, such as contour lines, longitudinal and transverse profiles, digitisation of content
of the images and so forth, can be performed. [7].
Even the point cloud itself can take over the characteristics of RGB and NIR images, with each
point receiving the appropriate colour or intensity
of radiation when it comes to the NIR images.
5. The Application of GIS Technology
From the existing data obtained from different
cadastral services, heating plants and other facilities that contain necessary information, and the
data collected by one of the above methods, the
creation of a GIS system that would enable the
collection, updating, presentation, analysis, decision support and reporting would be a powerful
resource for planning and decision making, and
also for the issuance of energy passports for structures. Using GIS tools, it is possible to automatically generate reports for all structures for which
relevant data has been collected [8]. Also, it is possible to carry out an analysis based on categories
of energy efficiency and eventually determine the
priority tasks in the repair of structures where losses are critical. Such a database would enable planners to have a better understanding of the current
situation, as well as present them with the possibility of monitoring changes in the energy losses
after repairs are complete and the ability to reach
significant conclusions when considering and engaging in massive structural repair campaigns.
6. Conclusion
Taking into account the displays of the possibilities provided by the technologies mentioned
above, it can be concluded that the massive collection of relevant data about energy losses in construction objects is a reality and that a database
could be obtained in a relatively short period of
time and with small funds. With their use, the process of data collection for the issuing of energetic
passports would be significantly simplified. Using
a database of energy losses and current energetic
states of structures, high-quality projects to do
with the repairs on structures and the development
of a quality plan that would aid in managing energy costs in urban areas would be possible. Preparation of quality plan documents and their implementation would be able to secure the conditions
required for optimal control of energy resources in
urban areas.
Figure 3. The NIR ortophoto plan generated
from the LIDAR data
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7. References
1. Pravilnik o uslovima, sadržini i načinu izdavanja
sertifikata o energetskim svojstvima zgrada, Sl.
glasnik RS br. 61/2011
2. Švaić S., Boras I., Suša M.: Termografija u zgradarstvu, Strojarstvo, Vol. 51 (5), 2009
3. Worldview II, http://worldview2.digitalglobe.com/
about/
4. M. A. Brovelli, M. Cannata, U. M. Longoni: Managing and processing LIDAR data within GRASS, 2002.
5. M. Neteler, H. Mitasova: Open Source GIS: A
GRASS GIS Approach, 2002
6. Ninkov T., Bulatović V., Sušić Z., Vasić D.: Application of laser scanning technology for civil engineering projects in Serbia , FIG Congress 2010, Sydney,
Australia, 2010.
7. Šumarac D., Ninkov T., Todorović M., Bulatović V.:
Review of a methodology for determination of energy
loss in civil construction buildings, Konferencija o
energetskoj efikasnosti 2011, Portorož
8. Bulatović V., Ninkov T., Sušić Z.: Open Geospatial
Consortium Web Services in Complex Distribution
Systems, Geodetski list, Zagreb 2010
9. Ternik, Primož, Marn, Jure, Kanduti, Damijan,
Dervarič, Evgen. Potenčni zakon kot model zmesi
elektrofilterskega pepela in vode = The power law as
a model for an electrostatic filter ash and water mixture. Stroj. vestn., 2001, letn. 47, št. 6, str. 248-262.
Corresponding Author
Tosa Ninkov,
Faculty of Technical Sciences,
University of Novi Sad,
Serbia,
E-mail: ninkov.tosa@gmail.com
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Evaluating intervention policies in city centers
Case study “Sabzemeidan-Qazvin”
Sayyid Kamal E Din Shahriari, Ardalan Karimi Khiyavi
Department of Art and Architecture, Science And Research Branch,Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran.
Abstract
Cities are places where social relationship
among human beings are formed and citizen is a
person who makes the activities and, in one word,
life flow in a physical environment named city.
City center as the most important part of a city
plays a critical role in city borders.
Qazvin is an old and historical city in Iran which
served as a capital city for some time. But unfortunately, today for many reasons which are out of
the scope of our discussion, it doesn’t have its real
position regarding physical and urban structure.
Qazvin’s center known as Cultural Garden in the
form of an urban block doesn’t contain the beauty
and brightness of the past any more. Destructive
transformations which have influenced our cities
from the beginning of this century, didn’t leave
Qazvin portion less and it caused some thoughtless and immethodical developments in historical
part of the city specially city center.
The knowledge about intervention policies and
their role in transformation of city center and moving toward real position of city center is the main
subject of our article here.
Key words: centrality, urban space, city center,
intervention policies, Sabzemeidan- Qazvin
Introduction
The necessity to have an exact knowledge about
the pace of transformation in city center helps an
urban designer to gain a correct understanding of
the whole city and its future.
Despite its unique monuments, Qazvin’s center
has been forgotten and it has lost its position either
in city or in country scale. By a short look at existing capabilities in this area and comparing it to
its current situation, we can find a clear difference
between what exists and what is expected to exist.
Currently, Qazvin’s center has changed into a usual
place in urban structure like other parts of the city
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and even lower level than other areas, while it can
have a critical role in Qazvin’s urban structure.
Regarding country scale, this area can be considered as a touristic place of west part of the
country by local and foreign tourists as well. This
is while the number of tourists in the city is very
few in a way that tourists are hardly ever seen in
the city. Inefficient applications of buildings and
obsolete lands are among the things found a lot in
Qazvin’s center today and knowing intervention
policies is considered as one of specialties which
can introduce solutions for this problem.
Concept of centrality
A place where evident properties of something
are gathered is considered as Center. Actually, center is a place which contains a special characteristic
in absolute or partial maximum. Centrality is a form
of pattern – acceptance as well and the simplest
form of a pattern can be described as centrality. Human being has always tried to simplify complicated
events by perceptible patterns to get to a better understanding about his disordered environment.
In this respect, from the simplest forms which
show centrality ,e.g pinning a piece of wood in the
center by Indian Americans and performing ceremonies around it, to the most complicated forms
of large cities, all show the existence of centrality
concept and understanding it by human during all
times (Bahreini,2006).
Urban space
If we try to explain the concept of urban design
without applying aesthetic standards, we have to
consider all the spaces in buildings and other places as urban spaces. This space is restricted geometrically in different appearances. This is just the
evidence of geometrical characteristics and aesthetic qualities which let us consider outer spaces
as urban spaces consciously (karier,2006).
Urban space is one of the elements of physical structure of the city which is created, formed
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and transformed beside the history of a nation in
different times. This element, containing different
cultural, social, economical or political activities,
has always beaten with the heart of history and it
determined the destiny of the city. Since most of
valuable urban spaces belong to the past, it should
not be supposed that urban space is an old element
and today’s city doesn’t need it (Tavassoli,2005).
To be considered as an urban space, a space
should contain three properties including:
1) activity,
2) form,
3) space.
Activity: actually it is the same application
which urban space contains and without this activity, there is no element attracting people and space
users and a space where people do not attend in, is
considered as a dead place. Form is the physic of
space and about urban space, most of the time it is
outer appearances of buildings in environment on
space. In order to consider the space among buildings as an urban space, this physic should contain
formic values.
The third property of urban space is containing a space in place which has a close relationship with people’s attendance in it. Actually, these
are people and users who give life to a place by
attending in it and when this happens, that place
gains spatial values and it can be considered as an
urban space (Bahreini,2006).
City center
It is considered for a place which contains characteristic of “urban space” to a differential level
relative to its environment. Generally, city center faces a gathering of applications (activities)
in terms of activity, form or space. It is different
from other parts of the city in term of form and it
is richer than them in term of space.
Although one of the elements is sufficient for a
place to be considered as center but existence of all
the elements at the same time results in the richness
of that space. For example, collection of commercial applications can build a commercial center (e.g
Mirdamad Ave. in Tehran) but formic values beside
commercial application make an absolute centrality
for a space (Tehran’s Bazar compared to Mirdamad
Ave.)(Ghaneii,1996) ( Appendix, no.1)
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Intervention policies
There are three theories about the way of intervention in cities which include: “rehabilitation”,
“renewal”, “reconstruction”.
1) Rehabilitation
A range of short term measures (maximum 5
years) with the aim of physical improvement. The
following four actions are performed while rehabilitating:
A) Recuperation:
Measures with minimum cost and intervention
aiming at environmental improvement.
B) Preservation:
Measures to preserve physic
C) Protection
Measures with the aim of preventing destructive factors
D) Consolidation
Measures for instrumental improvement of
building
2) Renewal \ Renovation
Renewal is performed to improve performance
and it contains following three measures:
A) Revitalization:
To renew and revive, a range of measures with
the aim of creating a new life for building.
B) Adaptation:
Creating a harmony and agreement between
old and new spaces in society
C) Functional reorganization:
A change in performance in order to contemporarize trying to look after general nature and
identity which one of the most critical measures
in renovation
3) Reconstruction
When both performance and physic face inefficiency, reconstruction takes place which includes:
A) Rebuilding:
Means to demolish and rebuild physic and usually it is tried to carry out this based on the values
belonging to the past.
B) Demolition\ Clearance
It is to eliminate inefficient, wear and unworthy
physic which is the start of reconstruction (Falamaki,1995)
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Sabzemeidan – Qazvin
The site which was chosen as a case study in
this research is central area of Qazvin known as
cultural garden and it is located in the center of
city in the form of urban block. This zone is restricted from north to Sabzemeidan, from west to
Peyghambarieh, from east to Helal e Ahmar (Red
Crescent Center) and from south to Sepah Ave.
(Appendix,no.2)
Discussion
Intervention policy is a new method which was
introduced in reaction to inefficiency and disability of traditional methods of intervention. Since the
theory is not much old, its practical experiences
are bounded to investigational and administrative
activities as well and considering great need to intervention policies, this method is seen as an ointment on the sick body of today’s urban planning.
So the author makes the most of this opportunity
and explains the method in the form of an article
as the most important objective of the article.
The method in traditional interventions like;
architecture and other artistic areas was based on
subjective – artistic ways or creativity, innovation
and genius. After industrial revolution and because cities were becoming larger and more complicated, these methods showed their disability
and inefficiency in analyzing and urban planning,
so great efforts were done to replace traditional
methods by new ones.
With a short investigation in urban planning
projects performed in the country, we can see that
intervention policies are failure and inefficient. The
doctrine of comprehensive plan which unfortunately is not completely cleared from Iran’s urban planning is a rejected method from 1960s on. In some
projects of urban planning performed in Iran, traces
of a resolution-tendency thought is evident.
The absence of people in decision making related to urban planning projects is a big weakness
for traditional methods of intervention. Experiences show that the more people as the main users of space attend in decision making process, the
more acceptable will be the results of intervention.
This is while no clearly defined method or tool for
people’s participation in traditional methods of intervention exists.
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Experiences of countries related to the objectives and policies applied in city centers
The method of intervention in different countries is different based on the history, current
political, economical and social situation, while
some common principles are distinguishable. The
aim of this section is getting to a knowledge about
principles, policies and applied objectives by different countries in order to use them when determining a general policy of intervention in the area
mentioned (Qazvin’s center).
A) England
The methods applied for intervention in the
old areas of this country are completely conservative and exclusive and they are different from
other European countries. The main objective of
interventions performed in England, is ,first, to
create a healthy and hygienic environment and
then to develop tourism industry and attract tourists. In this regard, rehabilitation and renewal are
the preferences. In term of economic, most of selfsufficiency projects have considered cities as a
whole. Considering culture, cultural values of the
area, social considerations, improving social life
and people’s participation have been always important for planners(Cooper,1990).
B) Kohne square-Isfahan
The area of Kohne square and Atigh Jame
mosque is about 64 hectares which forms 12% of
total historical area of Isfahan. The population of
this area is 9500 which another 11000 people are
added to this number during the day. The area is
considered as the city center of north east part of
Isfahan, meaning the oldest part of city.
Determining general objectives of Isfahan
project
Based on the investigations performed in rehabilitation and renewal of Kohne square and Atigh
Jame mosque and considering current structure of
the era and its problems, the general objectives of
plan are:
1. returning cultural-historical identity following the role of historical area as the main
point of this area in the way that beside
historical continuity it can response to today
needs of city and the environment around.
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2. functional rehabilitation of residual
environment near the area to fulfill the needs
for services, establishments and access in
order to return an active environment to
mentioned areas
3. anticipating economical mechanisms in
a way that acquired results guarantee the
improvement of the whole area, historical
area and the city of Isfahan itself and it
applies potential capabilities to renew the
plan and its administration.
4. preserving historical and architectural
values and creating suitable spaces and
environments for physical improvement of
these values
5. creating a new spatial structure based on
spatial hierarchy related to ordering the
activities and urban functions
6. adjusting the functions and rearranging
them in order to decrease interference,
heterogeneity and disorder in existing
functions and also increasing the function of
different spaces in the era
7. preventing immethodical and unplanned
interventions in the plan and structuring
heterogeneities and disorders
8. functional renewal in spaces lacking useful
function or having inefficient ones in order
to fulfill new needs of the area considering
current problems and suggested objectives
(Naghsh e Jahan e Pars).
Conclusion
Considering techniques and policies of intervention and the way of using them about city centers and also the importance of the area considered in city or country scale, these objectives are
stressed very much:
–– city center is the most important and the
most complicated part of a city
–– the necessity of an exact knowledge about
the transformation of city center results in a
correct understanding of the whole city and
its future
–– Despite its unique monuments, Qazvin’s
center has been forgotten and it has lost its
position either in city or in country scale.
–– Intervention concepts should be considered
696
––
––
––
––
––
––
––
as methods of transformation in city centers
in three sections of rehabilitation, renewal
and reconstruction
anticipating economical mechanisms in
a way that acquired results guarantee the
improvement of historical center of city
rich values of urban planning and
architecting in Iran should be applied based
on understanding of their concepts in the
form of modern urban structure
noble layers of society should be protected
in the area and participation of people in
intervention affairs should be encouraged
revival and enrichment of historical identity
of the area in order to create a symbolic
centrality which produces identity and pride
for the whole city
announcing the site as the main urban-social
center of city
creating suitable, active, live and mixed
use urban spaces in order for citizens and
tourists to use them
creating an atmosphere of participation for
the people in suggested projects
References
1. Bahreini H, and Alitaleb Baboli , N .2002 " Complining the principles of environmental design of city
entrances " , Environmentology Review , Environmental Design leaflet: Tehran. Iran.
2. Bahreini H, class notes about Principles of Urban
Planning 1 and 2, Tehran university, Fine arts faculty, 2006
3. Carmona , M; et.al.2006. " Public Place- Urban
Spaces ". The Dimensions of Urban Design New
York , Elsevier .
4. Consultant engineers in Naghsh e Jahan e Pars,
Rehabilitation and Renewal Project of Kohne square
and Atigh Jame mosque, Dwelling & Urban planning organization of Urban Reconstruction and Rehabilitation company
5. Cooper Marcus, Clare and Carolyn Francis People
Places (design guidelines for urban open spaces) /
Van Nostrand Reinhold/ 1990
6. Falamaki M, Renewal and historical cities, Tehran
University Pubs, third edition, 1995
7. Ghaneii M, Okhovvat M, Step by Step Intervention,
Haft Shahr magazine, second year, n 3, 2001
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8. Karier R. Urban space, Dr. Khosravi nejad, Jihad
University Pubs, Tehran 1978
Corresponding Author
Ardalan Karimi Khiyavi,
Department of Art and Architecture,
Science And Research Branch,
Islamic Azad University,
Tehran,
Iran,
E-mail: Ard.karimi@yahoo.com
9. Tavassoli M, Bonyadi N, Urban Design 1, Research
and Study center of Iran’s Urban Planning and architecture, 2005, p9
10. Trancik,R. 1986." Finding lost space , theories of
urban design". Van Noutrand Reinhold company.
New York.
Apendixes
No.1
Kind of space
Definition
Urban space
It is allocated to public activities, contains 2 elements of square and street, its public
activity is based on motion or pause, supplies general needs of today and tomorrow citizens,
contains quantitative & qualitative proportions, includes different environmental, cultural,
communicational, social and aesthetical dimensions.
City center
Is the most important urban space in city, it includes some kind of centrality (spatial/structural)
in the physic of city regarding activity and performance.
No.2
North
Scale
1:5000
Plan
no.1
Subject: location of application in the era
1. educational parks
2. cultural
3. religious
4. administrative& police
5. commercial
6. pedestrian
7. Taleghani street
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
North
Subject: location of application in the era
Scale:
1:2500
1. Peyghambarieh school
2. Chehelsotoon palace
3. Chahar anbia
4. Grand hotel
5. Alighapoo
6. former ministry of justice
Plan
no.2
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Why charisma matters?
Domination of charismatic leadership style in
Serbian enterprises
Vesna Stojanovic Aleksic, Verica Babic, Jelena Eric
Faculty of Economics, University of Kragujevac, Serbia
Abstract
The paper on focused on analysis of charismatic
leadership, as one of the most important leadership
styles within the organizational context. Other leadership styles, directive, servant and participative are
briefly explained in order to highlight differences
comparing to charismatic style. The very concept
of charisma has been defined as well as the most
important characteristics of charismatic leadership,
with an attempt to answer the question where the
leaders’ influence comes from. The most relevant
factors have been analysed in order to explain the
nature of charismatic leadership. Charisma provides distinctiveness in relation to other types of
leadership styles and it can have important positive
and negative effects on the followers. Final section
of the work paper presents findings of the research
conducted in order to analyse leadership process
characteristics in Serbian enterprises, and provide
explanation for domination of autocratic charismatic leadership style.
Key words: Leadership, charisma, organization, change
Introduction
Leadership, as a process of influencing other
people to make additional effort in goal achievement, is multidisciplinary and highly complex
phenomenon. Regardless if it is analyzed as integral part of the management process (together
with planning, organizing and controlling), or as
one of the determining variables of organizational
behavior, leadership does not cease to draw attention for many decades. Interest in leadership has
reached culmination in the last decade of the twentieth century, when companies faced the request to
meet competitive challenges in highly turbulent
and dynamic environment. This interest nowadays
698
is so intense, that researchers are willing to argue
that leadership is the number one issue in management and organizational theory, and the major factor success of any business depends on.
Main research goal in this paper is to analyze
and provide in-depth insight of leadership styles
within Serbian companies. Even though four major leadership styles are prevalent in contemporary organization and management, and in more
details explained shortly, research results indicate
that one of them, charismatic leadership style, is
beyond any doubt most dominant in Serbian enterprises.
1. Dominant leadership styles overview
Outstanding interest for the research in the domain of leadership resulted in bulk of different
theories, concepts and models that differentiate diverse factors and leadership styles. However, there
are several styles, widely accepted and recognized
by researchers as dominant: directive, servant,
participative and charismatic [1, pp. 106-150].
Directive leaders are primarily focused on defining the role, activities and communicating followers what they are expected to do. (In numerous
models this style is defined as "task orientation").
Even though most people prefer autonomy, initiative and latitude in performing their tasks, vast majority of employees occasionally need some kind of
guidance and direction from their leaders. The most
significant directive leadership positive effects are
related to precise definition of each individual’s
role in organization. Leaders create a clear vision of
what needs to be done, setting followers free from
tension and uncertainty. However, one should bear
in mind that overly directive leader behavior can
cause counterproductive effects and negative impact on organizational and individual performance.
It is believed that the directive leadership is most efVolume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
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fective under conditions of highly structured tasks.
Task with clearly defined steps of implementation,
enables the leader to provide clear instructions, and
exercise control over employees.
Servant behavior is an integral part of all leadership styles, and involves leader’s attention, care,
understanding and respect for followers. This kind
of behavior usually results in higher employees’
satisfaction, better communication, enhanced organizational commitment and group cohesion,
leading to superior organizational performance.
Servant behavior is more effective when employees have to deal with stressful work they are not
completely satisfied with or when they are new
and have lack of confidence in performing tasks
that require creativity and unique skills mastering.
Followers faced with complex tasks that require
making decisions about new and unfamiliar problems, often have better results if guided by leaders who demonstrate self-confidence and provide
support. Understanding and encouragement help
employees to overcome anxiety and focus their
energy on achieving performance.
Participative leadership behavior is related to
leadership styles that involve followers in decisionmaking process. These are situations when leader to
some extent delegates authority to the followers, so
that we can talk about divided leadership. The positive effects of participative leadership on employees’
behavior and satisfaction are numerous. Participation in decision-making process allows employees
to protect their own interests, increasing motivation
for decision implementation. In addition, participation enables personal development of employees
and allows them to feel competent, worthy and appreciated. Joint participation enhances group cohesion, often resulting in better work performance.
Charisma is one of the most important components of leadership styles, and therefore, regardless
the positive effects of abovementioned leadership
styles many authors still believe that the charismatic leadership is dominant in most companies.
Research results presented in this paper indicate
domination of charismatic leadership is in Serbian
companies, which is main reason to focus our attention in further deliberations on this leadership style.
Charisma represents the unique, often hard to explain qualities that make a certain person attractive
and superior comparing others. Charismatic leaderVolume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
ship is defined as "specific commitment and heroism", "the process of influence that inspire blind
devotion" or "leadership with magnetic effects" [2,
p. 59]. Charisma is a specific quality of leaders that
affects the followers to perceive it as desirable and
therefore willing to follow, sometimes unconditionally. Charisma has spiritual origin and it is inaccessible to ordinary people.
Important premise for understanding charisma
refers to ethical isolation. Charisma provides complete devotion to the leader, regardless of the moral
dimension of the vision and activities aimed at its
realization. Leaders with a high concern for the
moral exercise of power will use power in an altruistic and collectively oriented manner, inducing
respect for the leader and commitment to his vision.
In contrast, leaders with a high power motivation
who tend to use power for personal rather than social needs may be seen as using their position to
aggrandize themselves at the expense of others [3].
Charisma is most often manifested in a crisis,
when the leader with a specific personal characteristics and radical vision arise, offering a solution and attracting followers to believe in his/her
extraordinary abilities. Therefore, charismatic
leadership is "the collective excitement produced
by unusual events and yielding to heroes of any
kind". Charismatic leaders destroy old and re-establish new organizational framework, resulting
in organizational transformation and identification
with charismatic leadership.
2. Factors influencing charismatic leadership
Although the concept of charisma has evolved
over the years and even anyone hardly believes in
superhuman and divine nature of leaders, there is
still an ongoing discussion which factors dominantly influence its development and manifestations. Charisma is the result of the attributes of
leaders and followers, their mutual interaction and
unique circumstances.
2.1 Personal characteristic of leaders and
followers
Early approaches to charismatic leadership remained in the domain of "trait" theory, associating
charisma primarily to the physical and psycho699
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logical characteristics of leaders, and trying to establish a specific charismatic personal profile that
incorporates attractiveness, penetrating glance,
pleasant voice, intuition and so on. However, this
approach, does not explain why people who have
the most desirable features do not have charisma.
A number of theories dealing with charismatic
leadership rely on psychoanalytical tradition and
study of S. Freud [4, pp. 53-57]. Although Freud
himself had never used the term charisma, he analysed certain elements of the leader-follower interaction. Psychoanalytic theory is oriented towards
mechanisms of sub consciousness, by which it
seeks to explain the unusual and completely irrational influence of some charismatic leaders,
strongly idealized and admired by their followers.
Intense personal identification of the followers
with charismatic leaders is interpreted by psychodynamic processes, such as projection, transfer
or regression. Thus, for instance, followers may
transfer their feelings toward important figures
of the past (e.g. father or mother) onto the leaders (transfer), or in relation to such leader to demonstrate an unusually infantile behaviour (regression). People with unsolved interpersonal relationships tend to identify with leaders who, in a sense,
symbolize a father figure and aiming to recover
feelings of typical child dependence. Followers
who have a sense of guilt, fear or alienation may
experience the fulfilment, a sense of power and
euphoria in the process of identification with the
dominant leader.
However, the paternal figure of leader is not
the only factor initiating the process. It is believed
that charismatic leaders exhibit the mechanism
of so-called "reverse transfer". They are prone to
externalize their personal issues and needs, transforming them into a vision that becomes common
for all followers. In this way, the vision carries a
specific message which provides the followers
identification with their own unrealized needs and
unmet motives, while charismatic leader who promotes it becomes a kind of saviour. This type of
leadership emphasizes symbolic behaviour and
inspiring messages, as well as the expectation that
follower should sacrifice their personal interests
for the sake of the organization [5, p. 567].
It is obvious that psychoanalytic theory advocates the idea that emotional problems, guilt,
700
intrapersonal conflicts and other issues, mainly
of subconscious nature, represent a very fertile
ground for the emergence of charismatic leadership. It can be partially valid for understanding
the leadership process in general, or answering the
question why some people need guidance. History
provides examples of collective transfer or collective regression, when entire groups, even whole
nations blindly follow the leader, regardless how
irrational it may seem today. Most people have
subconscious mechanisms that guide their behaviour and that we are all prone to occasionally
exhibit elements of regression, transfer or projections in relation to other people. However, the existence of these processes can be regarded more
as a prerequisite for the emergence of charismatic
leadership, than its basic cause.
2.2 Interactions within charismatic leadership
process
The fact that followers are key factor in creation of leadership style, and charismatic leadership,
must not be overlooked. Followers are inherent to
the nature of leadership process itself, which is by
definition reciprocal relation and mutual influence
exchange. Charismatic leadership is based primarily on the leader-followers interactions, so in order
to understanding it, all dimensions of this relationship must be analyzed. It is believed that charismatic leadership should be regarded as a collective
process, which takes place through personal and
social identification and internalization [6].
Personal identification is one of the key elements in the development of charismatic leadership, particularly for followers with low self-esteem, problems of personal identity and the need
for high dependency on the authority. Equally
important is the process of social identification,
which affects the way that people define themselves primarily in relation to membership in a
group or organization. Those who identify themselves with the group become proud of their membership and they perceive it as the defining aspect
of their social identity. When a social identity is
so high, followers are ready to suborder individual
to collective needs, sacrificing personal interests
for the sake of the group. Charismatic leaders are
able to increase social identification in various
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ways (e.g. giving a group of special features, symbols, rituals and making it distinctive from other
groups) aiming to intensify his/her own influence
on the group.
Another very important process of charismatic
influence is reflected in the internalization. The
appearance of charismatic leader is more likely to
happen when his vision is congruent with existing values of followers. Individuals internalize an
identity as leader or follower, and those identities
become relationally recognized through reciprocal
role adoption and collectively endorsed within the
organizational context [7]. Relationship is established between follower's and group's system of
values, enabling followers to freely express their
attitudes, that comply fully with organizational vision and goals. This is the result of an interactive
influence, reflected in the fact that followers elect
leader for whom they intuitively believe to share
common system of values. Charismatic leader
encourages followers' internal motivators, selfconfidence and innovativeness, making them to
experience their work and themselves as integral
part of the organization.
The processes of identification and internalization are facilitated by the follower’s willingness to
identify themselves with the leader, whose energy
and confidence is the subject of idealization and
admiration, to the extent that the approval and acceptance by the leader become the most important
determinant of the follower’s value. They feel the
charismatic leader’s approval, as well as constant
fear of leader’s rejection, the primary motivator.
Deeper understanding of charismatic leadership requires the study of interaction between the
very followers. Relationship between the leader
and the follower is a unique type of close, interpersonal relationship within the organizational context. Over time, followers base their perception of
charismatic leadership on their relationship with
the leader [8]. This process, also known as "social
contamination" [9], explains the development of
charismatic leadership when there is no direct interaction between leader and followers, and therefore it can not be explained by direct influence of
leader. It is not uncommon for subordinates who
have had little direct contact with a leader to perceive the distant leader as charismatic [10]. Social
contamination includes spontaneous spreading of
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emotions and reactions within group, which occurs after yielding inhibition due to the fact that
the member of the group observes and adopts the
same or similar behaviour of other members. It
is believed that the true social identity of people
is inhibited by social norms and standards of acceptable behaviour and followers therefore do
not always behave in accordance with their true
nature, but in accordance with the rules of the
group to which they want to fit in. "Followers follow not only because it is in their best interest to
conform to their leaders, but also because it is in
their interest to confirm to their fellow followers"
[4, p. 56]. If there is a leader with behaviour that
deviates from the usual standards, initially he/she
will be accepted by members who do not share
a strong identification with the group. They will
seek to identify with the leader, by imitating nonspecific behaviour, symbols, rituals and the like.
The more mechanisms of inhibition are easing,
the more members will accept the new model of
behaviour (even if they initially seemed unacceptable), which is a result of mutual interaction and
imitation of members’ behaviour. However, the
exceptional qualities of charisma and abilities will
be attributed to the leader, resulting from the followers need to rationalize feelings and justify their
behaviour (if one is worth that much, it is acceptable to identify with him).
This brings us to the field of attributive theories of leadership that analyse attributes of leaders
whose behaviour is perceived as charismatic [11].
There are patterns of behaviour that are more
prone to the attribution of charisma. For example,
charisma will be attributed to the leader whose vision bears a significant discrepancies in relation to
the existing state of affairs, as well as to the leaders who use unconventional methods of its implementation This also applies to the leaders who are
prone to taking risks, especially if the risk is related to their personal status and position, as well
as for those who demonstrate great confidence and
"infectious" enthusiasm.
2.3 Characteristic of situation
While the charismatic leader can arise in any
situation, it is considered that there are certain
prerequisites that make it more likely. Different
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conditions operating at the environmental, organizational, group and individual levels influence the
emergence of different types of leaders [12].
It is believed that a crisis is a very fertile
ground for the emergence of charismatic leadership. Research on charisma in organizational settings often focuses on leaders who found new organizations [13] or transform organizations in crisis [14]. Discontent and expectation that someone
will show up and reduce dissatisfaction is one of
the basic preconditions for the charisma manifestation. Sometimes the crisis does not necessarily
exist, but leader may be able to create a feeling
of dissatisfaction with the current situation and,
simultaneously, offer the opportunity to solve it
in unconventional way. Charismatic leaders often
arise in organizations that are yet to be established,
without clearly defined roles, organizational structure. It also applies during organizational changes, which abound in uncertainty and frustration.
In contemporary leadership theory, charismatic
leaders are highlighted as pre-eminent agents
of organizational change (e.g., [15], [16], [17],
[18]). There is evidence that charismatic leadership can sometimes act in resistance to change
and in defense of the status quo when the interests
and values of established groups are jeopardized
[19]. Anyway, faced with the changes, followers
do not understand what they are supposed to do
next. They often feel tension and anxiety, so the
emergence of leader who provides resolution of
the crisis and new strategy, is perceived as a salvation [20]. Open communication about perceived
effects of the organizational change is way to reduce resistance and fear [21].
Leader-follower relationship, characterized by
strong follower identification, usually results in
increased self-confidence and sense of security, as
the followers are satisfied not only with the leader,
but their job and the general status within the organization [22].
3. Charismatic leadership in Serbian
enterprises
Charismatic leadership model with its alternative manifestations, autocratic and paternalistic,
represents a common style of leadership in Serbian enterprises. This is a consequence to the spe702
cific nature of the national and organizational culture, which to a great extent shapes characteristics
of the leaders and their behaviour. Although the
national culture can be described in a number of
specific dimensions, the best known and most analyzed research is the one conducted by Geert Hofstede, who had defined four dimensions essential
for discerning national, as well as organizational
cultures [23, p. 123]. In this traditional classification Serbia is characterized by extreme values in
all dimensions, high power distance and collectivism, high uncertainty avoidance and domination
of female values.
It is well-known that a national culture through
the above mentioned dimensions directly influences organizational structure. Namely, organizations
operating in cultures characterized by high power
distance have a tendency to greater centralization
and formalization, larger number of hierarchical
levels and autocratic leadership styles [24]. That
implies bureaucratic types of organizational cultures based on respect of rules and procedures, as
well as high dependence on the leader among organization members This is also relevant for other
dimensions of a national culture, such as a high
level of collectivism and low level of uncertainty
tolerance. Collective national cultures are characterized by organizational cultures dominated
by dependence on the leader, who is expected to
provide protection; while in turn is granted utmost
support and obedience. In efforts to assure greater
stability and predictability as a consequence of low
uncertainty tolerance, organizational behaviour is
formalized, rules and roles are clearly defined. Organization has bureaucratic culture of roles, with
predominantly authoritarian leadership charismatic leadership. A recent research confirmed that the
majority of domestic leaders are predominantly
oriented to directive and control, while a minority
is oriented towards support and participation [25].
A research was done during the previous six
years, aiming at investigating characteristics of organizational cultures and leadership in Serbian enterprises facing organizational changes. Using the
sampling method, 20 enterprises of different activities, size and ownership structure participated in this
research. Research methodology was defined in accordance to the reserach goal and was based on the
combination of qualitative and quantitative methods,
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suported by relevant literature and acheivements.
The data were collected using the poll method, with
specially designed questionarries and poll lists with
500 randomly picked participants.
In the domain of leadership, the research indicated that the majority of leaders, 60,6% is predominantly oriented on issuing orders and control,
while only 7,4% is oriented on providing support
and development of harmoniuos interpersonal relations, and 32% on encouraging participation in
decision making process. It can be concluded that
Serbian enterprises are dominated by directive
task-oriented leadership behaviour, participative
leadeship is present to an extent, and supportive
behaviour is rare. These characteristics correspond
with high power distance and bureaucratic culture.
The fact that majority of participants (55%) declared preference to precisely defined over creative tasks, (44%), indicates low inclination to
changes and uncertainty tolerance.
When asked to assess the most important characteristics of a leader, the majority of participants
put knowledge first. It is interesting that honesty
ranked second, which indicates to a national culture
in which traditional values, such as credibility, personal integrity and moral are still more important
then having a vision, energy and risk propensity.
Participants considered leadership talent inherited,
confirming again the characteristics of the national
culture, reflected in the belief in predestination of
events. The role of a leader in the organization is
seen in that context – as a person who has a natural
right to issue orders and impose demands, features
inherent to charismatic leadership.
In support of the claim that the national and organizational culture is dominated by authoritarian
leadership model is the fact that our enterprises are
characterized by a unequal distribution of power, as
consequence of high power distance. Namely, 83%
of participants declared that power was unequally
distributed in organization. This implies a hierarchical structure, centralization in decision-making process, imanent to autocratic charismatic leadership.
Similar findings were provided to the questions
related to creativity and individual initiative. Majority of 57% of the participants declared that creativity was little valued in their enterprises, 29%
declared that it was not valued at all, totalling in
86%, which represents an alarming result. Only
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14% think that individual initiative is appreciated
in their enterprise, indicating collectivistic national
culture, fertile ground for charismatic leadership.
Great power distance is manifested in leaders
distance towards employees. As much as 70%
of participants declared that leaders are not particularly willing, if willing at all, to hear ideas and
suggestions, while 66, 3% declared that the leaders have lack of understanding for their needs.
Regarding dominant sources of leadership power,
personal sources are in a slight advantage compared
to positional sources, which confirms the domination of charismatic leadership. An interesting fact is
that leaders give promises and praises (paternal) as
much as penalties (autocratic), in efforts to compel
employees to behave in a certain way. Half of the
participants believe in expertise, ability and moral
qualities of leaders. Hence, these characteristic of
leader are more acceptable sources of power than
directive or formal position in the organization.
Considering the characteristics of the national
and organizational culture in Serbia, it can be inferred that followers predominantly comply with
conformist and passive behaviour patterns, meaning that the two dominant models are present: followers who are willing to actively participate, but
are not capable and do not want to criticise, or give
suggestions, mostly oriented on conflict avoidance; and followers oriented to mere perfomance,
working under strong supervision and control
[24]. Followers have an external locus of contol,
meaning they believe that things are impossible to
change, and as such should be accepted. They do
not take initiative or responsibility, which is another explanation for the domination of autocratic
(paternalistic) approach of charismatic leaders.
Conclusion
Considering the above mentioned characteristics of charismatic leadership, it can be inferred that
their most important effects can be linked to the crises, states of uncertainty and radical changes in all
aspects of the organization. The experiences indicate that radical changes of system of values in the
organization, as well as in society as a whole, socalled “cultural shocks”, considerably contribute to
the increased importance of charismatic leadership.
The absence of established behavioural norms, the
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loss of existing positions and values and potential
hazard to one’s own status generate the perception
of the charismatic leader as a saviour who will, in
the absence of structure and clearly defined roles
and interaction, offer his vision as a universal solution for existing problems.
The research results presented in the work paper indicate the dominance of autocratic leadership
style in domestic enterprises as a result of specific
features of national and organizational culture, as
well as the fact that these features provide stimulating basis for the development of charismatic
leadership. National culture characterized by high
power distance, collectivism and low uncertainty tolerance implies bureaucratic organizational
culture characterized by pronounced hierarchy,
subordination, centralization and resistance to
change. Such characteristics of the organizational
culture generate domination of directive leadership styles among which charismatic leadership is
the prevailing one. This type of leadership is supported by results of the research dealing with characteristics of domestic leaders. Results indicate
that leadership is inherent, and that in addition to
knowledge, a leader should possess characteristics
such as honesty and personal authority. High level
of uncertainty avoidance and preference towards
clearly structured as opposed to creative tasks,
implies domination and acceptability of directive
leadership behaviour in domestic enterprises.
This work paper explores the positive as well
as negative effects of charismatic leadership, particularly manifested during the crisis. However, it is
necessary to point out that implementation of organizational changes require more adaptable leadership styles. To this end, efforts need to be made in
order to create an organizational structure capable
of responding to radical changes in the environment
and overcoming resistance by encouraging the values of employees such as flexibility, creativity and
openness to changes. Moreover, it is necessary to
increase the capability of an individual to actively
contribute in the leadership process with creativity
and initiative, instead of acting as passive followers
executing orders of the leader. In facing the future,
managers must learn analytical thinking in unpredictable and complex situations [26].
In future, it will be necessary to encourage development of both dimensions of the leadership
704
process – leaders and followers, simultaneously
with initiating changes of the most important dimensions of national and organizational culture.
Further research will dictate development of these
dimensions, as well as the fields in which interventions need to be taken, especially regarding change
of organizational structure and dominant system of
values. Some relevant research has been conducted
in Serbia recently [27]. Considering the fact that
these phenomena can change in a long run, the future research needs to be longitudinal and extended,
by increasing the number of explored variables, in
both the field of leadership and the characteristic of
national and organizational culture.
Acknowledgements
This paper represents the research result on the
fundamental research project, entitled “Contemporary Management and Marketing Methods Application in Improving Competitiveness of Serbian
Companies in the Process of European Union Integration” funded by Ministry of Education, Republic of Serbia (179062).
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Corresponding Author
Jelena Eric,
Faculty of Economics,
University of Kragujevac,
Republic of Serbia,
E-mail: jelena_eric@kg.ac.rs
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(2010): 127–143.
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Pareto’s retail trade turnover distribution
Bozo Draskovic, Jelena Minovic
Institute of Economic Sciences, Belgrade, Serbia
Abstract
This paper presents modeling of turnover for
non-specialized retail trade mainly food, drink and
tobacco. We used different methods for modeling:
Method of interpolation, Least Squares Method,
and Generalized Lotka - Volterra (GLV) model for
numerical simulation. We showed that the probability of measuring a particular value of retail
trade turnover varies inversely as a power of that
turnover. We showed that observed data, and numerical simulation of GLV model reflect power law
(Pareto’s law) for probability distribution of retail
trade turnover, very well. We used data of retail
trade turnover and a number of economic entities in
Serbia for the year 2010. Thus, we found that retail
trade turnover on the Serbian market is distributed
according to Pareto distribution with the tail exponent (or parameter a ) of 3.14, which means that
a larger portion of the turnover (income) is owned
by a smaller percentage of the big economic entity
(0.03%) on this market. This is the first paper that
shows the distribution of retail trade turnover possesses properties of Pareto’s law on the Serbian
market. We proved that each economic entity with
a retail trade turnover below 7 million RSD cannot survive on this market. About 28% of the total
number of economic entities, are small economic
entities, and they have to go out from this market
(or go into liquidation). In order to survive in the
market, it is necessary to reorganize themselves and
connect the clusters of procurement. It would also
be necessary that the state institutions and agencies
affect the reduction of existing discriminatory prices by regulatory measures.
Keywords: Retail trade turnover, Pareto’s
power-law, GLV model, numerical simulation.
JEL Classification: C16, C15, R12.
1. Introduction
The empirical methodology utilized in this
paper involves a simple test of scaling phenom706
ena commonly known as the Pareto’s law. Pareto
(1896-1897) in the 1890s using tax tabulations
from Swiss cantons found that his law approximates remarkably well the top tails of the income
or wealth distributions [1]. Pareto’s law (1897)
[2] was originally utilized in economics as a description of income distributions but the scaling
phenomena has also been observed in many other
areas in natural and social sciences. Pareto’s law
states that the probability of occurrence of an event
starts high and tapers off [3]. When the probability
of measuring a particular value of some quantity
varies inversely as a power of that value, the quantity is said to follow a power law, also known the
Pareto distribution [4].
Power laws are common in systems that are
constituted out of pieces that have no specific
size and in systems that are constituted out of
self-catalyzing elements [5]. They represent the
link between simple microscopic basic laws on
individual level and macroscopic phenomena that
occur collectively [6]. Power laws appear widely
in economics and finance, physics, biology, earth
and planetary sciences, computer science, demography, and the social sciences [4]. Clauset, Shalizi,
and Newman (2007) [7] present power law distributions in empirical data from a range of different
disciplines. Gabaix (2009) [8] surveys empirical
power laws regarding income and wealth, the size
of cities and firms, stock market returns, trading
volume, international trade, and executive pay. He
surveyed power laws in finance and economics,
and he showed that Pareto laws have also been
applied in several areas outside of income and
wealth distribution. Pareto laws fit the top tails of
income and wealth distributions. Atkinson, Piketty, and Saez (2009) [1] surveyed some of these
theoretical models. Bentley, Ormerod, and Batty
(2008) [9] modeled the distribution of turnover.
These authors showed that their model is also able
to replicate a newly-identified empirical relationship whereby the power law exponent increases as
the proportion of data in the tail falls.
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Malcai, Biham, Richmond, and Solomon (2002)
[10] have introduced Generalized Lotka - Volterra
(GLV, Lotka, 1925, and Volterra, 1926) formalism
in order to explain the power law wealth distributions in theoretical and simulations terms. We introduced GLV formalism in order to explain the
power law retail trade turnover distributions of a
number of economic entities in Serbia. In this paper we study a stochastic dynamical model, based
on the Lotka - Volterra system that gives rise to the
power-law distribution. The model consists of coupled dynamic equation which describes the discrete
time evolution of the basic system components wi
(turnover of each economic entity), i =1,..., N. The
structure of these equations resembles the logistic
map and they are coupled though the average value
of retail trade turnover w ( t ) [10].
In this paper we present modeling of turnover for
non-specialized retail trade, mainly food, drink and
tobacco on the Serbian market. We used data about
retail trade turnover and a number of economic entities for the year 2010 in Serbia. We obtained those
data on request from the Ministry of Finance of the
Republic of Serbia - Tax Administration (TA, http://
www.poreskauprava.gov.rs/), and from the Serbian
Business Registers Agency (SBRS, http://www.apr.
gov.rs/) - company’s financial statements. In order
to model retail trade turnover we used the method
of interpolation, Least Squares Method, and GLV
model. This paper presents theoretical background
of GLV model, as well as theoretical background
of the Pareto’s power law. The results of interpolation method with observed data are given. These
results are compared with the results of theoretical
interpolation method and the results of numerical
simulation of GLV model. Additionally, we had to
write software for numerical simulation in program
language C#. All methods which we used show that
retail trade turnover distribution possesses properties of power law. This is the first paper that shows
the retail trade turnover distribution has the features
of Pareto’s law on the Serbian market.
The paper is organized as follows. In Section
2 we presented theoretical aspects of Generalized
Lotka - Volterra model, as well as financial interpretation of GLV model. The definition of powerlaw is presented in Section 3. In this section we
presented Pareto’s interpolation method with obVolume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
served data of retail trade turnover. The main results are discussed in this section. In Section 4 we
presented the results of our numerical simulations.
Section 5 contains a conclusion.
2. Theoretical aspects of GLV model
2.1 Model Definition
In this paper GLV model describes the time evolution of the retail trade turnover distribution of a
number of economic entities [10]. The individual
retail trade turnover of economic entity i is given
by a set of time dependent variables wi , i = 1,...,
N. The average turnover for non-specialized retail
trade, mainly food, drink and tobacco, w ( t ) is:
w (t ) =
1
N
å w ( t ) .................... (2.1)
i
i
The microscopic representation method models the market benchmark w ( t ) as a collective
quantity emerging from the interactions of a macroscopic number of economic entities. More precisely, the ”microscopic representation” of the
market is composed of many economic entities
i = 1,...., N each having a certain personal retail
trade turnover wi ( t ) . The economic entities demand and supply their goods, using more or less
complicated strategies designed to maximize their
retail trade turnover. The resulting benchmark is
then proportional to the total sum of the individual
economic entity’s turnover [6].
In this paper, we will often use the term „economic entity“ instead of microscopic elements and
talk about the „retail trade turnover“ wi of each entity and the „average retail trade turnover“ w ( t ) [6].
The GLV equation system describes the evolution in discrete time of N dynamic variables wi .
In this paper it represents the retail trade turnover
of an individual economic entity [10]. The GLV is
an interactive multi-agent model. We have N economic entities, each having retail trade turnover
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wi , and each wi is evolving in time according to
following equation:
wi ( t + 1) = l ( t ) wi ( t ) + a ( t ) w ( t ) - c ( t ) w ( t ) wi ( t )
..................................... (2.2)
where i is in 1, 2, ..., N [6]. Here w is the average value of the dynamical variables at time t, or
the average retail trade turnover. A positive random
variable l has a probability distribution Π ( l )
. The first term on the right hand side of equation
(2.2) is a stochastic autocatalytic term (representing investments, l ( t ) wi ( t ) ) [10], [11]. In financial market it represents a growth (or decrease) of
economic entity’s retail trade turnover determined
by random multiplicative factor l ( t ) [11]. The
coefficients a and c are in general functions of
time, reflecting the changing conditions in the environment [6]. Value a ( t ) w ( t ) drift term (representing social security payments) [10]. It represents the wealth the economic entities receive as
members of the society in subsidies, services and
social benefits. That is the reason it is proportional
to the average turnover [6]. Value c ( t ) w ( t ) wi ( t )
a time dependent saturation term (due to the finite
size of the economy) [10]. It has the effect of limiting the growth of w to values sustainable for the
current conditions and resources [6], [11].
In recent years there has been a considerable
interest in the collection and analysis of large
volumes of economic data. Such data include the
distribution of the income and wealth of the individuals, the market values of publicly traded companies, as well as their short and long fluctuations.
A common observation is that distributions of economic data exhibit a power-law behavior [10].
2.2 Financial interpretation of GLV model
Solomon (1999) [6] told that in this case l
represents the fluctuations in the market value of
the economic entity. Parameter a represents the
correlation between the value of each economic
entity and the market benchmark, and parameter c
708
represents the competition between the economic
entities for the finite amount of money in the market (and express also the limits in their own absolute resources).
In financial interpretation of GLV model, there
is no inflation. We first discuss the assumption that
the economic entity’s gains/losses are proportional to the retail trade turnover:
w ( t + 1) = lw ( t ) . ..................... (2.3)
The additive term a ( t ) w ( t ) tries to account for
the departures related to additional amounts originating in subsidies, and other fixed income [6].
The statistic uniformity of the relative gains
and losses of the market participants (economic
entities in retail trade) is a weak form to express
the fairness of the market and the lack of arbitrage
opportunities (opportunities to obtain systematically higher gains l - 1 than the market average
without assuming higher risks): for instance, if the
distribution of l would be systematically larger
for small- w -economic entity, then the big- w
-economic entity would only have to split its turnover in independently managed parts to mimic that
low- w superior performance. This would lead to
an equalization of their l to the l of the low- w
economic entities. Therefore in the end, the distribution Π ( l ) will end up w -independent as we
assumed it to be in GLV from the beginning [6].
The model described by equation (2.3) is a noninteractive multiplicative process with fixed lower
bound (equation (2.4)). For the purpose of creating
a power law (equation (3.2)) with the exponent of
a > 0 multiplicative equation process (2.3) must
be modified in such a manner that variation w ( t )
in equation (2.3) is limited with lower bound wmin
(minimum retail trade turnover): w ( t ) > wmin .
Relation between minimum retail trade
turnover wmin and average retail trade turnover
is presented as equation:
q=
wmin
. ............................ (2.4)
w
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In inflation circumstances q should be limited
instead of wmin , since locking the minimum turnover would not be effective for a longer time period. In order to formalize the sophistic application
after several trivial analytical steps, the relation is
reached that binds exponent a from power law
(equation (3.2)) with the coefficient q (equation
(2.4)). Exponent of stepped law is reached as:
a=
1
[6]. . ........................ (2.5)
1- q
The dependence of a on q given by equation
(2.6) indeed confirms a > 1 for q < 1 [14]. This
result is quite satisfying since for lower bound
0 < q < 0.5 predicts that exponent of power law
is 1 < a < 2 , which represents the value of exponent observed in the real world. The main issue with the mechanism of generating power law
based on single-agent dynamics is that it occurs
that w ( t + 1) (except for surroundings of wmin )
is lower than w ( t ) . This is not the case in reality where economy and population are expanding.
Exponent a in power law is rather instable when
influenced with fluctuation in system parameters.
Modeling changes in w leads to significant fluctuation of q, and that implies substantial variation
of exponent a [6]. This contradicts the extreme
stability of exponent a noticed in the real world.
The key element in this problem is determining
an interaction between individual economic entities wi through involvement of values (or lower
bounds) proportional w . Solomon (1999) [6]
termed parameter q as a poverty line, and qw as
the lowest bound of wealth. In our case we termed
q as a liquidation line, and qw is the lowest bound
of retail trade turnover.
For further economic and financial interpretation of GLV model you may see reference [6].
Additionally, for detail theoretical framework of
GLV systems and models that proceeded, you
may see the same reference [6].
3. Power-law distribution
3.1. Pareto’s power law: theoretical framework
It was observed long ago that fluctuations in financial markets exhibit non-Gaussian “fat tailed”
distributions [14]. The first documented empirical
facts about the distribution of wealth and income
are the Pareto laws of income and wealth, which
state that the tail distributions of these distributions are Pareto laws [8]. Pareto’s law: a few occur very often while many others occur rarely [3].
Multiplicative processes have been well studied in different contexts and widely applied to various research fields, such as the biological, social,
and economic systems. One of the major interests
in these processes is the generation of power laws,
which have been observed in many natural domains and indicate the properties of scale invariance and universality. In fact, the investigation of
power law behaviors in systems with stochastic
multiplicative dynamics can be traced back to
decades ago, and the underlying physical mechanisms are still to be understood [12].
For the application in economics and financial
problems, the assumption of multiplicative property for the individual retail turnover wi (the index i = 1,..., N may correspond to various economic entities in the market) leads to
wi ( t + 1) l ( t ) wi ( t ) .................. (3.1)
appearing in the dynamics of turnover evolution. That is, the individual turnover wi at time t
+ 1 is proportional to the invested turnover itself.
The random factor l ( t ) reflects the relative gain/
loss incurred by economic entities between time t
and t + 1, and is chosen from a probability distribution Π ( l ) [12]. The model described by equation
(3.1) is multiplicative process coupled through the
lower bound (equation (2.4)). However, we consider a system of N degrees of freedom wi which
is governed by the following dynamics: at each
time t, one of the wi 's is chosen randomly to be
updated according to the formula (3.1), while all
the other wi 's are left unchanged [6].
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The Pareto’s power-law distribution of retail
trade turnover wi , is
P (w ) w -1-a [12]. .................... (3.2)
Power-law states that appearance of small
values is quite common, while large values appearances are rear. This law is literately regarded
as Zipf or Pareto law [13]. If N t (w ) represents
the number of economic entities that have the
retail trade turnover in the moment t in interval
(w , w + dw ) . In border situation when N → ¥
this defines distribution of individual turnover
Pt (w ) by relation:
Pt (w ) d w = lim
N →¥
N t (w )
N
. ................ (3.3)
For many systems that possess large w it is determined that distribution acts according to power
law presented in the equation (3.2) [6]. Power laws
are common in the systems that are constituted out
of pieces that have no specific size and in the systems that are constituted out of self-catalyzing elements [5]. They represent the link between simple
microscopic basic laws on individual level and
macroscopic phenomena that occur collectively
[6]. Further details on the mathematics of power
laws can be found in [4].
Atkinson, Piketty, and Saez (2009) [1] wrote
that the Pareto law for top retail trade turnovers is
given by the following (cumulative) distribution
function F (w ) for retail trade turnover w :
The value of the exponent a depends on the
value of the lower retail trade turnover bound. Indeed, empirical studies show that the value of a
changes across different countries, and is typically
in the range 1 < a < 2 . Theoretical analysis shows
that for N which is not too small, the exponent is
determined by the parameter q, according to the
equation (2.5) [14].
3.2. Pareto’s power law: empirical findings
We used interpolation method in order to present modeling of turnover for non-specialized retail
trade, mainly food, drink and tobacco on the Serbian market. We have data of retail trade turnover
and a number of economic entities for the year
2010. Those data were obtained on request from
the Ministry of Finance of the Republic of Serbia
- Tax Administration (TA), and from the Serbian
Business Registers Agency (SBRS). We used company’s financial statements retrieved from the Serbian Business Registers Agency. The total number
of economic entities in the year 2010 was 12,445.
Average minimum turnover in this year was about
670 thousand RSD. Average maximum turnover
was about 101 billions RSD. We calculated the total average turnover by the equation (2.3), and it is
about 16 million RSD in the year 2010.
After interpolated data, the tail exponent a is
3.14 (see Figure 1). From the equation (2.4) we
have that liquidation line is q = 0.68. The liquidation line q is out of range (0, 0.5), and a is out of
range (1, 2), too. It means that the big economic
entities are the most superior regarding the turnover for non-specialized retail trade, mainly food,
drink and tobacco in Serbia.
a
k
1 - F (w ) = , ( k > 0, a > 1) , ....... (3.4)
w
where k and a are given parameters, a is
called the Pareto parameter. The corresponding
density function is given by
f (w ) = a k a w -1-a [1]. .................. (3.5)
Figure 1. Pareto interpolation of retail trade
turnover distribution with observed data.
Source: Data from Authors’ estimation of Pereto’s parameters.
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According to the equation (3.5) we can write
Pareto density function of retail trade turnover as
f (w ) = 2 ⋅ 1011 w -1-3.14 . The coefficient of deter-
mination (R2) is about 95%. This value indicates
that the interpolation line very well fits the real retail trade turnover data.
1,871 economic entities, or 15.03% of the total number economic entities have the minimum
retail trade turnover amounting to 2 million RSD.
Only 4 economic entities, or 0.03% of the total
number of the economic entities in Serbia in the
year 2010 have the maximum retail trade turnover over 100 billion RSD. Thus, "probability" or
fraction of the number of economic entities with a
small amount of retail trade turnover per economic entity is rather high, and then decreases steadily
as retail trade turnover increases.
We used a number of economic entities (or
cumulative tax tributary) and their accomplished
retail trade turnover in order to get a theoretical
value for parameter a , and a theoretical value of
liquidation line q. We applied theoretical interpolation method using the Least Squares Method.
The Least Squares Method is a procedure to determine the best fit line to data. Our Least Squares
Method is as follows:
N
2
Min å ( f (w ) - f ' (w ) ) , ............... (3.6)
a ,k
i =1
where f (w ) is a density function of observed
retail trade turnover, and f ' (w ) is a density function of theoretically computed retail trade turnover. The power law parameters a , and k are
determined using Solver in Excel. In Solver we
put constraints about parameters a , and k as in
the equation (3.4) that is k > 0, a > 1 . From this
theoretical interpolation method we have that a
is 1.76, and q = 0.43.
According to the equation (3.5) we can write
theoretical Pareto density function of theoretical
retail trade turnover as f (w ) = 2 ⋅ 1013 w -1-1.76 . An
R2 of 1 indicates that the interpolation line perfectly fits the theoretical retail trade turnover data.
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
Figure 2. Theoretical forecasting of power interpolation for retail trade turnover distribution.
Source: Authors’ calculation and estimation.
In case of Serbia, in the year 2010, the parameter a is significantly higher than theoretical forecasting (3.14 > 1.76). This means that liquidation
line q is higher than theoretical forecasting, too
(0.68 > 0.43).
We calculated that average realized retail trade
turnover is about 16,444,612 RSD. The theoretical
level liquidation line is q = 0.43 times this average retail trade turnover (according to the equation
(2.4)), gives average minimum theoretical retail
trade turnover of 7,091,700 RSD (or the lowest
bound of retail trade turnover). Observed average minimal retail trade turnover from real data
is 669,546 RSD, and it is the reason why we have
that liquidation line is 0.68, and is significantly
higher than theoretical forecasting. It means that
small economic entities that have small retail trade
turnover cannot survive on the Serbian market,
and they have to go out. From interpolation of observed data we have that the Pareto’s tail exponent
is 3.14, that means the big economic entities are
the most superior regarding the turnover for nonspecialized retail trade, mainly food, drink and tobacco in Serbia. A larger portion of the turnover
(income) is owned by a smaller percentage of the
big economic entities (0.03%) on this market.
Thus, each economic entity which has a retail trade
turnover below 7,091,700 RSD cannot survive
on Serbian market, and will go into liquidation.
In fact, average minimum retail trade turnover
is 10.6 times smaller than the average minimum
retail trade turnover that our model forecasts. In
the year 2010, 3,441 economic entities or 27.65%
of the total number of economic entities in Serbia
711
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had the retail trade turnover below 7 million RSD.
Therefore, about 28% of small economic entities
will have to go out from the Serbian market (or to
go into liquidation).
Small, commercial enterprises and shops are
uncompetitive not only due to problems with
economies of scale, but also due to discriminatory prices, which govern the procurement market.
Small trade chains and entrepreneurs get lower
rebates and shorter payment terms from suppliers
that results in the purchase price of merchandise to
initially rise in the range of 5 to 15% when compared to the realized purchase price from the same
suppliers offered by large trading companies.
Small commercial shops and small enterprises
participate with nearly 60% on the retail market
in Serbia and employ a large number of people.
In order to survive in the market, it is necessary
to reorganize themselves and connect the clusters
of procurement, which would affect lowering procurement costs. It would also be necessary that the
state institutions and agencies that are responsible
for the protection of competition affect the reduction of existing discriminatory prices by regulatory measures.
4. Results of numerical simulations
To examine the theoretical predictions presented in Sections 2 and 3, we have performed computer simulations of the Generalized Lotka - Volterra model described by the equation (2.2) [10].
We have performed computer simulations of the
model for N = 12,445 (number of economic entities
in retail trade). For simulation purposes, the computer program was written using C# programming
language. The program provides selection of all the
required parameters and model values, starting the
simulation and finally graphical presentation of the
results. We performed two simulations with different values of a the first simulation is with a =
1.76, and the second one is with a = 3.14.
The value of the parameter q was obtained directly from theoretical interpolation of data (q =
0.43). Starting from a homogeneous distribution
of the retail trade turnover (Figure 3), the turnover distribution spontaneously evolved towards a
power-law distribution (shown in Figure 4), with
an exponent a = 1.76 [14]. We obtained similar
712
results with the value of the parameter q = 0.68
obtained from interpolation of the observed data.
Starting from a homogeneous distribution of the
retail trade turnover, the turnover distribution
evolved towards a power-law distribution, with
an exponent a = 3.14. Figure 3 provides starting
retail trade distribution of economic entities that is
actually uniform.
Consider
the
average
turnover
w (t ) =
12445
å w ( t ) /12445 of the 12,445 economic
i =1
i
entities at year t (the year 2010) [14].
The parameters and variables of GLV model
in our case have the following meaning:
––
––
wi ( t ) – retail trade turnover of economic
entity i in moment t;
l ( t ) – coefficient of retail trade turnover
growth in moment t;
–– a – parameter that describes the influence
of state on retail trade turnover through the
increase in retail trade turnover;
–– c – parameter that describes the influence
of competition and cooperation between
economic entities on increasing their retail
trade turnover;
––
w ( t ) – the total average turnover of all
economic entities in moment t (16,444,612
RSD calculated from TA and SBRS data for
the year 2010);
– the average turnover of the poorest
–– wmin
economic entity (669,546 RSD calculated
from TA and SBRS data for the year 2010);
––
wmax – the average turnover of the wealthiest
economic entity (100,729,015,361 RSD
calculated from TA and SBRS data for the
year 2010).
The parameters of GLV model are determined
by the Least Squares Method, using the equation (2.2), and using Solver in Excel. We got the
following values: l ( t ) = 1.3 , a = 1 ⋅10-6 , and
c = 1.82431 ⋅10-8 .
These values of parameters ( l , a , and c ) we
put into the model and run numerical simulations.
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
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Having in mind how model performs, selected
values will be suited for this simulation, instead
of acquiring objective economic indicators. Because of limited computational power as well as
easier statistical analysis of acquired results, the
number of iterations is limited to 100,000. We
put grouping data on 1000. Simulation results
for q = 0.43 are given on Figures 3 and 4. Simulation results for q = 0.68 are not presented on figures. Horizontal axis presents individual starting
retail trade turnover (on Figure 3) and individual
final retail trade turnover (on Figure 4), while vertical axis presents the occurrence frequency, respectively. On both Figures retail trade turnover is presented in millions of RSD.
Upon simulation ending program provides the
results of retail trade turnover of 12,445 economic
entities in Serbia for the 2010 year. When those
data are processed by the program, given distribution can be seen on Figure 4. This result provides
a strong connection between the lower-cutoff, and
the exponent a affects the retail trade turnover
distribution of the entire number of economic entities, including those at the top. The relationship
(2.5) holds precisely for the simulation using our
theoretically interpolated data - the value of q =
0.43 corresponds to a value of a = 1/(1 – 0.43) =
1.76 [14]. Final distribution of individual retail
trade turnover is actually a power law as shown
on Figure 4.
Figure 3. Starting uniform distribution of retail
trade turnover with a = 1.76
Source: Authors’ numerical simulation
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Figure 4. Final distribution of retail trade turnover with a = 1.76
Source: Authors’ numerical simulation
The results are of much relevance to empirical
studies showing that the distribution of the individual turnover (income and wealth) in different
countries during different periods in the 20th century has followed a power-law distribution with
1 < a < 2 [10].
The model predicts that the power-law distribution of retail trade turnover extends well
beyond the top entities. To examine this feature
we performed simulation again, with N = 12,445
economic entities and the different value of liquidation line (q = 0.68). We obtained a power-law
distribution of turnover with the different value
of the tail exponent ( a = 3.14). The relationship
(2.5) holds precisely for the simulation using our
observed data - the value of q = 0.68 corresponds
to a value of a = 1/(1 – 0.68) = 3.14. Again, final
distribution of individual retail trade turnover is
actually a power law. This represents a final conclusion of simulation, since starting from uniform
distribution of retail trade turnover we reached a
distribution that small amount of economic entities possesses great amount of turnover while
majority possesses small amount of turnover.
This law, empirically known as overwhelming
in many natural systems (from stock markets to
animal world population), is now reached mathematically, through GLV model.
An interesting fact is that the power law will occur in most cases in spite of changing values in model parameters. In addition, it will not be dependent
on average retail trade turnover. Decrease of param713
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eter l ( t ) can lead to slowing down the occurrence
of power law but it won’t cancel it out [11].
However, a crucial assumption in the model
is that the same distribution p ( l ) is used for all
the economic entities. It was found that simulations in which this assumption is violated do not
give rise to a homogeneous power-law distribution of the retail trade turnover. Thus, according
to the model, the power-law retail trade turnover
distribution in TA and SBRA data indicates that
the ex-ante return distribution is similar for all the
economic entities. The multiplicative dynamics
greatly magnifies the differences between more
successful and less successful economic entities,
and builds up the power-law distribution of retail
trade turnover [14] on the Serbian market.
The goal of this simulation was to show the advantage of applying GLV model in practice, as well
as to confirm the claim that retail trade turnover distribution is acting according to power. Simulation
results cannot be used for the purpose of predicting
the real situation on the market because the model
is simplified. Building an applicable model would
require a much more detailed analysis of parameters, as well as simulation conditions.
Downside of the Lotka - Volterra is that it does
not provide a satisfactory level for real application
and for that purpose it should be improved. GLV
actually presents a general method that can be
used for simulation, analysis and understanding of
vast class of phenomena where power law occurs.
5. Conclusion
This paper shows that the distribution of turnover for non-specialized retail trade, mainly food,
drink and tobacco has the properties of the Pareto’s power law with the tail exponent of 3.14.
We used data of retail trade turnover and a number
of economic entities in Serbia for the year 2010,
retrieved from Ministry of Finance of the Republic of Serbia - Tax Administration, and from the
Serbian Business Registers Agency. For modeling retail trade turnover we used the Method of
interpolation, the Least Squares Method, and
Generalized Lotka - Volterra (GLV) model for
numerical simulation. The results of numerical
714
simulation confirmed that GLV model reflects
the Pareto power law for probability retail trade
turnover distribution of economic entities. The observed data of retail trade turnover and theoretically calculated turnover are distributed according to
Pareto distributions with different tail exponents.
The tail exponent of retail trade turnover with observed data is 3.14, and that is significantly higher
than theoretical forecasting for the tail exponent
of turnover (1.76). It means that a larger portion
of the retail trade turnover is owned by a smaller
percentage of big economic entities (0.03%) on
the Serbian market. Four big economic entities are
the most superior regarding the turnover for nonspecialized retail trade, mainly food, drink and tobacco in Serbia. We showed that each economic
entity which has a retail trade turnover below 7
million RSD cannot survive on this market. Thus,
about 28% of the total number of economic entities has to go out from the Serbian market (or to go
into liquidation). In order to survive in the market,
it is necessary to reorganize themselves and connect the clusters of procurement, which would affect lowering procurement costs. It would also be
necessary that the state institutions and agencies
that are responsible for the protection of competition affect the reduction of existing discriminatory
prices by regulatory measures.
One direction for future research would be to
examine the features of retail trade turnover in
developed markets, such as USA and EU countries. Another direction would be to improve GLV
model and adjust it for turnover of non-specialized
retail trade, mainly food, drink and tobacco in Serbia. Improving and building an applicable model
would require a much more detailed analysis of
parameters, as well as simulation conditions.
Acknowledgements
This paper is a part of research projects numbers 47009 (European integrations and social and
economic changes in Serbian economy on the way
to the EU) and 179015 (Challenges and prospects
of structural changes in Serbia: Strategic directions for economic development and harmonization with EU requirements), financed by the Ministry of Science and Technological Development
of the Republic of Serbia.
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
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References
1. Atkinson, A. B, Piketty T., Saez E. 2009. Top incomes
in the long run of history, Working Paper 15408, National Bureau of Economic Research.
2. Pareto, V. 1897. Le Cours d'Economie Politique.
Macmillan. London.
3. McKenzie, J. 2007. Increasing Returns to Information
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Evidence, http://www.ecosoc.org.au/files/File/TAS/
ACE07/presentations%20(pdf)/McKenzieJ.pdf
14. Klass, O. S., Biham O., Levy M., Malcai O., Solomon S. 2004. The Forbes 400, the Pareto Wealth
Distribution and Efficient Markets, The European
Physical Journal B, 55, pp. 143-147.
Corresponding Author
Bozo Draskovic,
Institute of Economic Sciences,
Belgrade,
Serbia,
E-mail: bozo.draskovic@ien.bg.ac.rs
4. Newman, M.E.J. 2005. Power laws, Pareto distributions and Zipf’s law. 2005. Contemporary Physics,
Vol. 46, No. 5, pp. 323 – 351.
5. Anderson, P.W. 1995. Through the glass lightly, Science, 267, pp. 1615–1616.
6. Solomon, S. 1999. Generalized Lotka-Volterra Models, in “Aplications of Simulations to Social Sciences”, eds. G. Balot and G. Weisbuch; Hemes Science
Publications. http://xxx.lanl.gov/PS_cache/cond-mat/
pdf/9901/9901250v1.pdf
7. Clauset, A., Shalizi C. R., and Newman M. E. J.
2007. Power-law distributions in empirical data.
http://arxiv.org/abs/0706.1062v1.
8. Gabaix, X. 2009. Power Laws in Economics and
Finance, The Annual Review of Economics, 1, pp.
255–93.
9. Bentley, A., Ormerod P., and Batty M. 2008. Evolution and turnover in scaling systems, Working paper
series, paper 135, UCL Centre for Advanced Spatial
Analysis University College London.
10. Malcai, O., Biham O., Richmond P., Solomon S.
2002. Theoretical Analysis and Simulations of the
Generalized Lotka-Volterra Model. http://arxiv.org/
PS_cache/cond-mat/pdf/0208/0208514v1.pdf
11. Biham, O., Malcai O., Levy M., Solomon S. 1998.
Generic emergence of power law distributions and
Levy-stable intermittent fluctuations in discrete logistic systems, Phys. Rev. E 58, p. 1352. http://xxx.
lanl.gov/abs/adap-org/9804001.
12. Huang, Z. F., Solomon S. 2002. Stochastic multiplicative processes for financial markets. Physica A,
306, pp. 412–422.
13. Adamic, L. A. 2007. Zipf, Power-laws, and Pareto-a
ranking tutorial, Xerox Palo Alto Researches Center, Palo Alto, CA 94304, http://www.hpl.hp.com/
research/idl/papers/ranking/ranking.html
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
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Barriers to participation in programs for adult
education in environmental protection
Mirjana Galjak1, Vesna Nikolic2
1
2
Ministry of Health, Belgrade, Serbia,
Faculty of Occupational Safety, University of Nis, Nis, Serbia.
Abstract
In this paper we presented the basic results of
empiric research about barriers to adult participation in educational activities for environmental
protection. In this research, barriers to participation were observed in relation to socio-demographic characteristics of respondents. Within descriptive research method, a survey questionnaire
was used as a basic research instrument for obtaining the data. Fieldwork was carried out in Serbia.
Research sample was determined by the method
of random sampling and it involved 597 respondents. Based on the obtained results, it was concluded that there is a connection between barriers
to participation and socio-demographic characteristics of respondents. Bearing that in mind, we can
conclude that perceiving and finding the barriers
to participation is an assumption of their overcoming and elimination with regard to satisfying adult
educational needs in environmental protection.
Key words: barriers to participation, environmental protection, education of adults.
1. Introduction
The world we live in is full of contradictions
and differences which are consequences of historical, economic, political, cultural and other circumstances. However, in that world of differences
there are many common problems such as, among
others, problems of environmental endangerment
and degradation (Nikolić, 2003). The number of
new global ecological crises is increasing (Clover,
2003; Merchant, 2005). On the other hand, there
are also “common nominators” of a positive sign
which show the need for mutual acquaintance,
bringing near and cooperating in solving these
problems. Among such common factors, adult education in environmental protection holds a spe716
cial place. Therefore, education in environmental
protection of those categories of population which
most frequently take part in processes of environmental endangerment and degradation or are, furthermore, the cause of these processes and at the
same time their victims.
Encompassing broad educational population,
education in environmental protection carries in itself a need for permanent education, which is not
bound only to one’s childhood and youth but expands throughout their entire lifetime. Most authors
point out that the primary goal of adult education
in environmental protection is development of ecological culture and ecological awareness as its spiritual dimension (Nikolić, 2003). Adult education in
environmental protection transforms learning into
action by addressing the root causes of environmental problems (Huagen, 2010). Many authors
believe that adult education in environmental protection is not defined as an expedient, monologic
educational approach, but as a dialogic educational
approach directed towards finding solutions to environmental problems (Butterworth & Fisher, 2002;
Clover, 2002; Kapoor, 2003; Summer, 2003). As a
matter of fact, this education represents one of the
determining factors which can change the mind of
an individual, develop the sense of responsibility
(Khasikhanov, 2008), inclusive thinking (Schaefer,
1980), critical thinking (Lichtveld, 2010) and readiness for active participation in solving ecological
problems (Chawla & Cushing, 2007, p. 437). According to Finger, “commitment and action must be
the ultimate aim of any educative practice” (Finger,
1989, p. 27). Essentially, adult education in environmental protection should contribute to sustainable national development and permanent development of skills and readiness of adults for protection
and improvement of environmental quality, and
the quality of life itself. In favour of this there is a
contemporary strategy of adult education in enviVolume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
technics technologies education management
ronmental protection which is observed and determined within two basic theoretical-methodological
frameworks of development: concept of a lifetime
learning and strategy of sustainable development
(Nikolić, 2003). The key to achieving sustainable
development is transformation of the way we think
and live, individually as well as collectively. Education in environmental protection „works to achieve
this transformation” (Yarmol-Franko, 1989, p. 4).
Therefore, adult education in environmental protection is of key importance (Bélanger, 2003) for
development of ecological awareness, culture and
ethics. In fact, meeting and education to the educational needs for environmental protection represents
condition sine qua non of development of ecological way of thinking. However, whether adults would
participate in different forms and programs of education depends on the series of subjective and objective conditions and circumstances. Barriers to adult
learning and education are more numerous and
complex than in children learning and education.
They can generally be classified in two categories:
–– socio-economic (environmental) and
–– individual-technical (Savićević, 1989).
In andragogic literature there are also other
classifications of barriers. Contemporary representations and reviews confirm that Cross’s (1981)
seminal work, Adults as Learners, still figures
as one of the most quoted works on barriers and
participation, and since it was published little has
been done on field of theoretical considerations
(e.g., MacKeracher, Suart, & Potter, 2006; U.S.
Department of Education, 1998). Cross classifies
barriers to participation in three groups:
–– situational
–– institutional and
–– dispositional (Cross, 1981).
According to this author, situational or external
barriers develop from individual life situations at a
given time. Lack of time prevents a large number
of potential students to participate in adult educational programs (and thus in programs for adult
education in environmental protection). Social
engagement, beside work engagement, arises as
a barrier to participation in educational programs.
Situational barriers also include lack of financial
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
means as well as geographical distance from educational and cultural centers (Savićević, 1989).
Situational barrier matches institutional barrier.
Unsuitable location of educational and cultural institutions prevents individuals from participating
in adult educational programs. Institutional barrier
includes traditional organization of an educational institution, education organization, strict class
schedule, lack of suitable programs, lack of complete information on the existing programs, lack
of advisory andragogic service etc. (Cross, 1981).
In their essence, dispositional or internal barriers relate to stances and opinions of individuals
about their educational experiences when they
were young, and then to a lack of trust in accomplishing assignments of education and learning.
Internal barriers, thus, have a tendency to be connected to those who consider themselves too old
to learn (Falasca, 2011).
Therefore, desires, motivations, interests, needs
represent direct agitators of people’s educational activities. In purpose of finding the most suitable and
the most effective ways of meeting and education
to the adult educational needs in this area, barriers
to adult participation in forms and programs of this
education need to be determined. Perceiving and
finding the barriers to participation is an assumption of their overcoming and removal on the path of
satisfying adult educational needs in environmental
protection. Research was undertaken in order to obtain information, stances and opinions of the respondents, which would help in bringing a conclusion on
the most frequent barriers to participation of adults in
educational activities for environmental protection.
2. Methodology
In studying barriers to participation of adults in
education for environmental protection we chose
deductive and inductive ways of learning, i.e. combination of the two. Beside these basic methodological approaches, the nature of research problem
directed us to choose descriptive research method.
2.1 Hypothesis of the research
We drew up hypothetical framework of research which is comprised of the following assumptions:
717
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H1: There is a connection between respondents’ age and barriers to participation in educational activities for environmental protection.
H2: There is a connection between respondents’ sex and barriers to participation in educational activities for environmental protection.
H3: There is a connection between respondents’ level of education and barriers to participation in educational activities for environmental
protection.
H4: There is a connection between respondents’ work status (employed/unemployed) and
barriers to participation in educational activities
for environmental protection.
H5: There is a connection between the type of
environment (urban/rural) and barriers to participation in educational activities for environmental
protection.
The status of an independent variable was assigned to respondents’ social-demographic characteristics, while barriers to participation in educational activities for environmental protection
were treated as a dependent variable (Table 1).
Table 1. Independent and dependent variables
Social demographic
characteristics
Independent variables
Barriers to participation
in educational activities
for environmental
protection
Dependent variables
Age
Gender
Educational level
Employment status
Type of environment
Barriers to participation in
educational activities for
environmental protection
Population in our research consists of urban
and rural population (people aged 18 and above)
from the territory of Serbia. The survey sample
was determined by a method of random sampling
and it involved 597 respondents. The research was
carried out in businesses, private households and
agricultural cooperatives. In December of 2011
fieldwork was completed.
2.2 Description of the Instrument
In the stage of obtaining data that are significant for problem studying, as a measurement in718
strument of research, as a technique we used
surveys i.e. questionnaires. Questionnaire was
answered by people aged 18 and above and it is
comprised of two groups of questions. The first
group is formed by the first 5 questions by which
we gathered data about social-andragogic features
of respondents (age, gender, level of education,
work status and the type of environment). The second group of questions (1 question) refers to the
study of barriers which prevent adults from taking part in educational activities for environmental protection. For the sake of easier arrangement,
classification and quantitative processing we used
a closed question with offered alternative answers.
The question and the answers were the following:
1. Which barriers (obstacles) prevent you from
and distract you in satisfying your educational
needs for environmental protection?
a) Lack of time
b) Lack of money
c) Lack of information about the possibility of
education in this area
d) Education in environmental protection is
not enjoyable
e) Lack of possibility for education in given
area
In the manual for instrument filling we emphasized to respondents the goal of research and significance which their correct answers to the questionnaire have for our work. The survey was anonymous, but at the end of the questionnaire there was
a possibility for those who did not want to stay
anonymous and who were willing to take part in the
organized action for environmental protection and
give their personal information (the first and last
names, address, and telephone number). Obtained
data were interpreted in the sense of respondents’
readiness for cooperation in actions for environmental protection and improvement. Data were gathered
by the authors who formed the research team.
2.3 Statistical analysis and data presentation
In processing the gathered data we applied series of statistical procedures: percentage calculation, Pearson’s chi-square test (χ2) and contingency coefficient (C). The obtained data was shown in
the form of simple tables.
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3. Research results
By observing the sample in whole we can see
that lack of time (39.4%) dominates as a barrier to
participation in educational activities. The second
place among barriers to participation is lack of possibilities for education in environmental protection
in an environment where respondents live (27.0%).
Then, there is lack of information about the possibility of education in this area (18.9%). The penultimate are respondents who stated lack of money
as a barrier to participation (12.7%). The last are respondents in the least precentage (2.0%) who stated
as a barrier to participation that education in environmental protection was not enjoyable for them.
H1: Hypothesis 1 from which we started our
research is that there is a connection between the
respondents’ years of age and barriers to participation in educational activities for environmental
protection.
By observing table 2 we can notice that years
of age are not statistically significantly connected
(χ2=13.75; C=0.150; df=12) to barriers to participation of adults in educational activities for environmental protection. Our findings show that,
regardless of age, lack of time is actually the first
barrier to participation. This, according to Cross
situational, barrier prevents a large number of respondents’ (N=235) to participate in educational
programs for environmental protection.
H2: Hypothesis 2 from which we started our
research is that there is a connection between the
respondents’ sex and barriers to participation in
educational activities for environmental protection.
By analyzing the difference between men and
women regarding the evaluation of barriers to participation we determined values χ 2=2.62 which
with df=4 does not reach any level of statistical
significance. Therefore, there is no significant difference between the observed category of respondents regarding the evaluation of barriers to participation.
H3: Hypothesis 3 from which we started our
research is that there is a connection between the
respondents’ level of education and barriers to
participation in educational activities for environmental protection.
Table 2. Relation between the respondents’ of age and barriers to participation in educational activities
for environmental protection
The barriers standing in the way of participation
Age
18-27
28-37
38-47
47 and above
Total N
%
N
a
78
57
55
45
235
39.4
b
23
18
15
20
76
12.7
c
28
31
28
26
113
18.9
d
4
5
3
0
12
2.0
e
34
46
46
35
161
27.0
N/%
χ2
C
167/28.0
157/26.3
147/24.6
126/21.1
597
100.0
13.75
0.150
Table 3. Relation between the respondents’ sex and barriers to participation in educational activities for
environmental protection
The barriers standing in the way of participation
Gender
Male
Female
Total N
%
N/%
N
a
115
120
235
39.4
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b
43
33
76
12.7
c
56
57
113
18.9
d
5
7
12
2.0
e
74
87
161
27.0
293/49.1
304/50.9
597
100.0
χ2
2.62
C
0.066
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technics technologies education management
By analyzing the respondents’ level of education depending on barriers to participation of adults
in educational activities we determined values
χ2=44.27 which with 8 degrees of freedom (df=8)
point to the existence of statistically significant differences on level 0.01. The value of contingency
coefficient (C=0.263) shows that it is a low connection. By observing the stated variables we perceive
that respondents with elementary education as the
first barrier to participation suggest lack of time
(N=31), and then lack of money (N=21). Also, respondents with secondary vocational education as
the first barrier to participation suggest lack of time
(N=136), while secondly they put lack of possibilities for education in environmental protection in an
area where they live (N=73). However, respondents with higher education state lack of possibilities for education in environmental protection in an
area where they live (N=80) as the main barrier to
participation while secondly, as opposed to respondents of lower education, they state lack of time as
the barrier to participation (N=68).
H4: Hypothesis 4 from which we started our
research is that there is a connection between the
respondents’ work status and barriers to participation in educational activities for environmental
protection.
Respondents’ work status is statistically significantly related (χ 2=14.88 significant at level 0.05)
to barriers to participation. The value of contingency coefficient (C=0.152) shows that this is a
low connection. By observing the obtained results
we notice that both employed and unemployed respondents state lack of time (39.4%) as the first
barrier to participation and as the second barrier
to participation they state lack of possibilities for
education in environmental protection in an area
where they live (27.0%). It is interesting that the
employed respondents more often than the unemployed, as the barrier to participation state that
education for environmental protection is not enjoyable to them.
H5: Hypothesis 5 from which we started our
research is that there is a connection between the
respondents’ living environment and barriers to
participation in educational activities for environmental protection.
Table 4. Relation between the respondents’ level of education and barriers to participation in educational activities for environmental protection
Educational
background
The barriers standing in the way of participation
N/%
N
a
31
136
68
235
39.4
Primary school
Secondary school
High school
Total
N
%
**Significant at the 0.01 level
b
21
34
21
76
12.7
c
14
66
33
113
18.9
d
0
5
7
12
2.0
e
8
73
80
161
27.0
74/12.4
314/52.6
209/35.0
597
100.0
χ2
C
44.27** 0.263
Table 5. Relation between the respondents’ work status and barriers to participation in educational
activities for environmental protection
Employment
status
Employed
Unemployed
Total N
%
The barriers standing in the way of participation
*Significant at the 0.05 level
720
N
a
133
102
235
39.4
b
43
33
76
12.7
c
73
40
113
18.9
d
10
2
12
2.0
e
117
44
161
27.0
N/%
376/63.0
221/37.0
597
100.0
χ2
C
14.88* 0.152
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technics technologies education management
Table 6. Relation between the respondents’ living environment and barriers to participation in educational activities for environmental protection
Type of
environment
Urban area
Rural area
Total N
%
The barriers standing in the way of participation
N/%
N
a
58
177
235
39.4
**Significant at the 0.01 level
b
36
40
76
12.7
c
67
46
113
18.9
By observing table 6 we can notice that statistically significant connection (C=0.396) appeared
in relation between the type of the environment
and barriers to participation (χ2 =111.23 significant
at level 0.01). According to our research the respondents who live in urban areas as the main barrier to participation state lack of possibilities for
education in environmental protection in an area
where they live (N=120), and then lack of information about the possibilities for education in this
field (N=67). However, contrary to them, the respondents who live in rural areas state lack of time
as the main barrier to participation (N=177). It is
known that a large number of respondents who
live in rural areas, beside agricultural production
also have a permament job, which decreases the
time for educational and cultural life.
4. Discussion
If we have in mind the classification of barriers
according to Cross (1981) on situational, institutional and dispositional (Cross, 1981), then a situational barrier – a lack of time, dominates as an
obstacle to more complete satisfaction of educational needs in adult education for environmental
protection. Lack of time prevents a large number
of potential participants to take part in adult educational programs for environmental protection,
especially among people aged 18-47. In those ages
people are concentrated on their work and strive to
keep their job and prosper in it. We should also
add a problem of providing housing and taking
care of children which prevents, especially young
parents, to take part in adult educational programs.
However, very often this barrier to participation
(lack of time) serves as an excuse, such as, for example, indifference to education.
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d
11
1
12
2.0
e
120
41
161
27.0
292/48.9
305/51.1
597
100.0
χ2
C
111.23** 0.396
Lack of money as a barrier to participation of
adults in educational activities for environmental
protection does not take a special place among the
observed barriers. The fact is that many adult educational programs are realized by students’ selffinancing. Such self-financing of adult educational
programs prevents certain categories, especially
younger students of secondary educational level
who live in rural areas.
Lack of possibilities for education in given environments as well as lack of information about
the possibilities of education in environmental
protection take the second and third place with our
respondents as barriers to participation in educational activities for environmental protection. We
can conclude that adult participation in educational
activities for environmental protection, although
directly conditioned by their wishes, interests and
needs, also depends on series of objective factors
and circumstances. First of all, if the location does
not provide suitable possibilities for fulfillment of
adult educational needs in environmental protection, that is if the information on the existing possibilities is not available, it is more likely that the
complete fulfillment of those needs would not be
accomplished.
People included in our research most frequently chose a barrier which relates to their own
perception of personality regarding education for
environmental protection. To be precise, from the
total amount of samples the least percentage of respondents state that education for environmental
protection is not enjoyable.
Therefore, the information and opinions gathered by the research showed that a series of objective and subjective obstacles decreases the level
of fulfillment of educational needs in environmental protection. Subjective obstacles (dispositional
721
technics technologies education management
barriers) to appreciating educational needs in this
area were pointed out less here, although they are
not negligible. The truth is there is no strictly metaphysically separated border between objective and
subjective barriers (situational, institutional and
dispositional barriers) in this respect. The stated
barriers match, interlace and connect with each
other. Some objective barriers can be overcome,
or at least somewhat changed, with stronger efforts of subjective factors.
5. Conclusion
Barriers can also be studied from the point of
social environment, circumstances in which people live, from the point of organization and directing of lessons and educational process in general,
as well as from the point of personality features
which can encourage or spoil participation. Perceiving and finding the barriers to participation
is an assumption to their overcoming and elimination on the path of satisfying adult educational
needs for environmental protection. The better we
perceive and lighten barriers to participation the
better and more efficiently we can find a path for
their overcoming in forms and programs for adult
education for environmental protection. Therefore, an integral educational policy is needed to
connect the factors which appear in process of
determining and satisfying educational needs for
environmental protection.
Acknowledgment
The paper has been produced as part of the
project „Development of new information and
communication technologies through the use of
advanced scientific methods, with their application to medicine, telecommunication, energetics,
protection of national heritage and education“
number III 44006 financed by the Ministry of
education and science. The submitting authors are
grateful to a number of people who have contributed meaningful comments to earlier versions of
this paper. They would especially like to thank
participants (examinees) for all their help, collaboration and insights. However, the submitting
authors are solely responsible for the content of
their paper.
722
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Opportunities for USEPA’s Environmental Education Program, Human and Ecological Risk Assessment,16(6), 1242-1248.
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strategic environmental behavior, Environmental
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from the Perspective of the Adult Learner, Convergence, 22(4), 25–31.
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19. Cross, K. P. (1981). Adults as learners: Increasing
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Corresponding Author
Mirjana Galjak,
Ministry of Health,
Belgrade,
Serbia,
E-mail: marta7@ptt.rs
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
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technics technologies education management
Aplication of DEA method in comparative
analysis of non-profit organizations efficiency
(Case studies of state high mechanical
technical schools of Belgrade district in periods
of 1994/98. and 2004/2008. years)
Janko M. Cvijanovic1, Zvonko Sajfert2, Zeljko Grujcic2, Jelena Lazic4, Carisa Besic5
1
2
3
4
5
Megatrend University, Belgrade, Serbia,
Technical faculty, Zrenjanin, Serbia,
Srednjoškolski centar Rakovica, Belgrade, Serbia,
Economics institute, Belgrade, Serbia,
Technical faculty, Čačak, Serbia.
Abstract
Using relatively new methods of operations researches, DEA (data envelopment analysis), in work
are explored the effectiveness of state high mechanical technical school (SHMTS) of Belgrade district
within two periods: 1994 / 1998. and 2004/2008.
The results of these studies can be used to find ways
of improving the efficiency of secondary schools.
DEA method for inefficient units (schools) identifies exemplary units (schools) that with the entrances / exits at their schools would be effective. By
comparing the results for the two above-mentioned
periods, it can be concluded that there has been
some progress and significant changes in students'
achievements in the schools investigated.
Key words: non-profit organizations, education, efficiency, DEA method.
1. Introduction
Nonprofit organizations are significantly different from profit organizations and they represent collective forms of individual action, that is,
means by which people together are searching for
their goals, which are not necessarily profitable and
that they are not forced into. Nonprofit organizations are in the form of professional bureaucracies
(schools, universities, hospitals, etc.). and rely on
the expertise and knowledge of its professionals.
Professional organizations are sometimes described
as inverted pyramids, where there are perpetrators
professionals at the top and administration below to
724
help them. Professional organization form appears
whenever operational work in the organization is
dominated by professionals who use techniques
that are difficult to study, and yet clearly defined.
Professionals are left to decide themselves because
they ensure that the learning will be decided in a
manner that is generally accepted in their profession (professors choose the content of their course
and adopt the methods of studying that are highly
appreciated by their colleagues).
Because of the importance of education every
society and every government wants to define its
concept and content in order for individuals to accept the values and norms of the system or society,
through most powerful instrument of social perceptions and forms of socialization. Because the
state is taking care of education financing. In addition, in terms of content, they try to determine the
social norms and values and build a sense of belonging to their community, social group, religion
through education. Through education feeling for
their culture, respect for the principles and solidarity are also being developed. Through education
awareness and the view of the individual are being
shaped, when it comes to processes in society and
system of government. All educational systems
are based on history of knowledge and the history
of society. Institutionalization of education, in addition to being based on the adoption of a set of
rules and social values, reflects in the knowledge
and skills that the individual to cope in the training
process. The education system strongly changes
the structure of society, family and professions.
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technics technologies education management
The school prepares a child for his role. Education is in fact an expression of the social system.
It nowadays means equality of opportunities that
opens up the possibility of changing the position
that individuals acquire by birth or inheritance. It
is a base of the emancipation of man, a very functional instrument which realizes the identity of the
individual through.
To this day there has not been created a unified theory of teaching, nor has found a universal
form of work that could solve all known problems
in the educational – education process. There are
various actions and methods being implemented
that seek to improve existing forms and methods
where chance is primarily given to creative activities of teacher. In the future, teacher won’t inevitably be just a teacher, but also the organizer of
the entire educational - education activities for all
participants in the class. This implies that, given
the specifics of modern teaching, they provide
intense interaction among associates of the teaching process. Europe is facing major challenges of
the modern age, which consists in changing the
economic concept, but also changes in the composition of society, which is now a multi-ethnic
in many European countries. As a logical consequence of these changes, there is a change in the
concept of education. The modern concept of education is a concept that views education as a "lifelong" process, i.e. as a learning process that takes
place throughout life, unlike the traditional concept, in which education is mostly acquired during
the period of formal schooling (see /20/). Modern
society requires new skills, additional knowledge,
while also promoting the values such as - social
equality, access to education for all and active participation in democratic life.
In the last few decades, economic activity at the
micro (companies, industries) and the macro level
(regional, national level) are influenced by global
trends which converge to improve the performance
within which special attention is paid to assessing
and improving the efficiency of production systems.
Thanks primarily to its abilities to improve performance, in production and service activities, national economies of individual countries have achieved
economic supremacy over the last three decades.
One of the most important principles in any business is the principle of efficiency which consists
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
in achieving the highest possible economic effects
(outputs) with as little economic sacrifice (inputs).
Efficiency can shortly be defined as the ability to
achieve desired goals with minimum use of available resources. Unlike the effectiveness, which is
the ability to identify and achieve real goals, or to
"do the right things”, efficiency consist in realizing
these goals "the right way ". Efficiency is a word
of Latin origin (efficax), which means success. It
shows the degree of effectiveness of production
factors (resources involved) in the production of
material goods and services. Efficiency is, in the
simplest case, in organizations that use one input
(costs, assets engaged, etc.) to produce a single output (gain, profit, revenue, etc.) defined as the ratio
of output to input.
For evaluating the success of organizations, especially non-profit, in practice usually multiple inputs and outputs that are diverse in nature (financial, technical, technological, ecological, social,
etc.) have to be considered, and are expressed in
different measuring units (see /21/). It is therefore
necessary to define a summary synthetic indicator of the efficiency, that consider all significant
multiple results and all the resources that are used
for their implementation. It is characterized by
problems of aggregation of observed inputs/outputs in a virtual input/output. To determine the
effectiveness of the organization, you should first
solve the problem related to the expression of input and output data in the range of values that are
comparable with each other, which is a problem of
scaling. Another problem relates to the determination of the relative importance of individual input
/ output, and assigning weights or weighting. DEA
method allows solving these problems and was
used to evaluate the efficiency of SHMTS of Belgrade district. The survey was conducted in years
1994/1998. and 2004/2008. The results show that
the efficiency of SHMTS is not increased in the
last 10 years.Although in this period there was a
significant increase in the level of education and
training of teachers, then improvements of working conditions and equipment in schools didn’t
significantly have influence on increasing the efficiency of SHMTS. Possible reasons are, of course,
a short period of time required to detect the effects
of steps taken, the situation in the south, the rationalization of schools, the economic situation in the
725
technics technologies education management
region, especially in manufacturing industries, the
adjustment of education standards of the European Union, etc. Investing in young people and their
education is important and worthwhile investment
for each country. We therefore hope that, in future,
measures to improve conditions in our schools
will be taken and that in future students with more
motivation and desire to acquire new knowledge
they will need in life.
2. DEA method
Contemporary business economics and management in both the productive and service and
non-profit sector tends to generate ever more intensive use of quantitative methods in decision
making and analysis of the achieved results. That
is why the role and importance of operations research methods is large. The most important and
most common method of operational researches is
linear programming. It is essentially a mathematical analysis of the problem optimum. One of the
linear programming methods is data envelopment analysis or DEA method.
DEA method is one of the newer methods of
operations research, which intensively developed
and promoted over 30 years of its existence. DEA
is a linear programming method for evaluating the
relative efficiency of organizational units that use
more diverse inputs to create more diverse outputs. The method was initially developed to evaluate the effectiveness of nonprofit organizations
such as schools and hospitals, but later the area
of its applications greatly expanded. The development of the DEA (see [19], p. 17.) occurred simultaneously in all directions and was reflected in
the development of a family of basic DEA models
and their numerous extensions later, but also in the
development of specialized DEA software. Given
that the developed procedures on how to apply
the DEA method and how, in solving a problem
in practice, is to use several types of DEA models, many authors for this method of use the term
"DEA methodology".
Data envelopment analysis (Data Envelopment Analysis - DEA) was developed by Charnes
Abraham, William Cooper and Edwardo Rhodes
in 1978. (see [8]). To measure the business efficiency of organizational units, primarily non-prof726
it, they have suggested solving the optimization
task of the linear fractional programming for each
unit. In the aforementioned work, they also formulated and the corresponding linear programming
tasks that are well known in literature as CCR primary and CCR dual models. The proposed models were input-oriented, which means that the
observed units operate with constant returns to
scale. A constant return to scale is defined so that
proportional increase in inputs results in a proportional increase in output of some of the DMU (decision making units).
Since in the evaluation of the success of organizations, especially non-profit, you often need to
consider more inputs and/or outputs which are by
nature diverse and largely expressed in different
measuring units, it is necessary to solve the problem of aggregation of observed inputs/outputs in
a virtual input/output. In this sense it is necessary
to express the input and output data in the range
of values that are comparable (to solve the problem of scaling), and then determine the relative
importance of individual inputs and outputs, i.e.
assign weights of inputs and outputs (to solve the
problem of weighting). In such circumstances, the
creators of the DEA method defined the efficiency
of observed units as: h = weighted sum of outputs
/ weighted sum of inputs.
In practice it is very difficult to evaluate the inputs and outputs and thereby come to a common
set of weights, since individual units are rather
subjective when granting their degree of importance of inputs and outputs. E.g. if it evaluates
efficiency of schools, it may be noted that some
of these achievements in some areas (technical,
sport) are valued differently than other schools.
The creators of the DEA approached the problem so that they appreciated the attitude that there
doesn’t have to be an objective process for determining the values of weights, but because all the
units whose efficiency determines need to agree
on the following steps: which inputs and outputs
must be considered and what is the minimum allowed value for the weights. Scaling problem is
solved by expressing the efficiency as the number
between 0 and 1, and each organizational unit has
the freedom to determine the value of weights in a
way that fits her best, i.e. to maximize its effectiveness, with the restriction that the weight must be
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technics technologies education management
positive values and that the ratio of virtual output
and virtual input of each unit can’t have a value
greater than 1.
The basic characteristic of DEA is that the
measure of efficiency that it provides is a relative
measure. In other words, each unit (entity) on the
basis of data on inputs and/or outputs is estimated as relatively effective or relatively ineffective
compared to other units (entities) involved in the
analysis. Accordingly, the DEA verifies if each
of the entities is on the efficiency frontier. Significantly, the identification of inefficient units is
strong, while the identification of efficient units is
weak, because it can happen that some units are
effective only because they included low weight
in measuring their efficiency. Efficiency limit is,
in economic terms, empirically derived maximum
output that each unit can realize with the available inputs. On that occasion, the border acts as
a performance envelope for the inefficient units.
Envelope is the curve that in every point contacts
with one of the curves belonging to the same family. In order for inefficient units to be found on the
efficiency frontier and thus become effective they
must either reduce inputs or increase outputs. If
the unit can be enveloped then it is relatively inefficient, and if it’s not it participates in forming the
efficiency border.
Depending on what DEA model is used, the efficiency border is in the form of a convex cone or
a convex shell (mantle). For each inefficient entity
on the basis of his distance from the border of efficiency is determined the content and level of inefficiency for each of the inputs and outputs. The
level of inefficiency is defined by comparison with
a reference unit or with a convex combination of
other reference units scattered on the efficiency
border. If we try to minimize the inputs in the production of a given output it is the input-oriented
DEA model, and if we seek to maximize output at
the current level of input it is the output-oriented
DEA model. Based on the above, the DEA can be
described as a data-oriented analysis, because the
performance evaluation and other findings draw
directly from observed data with minimal assumptions. It is successful and a new way to empirically determine the best practical production
limits. DEA method (according to [19], p. 65) includes a number of different approaches and modVolume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
els that are interconnected and are used together
to assess the limits of efficiency and evaluating
the relative efficiency of observed DMU. DEA
method provides information that is important for
further work management of efficient and inefficient units. For inefficient units DEA finds ways to
achieve the efficiency of these units. For units that
are already efficient DEA provides information on
how to become more efficient. In order to successfully use DEA in the evaluation of performance
of observed units it is necessary that all phases of
the DEA are fully implemented. In conducting the
study of efficiency using DEA four phases can be
distinguished:
1. definition and selection of DMU whose
relative efficiency need to be determined,
2. determination of input and output factors
that are relevant and appropriate to assess
the relative efficiency of selected DMU,
3. choice of appropriate DEA model and
4. solving the DEA models, analysis and
interpretation of results.
Ranking the set of possible alternatives from
best to worst is a problem that can also be solved
(see [12]) by using methods of multi criteria analysis (MCA). In this paper it is shown that the DEA
method can be used to rank units on the basis of
their efficiency index. The lack of basic DEA
models is that they are unable to make a difference
in the business estimation of efficient units. In the
basic DEA models all the efficient units have efficiency 1, so according to level of efficiency it is
not possible to make their order. To rectify this
problem, Andersen and Petersen (see [1]), in order
to rank the units, modified the basic CCR model
which, in the literature, is often referred to as the
"model for assessing super efficiency". Modified
DEA models allow the efficient units to rank as
the inefficient units, based on the efficiency index greater than or equal to 1. Efficiency index,
which gives a modified DEA model, is the maximum possible proportional increase in input level
at which the unit remains effective. DEA method
can also be treated as a data-oriented analysis, because performance evaluation is realized directly
from observed data with minimal assumptions.
DEA checks to see if each entity is on the efficiency border. On that occasion, the efficiency border
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technics technologies education management
acts as a performance envelope for the inefficient
units, and some authors (see [6]) emphasize its
following characteristics:
1. DEA is an on parametric method, which
requires no assumption about the analytical
form of the production function,
2. DEA is the border method, and thus
determines the efficiency performance
rather than the average performance,
3. DEA solves problems easier with multiple
inputs and multiple outputs,
4. DEA can identify sources of inefficiency
in terms of excessive spending of certain
resources or lower levels of output produced,
5. DEA consider the changing marginal value
of various input - output combinations, and
the evaluation of these values is not affected
by multi-co linearity, or high correlation
among independent variables,
6. DEA provides higher goals accuracy,
given that it is the boundary method.
3. Results of efficiency researches of shmts
in period since 1994. To 1998.
One of the most important stages in the application of DEA is the selection of inputs / outputs
on which to appraise the efficiency performance.
The analysis included 15 SHMTS of Belgrade
district, which had profiles that belong to the field
of mechanical engineering and metal processing
in its educational programs. Table 1 presents the
schools whose efficiency is analyzed in the period
of 1994/1995. to 1997/1998. of school year which,
in this case, are the decision units or shorter DMU
(decision making unit).
By sample, in assessing the effectiveness of
these schools, are included students who entered
high school in 1994/1995 and completed schooling in 1997/1998. Thus, the sample included only
students with four years of schooling in the area of
"mechanical engineering and metal processing".
To evaluate the efficiency of schools data has been
used for three inputs and three outputs that are presented in Table 2.
Table 2. The input and output factors of effectiveness assess of schools in the period since 1994. to
1998.
Input 1
Input 2
Input 3
Output 1
Output 2
Output 3
Proportional number of employed (X1)
Student input quality (X2)
School facility assessment (X3)
Percentage of graduates (Y1)
Number of graduates (Y2)
Student output quality (Y3)
Source: According to [16]
Proportional number of employees (X1) at the
school is gotten as a ratio: (total number of employees · number of students enrolled in base generation)
/ total number of students in school. For example,
the data obtained for the seventh school is 17,982,
Table 1. The Schools whose efficiency was assesses in the period since 1994. to 1998.
School 1
School 2
School 3
School 4
School 5
School 6
School 7
School 8
School 9
School 10
School 11
School 12
School 13
School 14
School 15
Source: According to [16]
728
Petar Drapšin Tehnical School, Belgrade
Polytehnical Academy – Secondary Tehnical School, Belgrade
School of Electrical and Mechanical Engineering, Belgrade – Zemun
Tehnical School, Belgrade – Železnik
Pančevo School of Mechanical Engineering, Pančevo
Beograd School of Mechanical Engineering, Belgrade
Radoje Dakić School of Mechanical Engineering, Belgrade – Rakovica
1. maj School of Mechanical Engineering, Belgrade
Electrical Industry School, Belgrade
School of Shipping, Shipbuilding and Hydraulic Engineering, Belgrade
Buda Davidović Tehnical School, Obrenovac
Transport Engineering School, Belgrade – Zemun
Zmaj School of Mechanical Engineering, Belgrade – Zemun
Kolubara Tehnical School, Lazarevac
Tehnical School, Mladenovac
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technics technologies education management
or one teacher belongs to a population which has
17,982 students (the values of this input for other
schools are presented in Table 3, column: Input 1).
The quality of students at the entrance (X2)
is an educational resource, as their school education and educational action increases this value.
Specifically, this resource can be measured only
if there is a national testing plan, so in this case its
value was measured based on the average number
of points that students received scoring relevant
subjects from a primary school and the average
number of points that the students scored on the
entrance exam in Serbian Language and Literature. Maximum number of points students could
win is 100, of which the entrance exam is 40
points (see Table 3, column Input 2).
Rating of equipment in schools (X3) included objective and subjective evaluation of schools.
These factors considered several parameters that
directly or indirectly affect the quality of working
and living conditions of students and teachers in
schools. In this, an objective assessment was derived on the basis of relevant data obtained in the
schools, while the subjective assessment included
an independent evaluation of several factors related to the exterior and interior design of schools,
and was introduced as amendments to certain objective assess. In order for presented data to define
this entry, first they were expressed on the range of
values that are comparable (scaling was conducted), and then to determine the relative importance
of certain parameters (weighting) survey was
conducted in schools. The survey implied that 11
teachers, selected randomly, ranks the 12 param-
eters (objectively and subjectively) that describe
the equipment of schools, assigning them values,
according to importance, from 1 to 12. Scaling is
performed in three different ways, and the results
are specified in the Table 3.
The quality of student output (Y3) presents
the results of students on the entrance exam for
admission to the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering. The idea was that this output includes results
of students in all technical colleges, but because
of the inability to reach wanted data, research was
significantly limited. Therefore, the results should
be taken with caution, because it might be expected that a large number of successful students
competed at another university. Based on data collected on the results of the entrance exam for base
generation students and the points that students
"brought" from high school, the sum of the average number of points was calculated. This figure is
considered as the output resource.
In some schools the number of students who
joined taken the entrance exam was less than 5%
compared to the number of graduate students.
That case was at school 12, 13, 14 and 15, and
they are excluded from the analysis since it is obvious that the results obtained in this case would
not give a realistic picture of the relative efficiency
of schools. In order to avoid situations that larger
schools are discriminated output was introduced as
the number of graduate students (Y2) of those
who entered school in 1994/1995. The logical
way out is certainly the percentage of graduate
students (Y1). To evaluate the efficiency of secondary engineering schools of Belgrade district E
Table 3. Data review of the inputs and outputs in research since 1994. to 1998.
School
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
Input 1
28.35
23.66
5.75
17.38
7.84
8.82
17.98
8.40
4.49
3.59
9.77
Source: [16], p. 124
Input 2
77.00
71.57
68.43
71.21
70.06
73.26
72.36
67.08
79.65
72.46
66.36
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
Input 3-1
412.20
500.70
280.40
691.30
345.50
200.30
411.30
379.00
176.90
394.60
139.40
Input 3-2
545
590
439
733
446
355
517
512
358
499
289
Input 3-3
131.90
147.40
98.50
191.80
97.30
71.50
120.20
130.50
79.40
114.00
56.20
Output 1
83.45
82.35
78.46
83.33
88.51
58.75
86.34
73.47
78.68
54.54
81.89
Output 2
242
172
51
120
77
47
177
72
48
12
95
Output 3
56.39
67.56
67.01
59.28
52.19
63.97
64.30
71.87
50.73
50.53
54.67
729
technics technologies education management
- DEA software was used (see [19], p. 91-106), developed at the Faculty of Organizational Sciences
(FOS) in Belgrade. In the results analysis, relating to evaluation of the efficiency of mechanical
secondary schools of Belgrade district, 11 out of
15 schools was involved, and the results of their
inputs and outputs are presented in Table 3. Using
input-oriented CCR model are obtained for different variants of data with 3 inputs and 3 outputs, efficiency indexes for 11 observed schools, and also
a list of exemplary schools for those schools that
perform poorly.
On this occasion, several combinations of input - output factors were made and are presented
in Table 4 Given that the E - DEA input-oriented
software solved the CCR model with constant returns to scale, the school is relatively efficient if
the efficiency index is equal to 1 and inefficient
if the efficiency index is less than 1 (see Table 5),
so it is necessary for schools to proportionately
reduce its inputs, in order to become efficient.
In Table 5. behind the efficiency index values, in
brackets, are also lists of exemplary schools for
those schools that are inefficient.
Table 4. Applied variations of input - output factors in research since 1994. to 1998.
Variant 1
Variant 2
Variant 3
Variant 4
Variant 5
Source: [13], p. 223
3 inputs (X1, X2, X3)
3 outputs (Y1, Y2, Y3)
2 inputs (X1, X3)
3 outputs (Y1, Y2, Y3)
3 inputs (X1, X2, X3)
2 outputs (Y1, Y2)
2 inputs (X2, X3)
2 outputs (Y1, Y2)
2 inputs (X1, X3)
2 outputs (Y2, Y3)
Table 5. Relative indexes of efficiency obtained by the application of CCR DEA model, in research since
1994. to 1998.
School 5
Variant 1
1
1
1
0.9231
(7,8,11)
1
Variant 2
1
1
1
0.9617
(7,8,11)
1
School 6
1
1
School 7
1
1
1
School 8
1
1
1
1
School 9
1
1
1
1
School 10
1
1
1
1
School 11
1
1
1
1
School 1
School 2
School 3
School 4
Source: [13], p. 223
Variant 3
1
1
1
0.9660
(7,8,11)
1
0.8231
(3,8)
Variant 4
0.8788
0.9882
1
Variant 5
0.8790
0.9884
1
0.9604
(8,11)
1
0.9977
(3,11)
0.9954
(8,11)
1
0.7988
(5,11)
0.6742
(8,11)
1
0.9603
1
1
0.9954
Table 6. Efficiency assess of school 4 in research since 1994. to 1998.
Inputs
Value
Weights
17.379
71.21
691.3
0.0001
0.01304
0.0001
Source: [13], p. 224
730
Outputs
Virtual
value
0.001737
0.929132
0.06913
Value
Weight
83.33
120
59.28
0.00670
0.00027
0.00558
Target
Virtual
value
0.5588412
0.0331927
0.3310447
Target
inputs
12.337
68.793
242.39
Target
outputs
83.33
120
59.28
Samples
7
11
8
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
technics technologies education management
With optimal weights, which in the primary
DEA model observed inefficient unit has chosen
for the inputs and outputs, exemplary units are efficient. A comparison of input - output level of relatively inefficient unit with input - output levels of
its exemplary units clearly indicates in which areas
are the weaknesses of inefficient units. The results
for variant 1 (option with 3 inputs and 3 outputs)
show that 10 out of 11 schools are relatively efficient. Inefficient is only the school 4. However, for
school 4, schools 4, 7, 8 and 11 appear as exemplary schools (these schools have weights chosen
by the school 4 and are relatively efficient), and
represent example of good operational practice for
school 4. Detailed results of efficiency assess of
the school 4 are presented in Table 6.
Considering that at this combination of input
- output factors, only school 4 is relatively inefficient, more detailed analysis of the results for this
school can be made. Based on the values of input potentials, school 4 is located at the top while,
based on the results achieved, and is in the second
half of the scale of 11 schools. On the other hand,
by inspection of Table 8, we can analyze the importance this school made to their inputs and outputs,
while trying to maximize efficiency. The highest
efficiency among inputs is given to input X2 (the
quality of students at the entrance: 92.91%), followed by the input X3 (equipment assess of the
school: 6.91%), while the lowest importance is assigned to input X1 (proportional to the number of
employees: 1.74%). In output the highest priority
is given to output Y1 (the percentage of graduate
students 55.88%), then the output Y2 (number of
graduates: 33.19%), and the lowest value to output
Y3 (quality of students on the way out: 33.10%).
Results obtained by the application of CCR model
for variant 2, with 2 inputs and 3 outputs, showing
that the 9 schools are relatively efficient.The only
change is that now school 6 is inefficient, which
is understandable, given that this unit has a fairly
low value of the input resource, which is ejected in
this combination of input - output factors. On this
occasion, the school 8 appears twice as exemplary.
School 4 in this case reduced its inefficiency because, compared to other schools, has the highest
value of equipment assess of the school, which is
ignored on this occasion. Variant 3, with three inputs and two outputs (output Y3 ignored), shows
that besides the school 4, larger schools with the
highest values of this factor are becoming more
ineffective, such as schools 1, 2 and 7. Analysis
of the results obtained by variant 2 shows that the
schools 3, 5, 8 and 11 are relatively efficient. On
the other hand, school 11appears 7x, and school
8 appears 5x as exemplary. Although some authors state the frequency of the exemplary groups
as a criterion for ranking the relatively efficient
units, Martic (see [19]) considers that this criterion is not good enough, because the frequency
of appearance in the exemplary group just shows
how many inefficient units provide a similar importance of individual inputs and outputs as just
as specific efficient unit. Schools 1, 2, 4, 6, 9 and
10 do not appear for any effective school as exemplary schools. If for the same number of inputs
and outputs (option 5), on the side of the input,
instead of "assessment of equipment in schools"
you put "proportionate number of employees",
and for the output side, instead of "percentage of
graduate students" you put a "number of graduate students", schools 2, 7, 9 and 10 become relatively efficient, schools 5 and 11 are inefficient,
while schools 4 and 6 increased their inefficiency
Table 7. Ranking of schools effectiveness using the AP model in research since 1994. to 1998.
School School School School School School School School School School School
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
AP 1
1.335 1.055 1.177 0.962 1.065 1.019 1.109 1.098 1.395 1.205 1.774
AP 2
1.299 1.055 1.171 0.963 1.065 1.039 1.110 1.098 1.277 1.205 1.435
AP 3
1.277 1.056 1.192 0.965 1.066
1.58
1.111 1.099 1.279 1.207 1.677
Rank 1
3
9
5
11
8
10
6
7
2
4
1
Rank 2
2
9
5
11
8
10
6
7
3
4
1
Rank 3
3
10
5
11
8
9
6
7
2
4
1
Average
3
9
5
11
8
10
6
7
2
4
1
School
Source: [13], p. 228
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
731
technics technologies education management
even more. In Table 7. the efficiency of schools is
ranked on the basis of data for the same input and
output factors, using Andersen - Petersen's (AP)
input-oriented model, with the considered three
variants of input 2 (by the interviewed teachers)
and AP 1, AP 2 and AP 3.
4. Results of efficiency researches of shmts
in period since 2004. To 2008
Educational outcomes of school are not just
a result of its own efficiency, but also parameters
that can be characterized as environmental factors.
Method that allows assessment of the effectiveness
of schools, considering multiple educational outcomes is the DEA method. DEA method evaluates
the performance of schools by measuring their educational outcomes (outputs) and contextual variables (inputs) that affect the outputs. For evaluation of efficacy of mechanical technical public high
schools of Belgrade district, an oriented CCR DEA
model with constant returns to scale was used. The
sample included 13 schools, and the school year
2004/2005. was taken for the base year.
The results presented here are obtained from
the data for 3 inputs and 3 outputs. Since the DEA
method allows different analysis and evaluation of
(in)efficiency, for inefficient there were some exemplary schools determined, as well as the target
values of the inputs and outputs with which they
would become relatively efficient. The ranking of
schools was carried out using Andersen - Petersen's
model. All schools involved in the analysis had in
its educational programs profiles that belong to the
work field of "mechanical engineering and metal
processing", and analysis included only students
with undergraduate education. Schools whose efficiency should be evaluated are presented in Table 8.
For 13 SHMTS of Belgrade district data have
been analyzed for the following three inputs:
Table 9. Input factors in research since 2004. to
2008.
Input 1
Input 2
Input 3
Proportional number of employed (X1)
Student input quality (X2)
School facility assessment (X3)
Source: According to [16]
Number of teachers who work in school could
be measured by the number of teachers with
different levels of experience, but because of
the different structure and number of employees
in schools, on the side of input, the analysis
introduced a proportional number of employees,
i.e. number of teachers in proportion to fit a set
of observed students. Certainly, it is desirable
that the number of teachers in proportion with
the observed number of students is as small as
possible, because in that case the teacher works
(more comfortable) with a small group of students
and have more available time to be devoted to
each of the students. Proportional number of staff
is gained as the ratio: (total number of employees’
∙ number of students of base generation enrolled)
/ total number of students in school. Data on input
1 for schools that are included in the analysis are
shown in Table 11.
Table 8. Schools whose efficiency was assesses in the period since 2004. to 2008.
School 1
School 2
School 3
School 4
School 5
School 6
School 7
School 8
School 9
School 10
School 11
School 12
School 13
Source: According to [16]
732
Air Force Academy, Belgrade
Polytechnic - School of new technologies, Belgrade
Kolubara Tehnical School, Lazarevac
Tehnical School, Belgrade – Železnik
Pančevo School of Mechanical Engineering, Pančevo
Tehnoart, Belgrade
Radoje Dakić School of Mechanical Engineering, Belgrade – Rakovica
Novi Beograd Tehnical School, Belgrade
Mladenovac Tehnical School, Mladenovac
School of Shipping, Shipbuilding and Hydraulic Engineering, Belgrade
Obranovac Tehnical School, Obrenovac
Transport Engineering School, Belgrade – Zemun
Zmaj School of Mechanical Engineering, Belgrade – Zemun
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
technics technologies education management
Rating the quality of students on the way out
(see Tables 9 and 11) is also treated as an educational resource. The quality of students at the entrance
represent the average number of points that students
of the base generation (school year 2004/2005.)
scored in admission to parent school. This score included the sum of points achieved, based on the accomplishment achieved at primary school (the accomplishment achieved in primary school will be
certified by a unique key, for all schools in Serbia,
which is prescribed by the Ministry of Education of
the Republic of Serbia) and the accomplishment at
the classification test in the Serbian language and
literature and mathematics. The maximum number
of points that students could win is 100, where on
the Entrance exams a maximum possible points to
win is 40. Considering this factor, favoring schools
that attract more capable and gifted students and
that due to higher output values would be in advantage when assessing efficiency was avoided. Data
for input 2 of schools that were included in the analysis are presented in Table 11.
Assess of equipment of school includes several parameters that affect the quality of working
and living conditions of students and teachers in
school facilities (work environment, collegial relationships, a sense of (dis)satisfaction with the
atmosphere at school). In order for the collected
data (for 12 parameters, ranging from the average
number of students per class to the office of the
Director) to be represented by single numerical
value, they need to be expressed in a range of values that are mutually comparable. In this regard,
in order to determine the relative importance of
some parameters, a survey was done in school. In
fact, 13 teachers selected randomly, subjectively
ranked 12 parameters according to their degree of
importance when it comes to the knowledge level
of students, so that the values were specified in the
range of 1 to 12. Scaling was conducted in three
different ways, and results were adjusted in Table
11. It may be noted that the equipment of schools
in the period since 2004. to 2008. is more balanced
than it was in the survey since 1994. to 1998. The
reason for this phenomenon at the input 3 is reflected in the fact that a certain number of schools
received some donations (European Union, local
government) based on school projects, various
school workshops and similar.
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
In Table 11 all input values X1, X2 and X3 are
presented, noting that the input 3 scaling is done in
three ways. It is not difficult to conclude that the
higher values of input 3 in schools that are better
equipped with teaching aids and appliances, more
beautiful school space (interior, exterior), the condition of the school building and similar. General
ascertainment is that these parameters significantly
improved in recent years. From table 13. it can be
concluded that the schools with the lowest values of
a inputs are schools 3, 9, 10, 11 and 12. This input
shows the average number of the number of students
taught by one teacher. The lowest value of input 2
has the school 10. Low values of this input indicate
that the school enrolled students who had low accomplishment in elementary school. Input 3, evaluation of equipment in schools, is generally similar
in most schools. Only schools 3, 11 and 13 record a
bit lower values. On the output side for the SHMTS
of Belgrade district three outputs are discussed (Y1,
Y2 and Y3) and are presented in Table 10.
Table 10. Output factors in research since 2004.
to 2008.
Output 1
Output 2
Output 3
Percentage of graduates (Y1)
Number of graduates (Y2)
Student output quality (Y3)
Source: According to [16]
The percentage of graduate students is obtained as the ratio of the number of graduate students of the base generation and the total number
of students of the base generation. Base generation
is the generation of students who in 2004/2005.
enrolled the first grade of high school with four
year of schooling, in the work field of mechanical
engineering and metal processing. Therefore, this
output, for example for school 4 is 0.80 or 80%,
for the school 5 output 1 is 0.98 or 98%. Data for
output 1 for 13 schools involved in the study are
presented in Table 11.
In order to avoid situations of larger schools
(schools with more students, such as: Technical schools "Novi Beograd", Mechanical School
"Radoje Dakic" or Air Force Academy) being discriminated, on the output side was introduced the
number of graduate students (Y2). This output
is clear in itself. It should not be converted in any
way, but simply read from the table. The values of
Y2 are also presented in tables (Table 11).
733
technics technologies education management
Table 11. Review of inputs / outputs in researches since 2004. to 2008.
School
Input 1
Input 2
Input 3-1
Input 3-2
Input 3-3
Output 1
Output 2
Output 3
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
22.86
20.86
9.05
18.03
15.14
19.58
27.75
20.97
8.62
9.07
9.30
7.50
20.54
78.30
77.06
66.29
64.60
67.81
74.63
61.83
72.91
66.22
53.08
63.52
59.19
67.92
429.8
611.1
700.6
324.6
492.8
704.7
451.0
476.2
346.6
826.8
670.7
452.8
509.8
430
580
684
327
475
667
428
487
362
760
702
460
637
114.5
118.6
99.2
123.1
121.1
106.9
117.1
111.1
112.8
106.6
95.5
109.9
84.7
0.83
0.81
0.83
0.80
0.98
0.83
0.85
0.92
0.90
0.52
0.78
0.87
0.77
160
122
70
121
118
124
165
157
81
31
70
52
135
63.61
70.01
63.95
57.25
71.42
61.24
66.45
68.68
69.22
52.27
63.24
63.68
67.97
Source: According to [16]
The third output, which is actually the key output, is the quality of student on the way out. Rating the quality of students the way out represents
the average number of points that parent school
graduates scored at enrollment in Mechanical Engineering in Belgrade.
The idea was that this output includes the results
of students in all technical colleges, but because of
great difficulty to get the data they needed, and efforts to compare the results for the period of 10
years in the same way, the study got significantly
limited. Therefore, the obtained results should be
taken with caution. The output factor is calculated as the sum of points students scored based of
the achievement in high school (maximum score
achieved in high school is 40) and the accomplishment achieved on the Entrance exam for admission to college (this accomplishment was also
scored by a unique key, for all freshmen in Serbia,
by the faculty, and the maximum number of points
that can be scored on the university entrance exam
is 60). Data on this factor were obtained by the
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering in the Excel
file and entered in Table 11. The analysis considered the evaluation of school efficiency for different variants (combinations) of inputs and outputs
that are presented in Table 12.
Table 12. Applied variations of input - output factors in the survey since 2004. to 2008.
Variant
1
Variant
2
Variant
3
Variant
4
Variant
5
Variant
6
734
Input (X1): Proportional number of employed
Input (X2): Student input quality
Input (X3): School facility assessment
Output (Y1): Percentage of graduates
Output (Y2): Number of graduates
Output (Y3): Student output quality
Input (X1): Proportional number of employed
Input (X3): School facility assessment
Output (Y1): Percentage of graduates
Output (Y2): Number of graduates
Output (Y3): Student output quality
Input (X1): Proportional number of employed
Input (X2): Student input quality
Input (X3): School facility assessment
Output (Y1): Percentage of graduates
Output (Y2): Number of graduates
Input (X2): Student input quality
Input (X3): School facility assessment
Output (Y1): Percentage of graduates
Output (Y2): Number of graduates
Input (X1): Proportional number of employed
Input (X3): School facility assessment
Output (Y2): Number of graduates
Output (Y3): Student output quality
Input (X1): Proportional number of employed
Input (X2): Student input quality
Input (X3): School facility assessment
Output (Y1): Percentage of graduates
Output (Y3): Student output quality
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
technics technologies education management
Table 13. Efficiency of schools with a variant 1 of input - output factors in the survey since 2004. to 2008.
School
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
Efficiency index
0.9646
0.8789
1.0314
0.9177
1.0591
0.9013
1.2393
1.0745
1.2131
0.9153
1.0200
1.1110
1.2755
AP rank
9
13
7
10
6
12
2
5
3
11
8
4
1
Exemplary Schools
8, 7, 13
7, 13, 12, 5
/
8, 7, 5
/
8, 13, 5, 9
/
/
/
12
/
/
/
Table 14. Target values of inputs/outputs for inefficient schools in variant 1 in the survey since 2004. to
2008.
School
4
2
10
6
1
Target
input 1
16.546
18.333
6.152
17.647
22.051
Target
input 2
59.283
67.728
48.584
67.264
75.528
Target
input 3-3
99.11
104.26
90.27
96.37
110.44
For variant 1, which is the most representative
because it includes all inputs/outputs in efficiency
analysis, indices of efficiency of schools are given,
then the target values of inputs which the inefficient
schools become efficient with, the list of exemplary
schools for inefficient schools and rank obtained by
Andersen - Petersen‘s model. Exemplary schools
are those schools that are efficient with the weights
of inefficient schools. School results for all six variations of inputs/outputs are presented in Table 15.
In school efficiency assess of a variant 1 with 3 inputs and 3 outputs, the results are presented in Table
13. For input: assessment of equipment in schools
are data used for input 3-3 in all variants of evaluation of the efficiency of schools, because they represent the results of the DEA model best, as shown
by the correlation analysis. In column Exemplary
schools are schools that would, with the outputs of
inefficient schools, be efficient.
It can be concluded that in this variant of inputs/
outputs out of 13 schools 5 of them are inefficient,
and their efficiency index (given the choice of DEA
model and the nature of the software) is less than
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
Output1
Output 2
Output 3
AP rank
0.80
0.81
52
0.83
0.83
121
122
31
124
160
57.25
70.01
52.27
61.24
63.61
10
13
11
12
9
1. All schools whose efficiency index is greater
than 1 are effective. For school 1 exemplary school
are schools 8, 7 and 13, for school 4 an exemplary
schools are schools 8, 7 and 5 and so on. School
with the highest level of efficiency index is school
13, then school 7, then school 9, etc., which can be
seen in Table 13, column: AP rankings.
In Table 14, based on the index of efficiency,
ranking of schools was conducted using Andersen
- Petersen's (AP) model, and then specified target
values of inputs, that the inefficient schools would
become efficient with, where the current values of
output are retained, since this is an input-oriented
model . It can be concluded that school 4, which is
inefficient with inputs 18.03, 64.60 and 123.09, respectively, can become efficient at the given level of
output (0.80, 121 and 57.25, see Table 14.) only if it
reduce inputs on values 16,546, 59,283 and 99,110.
In order for school to become efficient it should reduce the input from 20.86, 77.06 and 118.63 to the
values of 18,333, 67,728 and 104,264, at a given
level of output. Similar conclusions could be drawn
for other schools (10, 6 and 1).
735
technics technologies education management
In assess of the efficiency of schools for variant 2 with 2 inputs (X1 and X3) and 3 outputs
(Y1, Y2 and Y3), the results are presented in Table
15. A comparison of input - output levels of relatively inefficient unit with input - output levels of
its exemplary units clearly indicates in which areas are the weaknesses of inefficient units. In this
variant of input/output 7 out of 13 schools is inefficient. It can be concluded that the exclusion of
input 2, "The quality of students at the entrance”,
the number of inefficient schools increased from 5
to 7, suggesting that some schools have given this
input of great importance. School with the highest
level of efficiency index is, at this combination of
inputs/outputs school 13, see Table 15. It is obvious that at school 5 inputs to outputs ratio is very
favorable, with slightly lower inputs compared to
other schools, and high outputs, resulting in high
levels of efficiency index, regardless of the variation of input/output.
In variant 3 with 3 inputs (X1, X2 and X3) and
two outputs (Y1 and Y2), factor Y3 (quality of students on the way out) was excluded from the analysis. This resulted in increasing the number of efficient schools. In this combination of inputs/outputs
7 schools is efficient, while 6 schools is inefficient,
as shown in Table 15. Compared to the previous
variant, where the efficient schools were: 8, 13, 12,
3, 11 and 9, this choice of input/output results in the
fact that the number of efficient schools is greater.
These are now schools: 8, 7, 13, 12, 3, 5 and 9. The
number of occurrences of exemplary units for inefficient units indicates that they represent an example of good operational practice for inefficient
schools. Martic (see [19]), however, considers that
this criterion is not good enough, because the frequency of occurrences in the exemplary groups just
shows how many inefficient units provides a similar importance to individual inputs/outputs. School
with the highest index of efficiency is school 7, the
efficiency index is 1.2393, and school that has the
lowest efficiency is school 10, where the efficiency index is 0.6655. It is interesting that school 10
mostly has worst ratio of output to inputs, which
is most directly linked to efficiency, so it can be
concluded that such a bad grade of efficiency is
the consequence of bad output values, respectively,
0.52, 31 and 52.27, which are the lowest of all observed schools. With some entries this school owns,
736
it would be much more important to try to increase
outputs, with unchanged inputs, but it would have
resulted in a different orientation of the CCR DEA
model, that is, this would be the output-oriented
CCR DEA model.
Variant 4 combines the two inputs in assessing
the efficiency of schools, such as "quality of students at the entrance" (X2) and "assess of equipment of schools" (X3) and two outputs, "the percentage of graduate students" (Y1) and "the number
of graduate students" (Y2). It can be seen that in
this case, the number of inefficient school exceeds
the number of efficient. In other words, the number
of inefficient schools with this choice of inputs and
outputs the largest ever, which means that from the
analysis are excluded inputs/outputs that observed
schools have given great importance to. School with
the highest index of efficiency is school 7, where
the index is 1.2393. This school has the worst input
1, which is 27.75 (see Table 11.), but it was ignored
in this variant (not considered). The value of input
2 is among the lowest (61.83) compared to other
schools, so with high values of output 0.85 for Y1
(almost the highest value) and 165 for Y2 (highest
value) ensures that school 7 shows the highest efficiency for listed selection of inputs/outputs. This
choice of inputs and outputs in assessing the efficiency of schools, has had such an effect that, in
comparison with the variant 3, which includes all
three inputs X1, X2 and X3 and outputs Y1 and Y2,
the values of the efficiency indices for all schools
are mostly less than or equal to efficiency indices
of the variant 3. This indicates the importance that
schools gave to some inputs/outputs.
In variant 5 inputs X1 and X3 and outputs Y2
and Y3 are included. Therefore, in this case on the
input side "quality of students at the entrance" was
ignored, and on the output side “the percentage
of graduate students" was excluded from consideration. Similar to variant 4, there is a fairly large
number of inefficient schools (8 schools out of 13,
how many are in the sample), with the difference
being that in this case the school with the best grade
of efficiency is school 13, which has the efficiency
index 1.2755. It can be concluded that these results
mainly due to the fact that the input 2, which for
school 13 is 67.92 and has a high value compared to
other schools, has been ignored, but it included input 3, which for school 13 is 84.73 and has the lowVolume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
technics technologies education management
est value of input compared to all other schools. On
the other hand, output 1 that school 13 can’t boast
of, with a value of 0.77 (the lowest value compared
to other schools), has been ignored. However, the
current outputs are 135 for Y2 and 67.97 for Y3 and
have relatively high values (see Table 11.), which,
compared to low input values, resulted in the highest level of efficiency, precisely of school 13.
In order to deplete the most important possibilities of combining inputs/outputs, at the end
variant 6 that considers all inputs (X1, X2, X3)
and outputs Y1 and Y3 was analyzed. On this occasion, the output Y2 (the number of graduate students) was ignored. It is noteworthy that this output
is directly related to parent school. A school with
the best grade of efficiency is school 13, which
shows the ratio of quotient r-th output/i-th input.
Anyhow, slightly lower inputs (in this case all the
inputs are included in the analysis) compared to
other schools are the reason for the highest level
of efficiency of school 13. In second place by efficiency assess is school 8, etc. (see the ratio of quotient r-the output/it input in Table 16). The number
of ineffective schools is 7, and those are schools
4, 8, 7, 2, 10, 6 and 1. In Table 15. an overview of
the efficiency of the observed schools for all variations of inputs/outputs is listed. It may be noted
that there is most efficient schools in variant 1,
which includes analysis of all inputs and outputs.
In variant 1 there are 8 efficient schools, while in
variant 4 and variant 5 only five schools are efficient. However, in variant 4 and variant 5 the
number of inputs and outputs is reduced, resulting
in reducing the number of efficient schools.
It should be noted that reducing the number
of inputs and outputs can lead to misconceptions
when it comes to assessment of efficiency units
because some units can be characterized as efficient just because they included favorable weight
in inputs/outputs. A similar situation could happen
if exaggerated with the number of inputs/outputs,
because their excessive number may reduce the
discriminatory power of method. It is recommended that the number of inputs ∙ number of outputs
be approximately equal to the number of DMU.
Quotients r-th output / i-th input play an important role in the evaluation of efficiency, so regardless of their importance not being emphasized in
the DEA literature, they represent partial indicators of efficiency. Videlicet, if a unit has a higher
value of one of the ratios than any other of the observed units, it will be rated as relatively efficient,
regardless of the values of other inputs and outputs and their ratios.
Based on table 16. , in which are given the quotients of outputs and inputs for the combination of
3 inputs and 3 outputs (for input 3 are considered
values as in the column "Input 3-3", see Table 11.)
it can be concluded that under this criterion are relatively efficient schools 7, 13, 12 and 9, where the
highest ratios are most often in schools 13 and 12.
Ranking by Andersen - Petersen's model fully confirmed the previous statement. Videlicet,
Table 15. Review of schools efficiency for individual variations of inputs/outputs in research since 2004.
to 2008.
School
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
V1
0.965
0.879
1.031
0.918
1.059
0.901
1.239
1.075
1.213
0.915
1.020
1.111
1.276
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
V2
0.964
0.823
1.031
0.854
0.983
0.898
0.895
1.064
1.213
0.774
1.017
1.111
1.276
V3
0.965
0.813
1.031
0.920
1.059
0.901
1.239
1.075
1.213
0.666
0.977
1.111
1.127
V4
0.923
0.813
0.980
1.005
1.038
0.896
1.239
1.005
0.972
0.667
0.958
1.017
1.127
V5
0.964
0.823
0.995
0.854
0.957
0.865
0.895
1.060
1.213
0.774
1.017
1.057
1.276
V6
0.843
0.976
0.999
0.876
1.212
1.111
0.915
0.898
1.031
1.011
1.020
1.019
0.843
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technics technologies education management
Table 16. Overview of quotient r-th output / i-th input in the survey since 2004. to 2008.
School
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
Y1/X1
0.03631
0.03883
0.09171
0.04437
0.06473
0.04239
0.03063
0.04387
0.10441
0.05733
0.08387
0.11600
0.03749
Y1/X2
0.01060
0.01051
0.01252
0.01238
0.01445
0.01112
0.01375
0.01262
0.01359
0.00980
0.01228
0.01470
0.01134
Y1/X3
0.00725
0.00683
0.00837
0.00650
0.00810
0.00776
0.00726
0.00828
0.00798
0.00488
0.00816
0.00791
0.00909
Y2/X1
6.99913
5.84851
7.73481
6.71104
7.79392
6.33299
5.94595
7.48689
9.39675
3.41786
7.52688
6.93333
6.57254
Y2/X2
2.04342
1.58318
1.05597
1.87307
1.74016
1.66153
2.66861
2.15334
1.22320
0.58402
1.10202
0.87853
1.98763
Y2/X3
1.39750
1.02841
0.70557
0.98302
0.97472
1.15975
1.40881
1.41365
0.71821
0.29075
0.73275
0.47281
1.59330
Y3/X1
2.78259
3.35618
7.06630
3.17526
4.71731
3.12768
2.39459
3.27515
8.03016
5.76295
6.80000
8.49067
3.30915
Y3/X2
0.81239
0.90851
0.96470
0.88622
1.05324
0.82058
1.07472
0.94198
1.04530
0.98474
0.99559
1.07586
1.00074
Y3/X3
0.55559
0.59015
0.64459
0.46511
0.58996
0.57276
0.56737
0.61840
0.61376
0.49025
0.66199
0.57901
0.80220
Table 17. AP ranking of observed schools in the survey since 2004. to 2008.
School
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
School name and location
Air Force Academy, Belgrade
Polytechnic - School of new technologies, Belgrade
Kolubara Tehnical School, Lazarevac
Tehnical School, Belgrade – Železnik
Pančevo School of Mechanical Engineering, Pančevo
Tehnoart, Belgrade
Radoje Dakić School of Mechanical Engineering, Belgrade – Rakovica
Novi Beograd Tehnical School, Belgrade
Mladenovac Tehnical School, Mladenovac
School of Shipping, Shipbuilding and Hydraulic Engineering, Belgrade
Obranovac Tehnical School, Obrenovac
Transport Engineering School, Belgrade – Zemun
Zmaj School of Mechanical Engineering, Belgrade – Zemun
AP rank
9
12
6
11
7
10
5
4
3
13
8
2
1
Table 18. List of schools of comparative analysis in the survey in 1994/1998 and 2004/2008
School A
School B
School C
School D
School E
School F
School G
School H
School I
Air Force Academy, Belgrade
Polytechnic - School of new technologies, Belgrade
Obranovac Tehnical School, Obrenovac
Tehnical School, Belgrade – Železnik
Pančevo School of Mechanical Engineering, Pančevo
Tehnoart, Belgrade
Radoje Dakić School of Mechanical Engineering, Belgrade – Rakovica
Novi Beograd Tehnical School, Belgrade
School of Shipping, Shipbuilding and Hydraulic Engineering, Belgrade
Source: According to [16]
the AP model showed that the rank 1 belongs to
school 13, and rank 2 belongs to school 12, as
shown in Table 17.
738
5. Comparative analysis for both examined
periods
Data on inputs/outputs of SHMTS in the survey since 1994. to 1998. and since 2004. to 2008.
are presented in Table 19. Some schools that were
considered in the past haven’t existed in the later
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
technics technologies education management
Table 19. Comparative analysis of inputs/outputs in the survey in 1994/1998. and 2004/2008.
School
Input 1
Input 2
School A
School B
School C
School D
School E
School F
School G
School H
School I
Average
28.35
23.66
9.77
17.38
7.84
8.82
17.98
8.40
3.59
13.98
77.00
71.57
66.36
71.21
70.06
73.26
72.36
67.08
72.46
71.26
School A
School B
School C
School D
School E
School F
School G
School H
School I
Average
22.86
20.86
9.30
18.03
15.14
19.58
27.75
20.97
9.07
18.17
78.30
77.06
63.52
64.60
67.81
74.63
61.83
72.91
53.08
68.19
Source: According to [16]
Input 3-1 Input 3-2 Input 3-3 Output 1 Output 2
Data for inputs / outputs in research in 1994/1998
412.20
545
131.90
83.45
242
500.70
590
147.40
82.35
172
139.40
289
56.20
81.89
95
691.30
733
191.80
83.33
120
345.50
446
97.30
88.51
77
200.30
355
71.50
58.75
47
411.30
517
120.20
86.34
177
379.00
512
130.50
73.47
72
394.60
499
114.00
54.54
12
386.03
498.44
117.87
76.96
112.67
Data for inputs / outputs in research in 2004/2008
429.78
430
114.49
83
160
611.12
580
118.63
81
122
670.72
702
95.53
78
70
324.61
327
123.09
80
121
492.81
475
121.06
98
118
704.69
667
106.92
83
124
450.96
428
117.12
85
165
476.18
487
111.06
92
157
826.80
760
106.62
52
31
554.19
539.56
112.72
81.33
118.67
period (are integrated with other schools), while
some schools that in research since 1994. to 1998.
were excluded from analysis due to input 3 (the
school had less than 5% of enrolled students at the
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering), in research
since 2004. to 2008. were involved in the analysis
of efficiency assessment. Therefore, for the purpose of quality comparisons, is created Table 18.
in which they presented only those schools that
appear in both observed periods.
For easier data presentation in the two observed
periods identical schools are now marked with letters from A to I. In research since 1994. to 1998.
in the analysis of efficiency assessment 11 out of
15 schools were included, which the data was collected for, and in research since 2004. to 2008. 13
SHMTS were analyzed.
Meanwhile, the two schools have lost their
fields of work "mechanical engineering and metalworking" that they previously educated, and were
integrated with other schools. Those are Electrical
power school which is associated with Technical
school "Novi Beograd" and Electro - Mechanical
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
Output 3
56.39
67.56
54.67
59.28
52.19
63.97
64.30
71.87
50.53
60.08
63.61
70.01
63.24
57.25
71.42
61.24
66.45
68.68
52.27
63.80
Engineering school, which is associated with Mechanical technical school "Zmaj". Data on inputs/
outputs for the school that, in the analysis of efficiency assessment, appear in both time intervals
are presented in Table 19, the same way as before.
Meanwhile, some schools have changed the name
they had before. Those are:
–– 1 Maj School of Mechanical Engineering
before and now Novi Beograd Technical
school,
–– Polytechnic Academy - Secondary Technical
School before and now Polytechnic - School
of new technologies,
–– Beograd School of Mechanical Engineering
before and now Tehnoart and
–– Petar Drapsin Technical School before and
now Air Force Academy.
If we look at input 1 (proportional number
of employees), for listed schools, it is evident
that only schools C and D have approximately the
same values of the inputs in both surveys, while
in other schools this input varies considerably.
739
technics technologies education management
Values of input 1 are, compared to the previous,
either significantly higher or significantly lower. These results are the consequence primarily
of changes in the education system but also the
changes in population growth. Namely, the tendency of modern education means increasing the
number of classes or creating pilot classes with
fewer students. Also, once the number of students
in the class ranged over 30, in the secondary vocational schools, which lately, after 2000. is almost
unimaginable and is a direct consequence of the
falling population growth. The biggest changes records school H (an increase of almost 150%) and
schools F and I (increase of 122% and 152.6%).
Compared to schools F, H and I, it is similar situation in school E where the difference to input 1
is approximately 93%. Overall, the average value
of input 1 for these schools increased by approximately 30%. Statistical data available to the Ministry of Education show similar results.
in thousands
Figure 1. Changes in the number of students in
Serbia in secondary education since 2000. to
2005. (according to [17], p. 13.)
Namely, In fact, although the number of secondary schools and departments in the Belgrade
district (and at national level) is not significantly
changed in the period since 2000. to 2005. there
were major changes in the number of staff (teachers) and the number of students in the same period, as indicated by Figures 1. and 2. Figure 1
shows that (see [17]) in the last five-year period
the number of students decreased by 9.2% and
the number of teachers and classes, see Figure 2,
increased and by 10% for teachers and 2.3% for
the departments. Reducing the number of students
from year to year can be explained by the continuous decline in population growth rate in all age
groups, even in a group of 15 to 19 years, which is
relevant to the age of high school students.
740
in thousands
Figure 2. Changes in the number of teachers in
secondary schools in Serbia since 2000. to 2005.
(according to [17], p. 13.)
If we look at the increase in the number of
teachers in the same period (see [17], p. 13.) it is
the consequence of increasing the number of pilot
classes (which counts 20 to 24 students), but also
of the same teachers in two or more schools (in order to achieve full workload of 20 hours per week
in teaching).
It is interesting, for comparison, to see what are
the values of this input in the region, i.e. in the
most developed Western European countries. In
the left part of Table 20. is given the total number
of students attending high school in some countries in Europe, and in the right part of Table 20. is
shown the number of teachers who work in these
high schools.
When comparing values for input 2, the quality of students at the entrance, it is important to
note in the 1994/1998 survey they were more balanced, while in late 2004/2008 survey there were
higher fluctuations in the inputs between schools.
Input 2 has implied an average number of points
students of basic generation scored on enroll in
parent school. This score was the sum of points
awarded based on entries made in elementary
school and accomplishment achieved on classification test. In the 1994/1998 survey the greatest
value of this input has had school A, and it was
77.00 (see Table 19.); while the lowest value of
input 2 notes school C, and is 66.36. Difference
between lowest and highest value was about 16%,
in the survey in 1994/1998. However, when you
look at the 2004/2008 survey, he maximum value
of input 2 , again, has school A. This value is 78.30
and it was higher compared to the previous period
of school A by 1.68%. The lowest value of input
2, in recent survey among schools has school I,
and it is 53.08 (see Table 19.). In this case, the ratio of maximum and minimum input 2 is 47.5%,
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
technics technologies education management
Table 20. The number of students and teachers in high schools in European countries since 2000. to
2004.
Source: According to [17], p. 74
which is almost three times more than in the survey in 1994/1998. If we analyze the input 2 there
is a certain paradox. Namely, it would be desirable
that the values for input 2 are as large as possible
because input 2 represents potential of the future
school the best way. It is known that input 2, or
the quality of students at the entrance, talks about
how many points students scored, based on the accomplishment achieved in elementary school and
results achieved on the Entrance exam for admission to secondary school. It is not difficult to conclude that higher values of the inputs indicate that
students enrolled high school with better accomplishment and greater level of knowledge. Thus,
this entry is treated as an educational resource,
given that the school increases its value by its eduVolume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
cation and educational action. On the other hand,
when looking at the efficiency of schools, which
by definition is the ratio of outputs and inputs and
the choice of DEA model, where the input-oriented DEA model says that it is necessary to minimize the inputs at a given level of output, it turns
out that high values of input 2 would not make
sense, because it might decrease the efficiency of
the school. This, however, practically means that
potentially good students with high accomplishments they have made in elementary school, supposed to increase and expand knowledge during
their schooling in high school and smoothly enter the faculties, where they should win a large
number of points. That way they would have high
values of output 3 (quality of students on the way
741
technics technologies education management
out) and thus to avoid the falling efficiency of the
school. This would have a high value exit 3 (quality of student output), and thus to avoid the falling
efficiency of the school. Unfortunately, this phenomenon is scarcer, especially in secondary vocational schools (certainly machine),and so in places
where such cases appear, they are mainly seen as
a result of the small number of students, and not a
regular occurrence.
The values of input 3, assessment of school
equipment, are values of input 3-3, which are the
result of scaling the third version (see Table 19.),
since correlation analysis shows that this scaling of the most representative when it comes to
efficiency assessment of schools. Looking at the
values in Table 19, the general impression is that
the equipment of schools comparing to the previous period dropped on average by about 4.5%. It
may be noted that in a number of schools there has
been a decline in the value of this input (schools B,
D, G, H, I) but in some schools, primary schools
C, E and F there was a significant increase in the
value of input 3-3. The biggest move in this case
records school C, in which there has been an increase in the value of input 3-3 of nearly 70%.
When we look at the school where the decline in
values of input 3-3 was recorded in the last period,
those are the same schools that had the highest
values during the period of 1994/1998., just when
it comes to this input. Also, schools that record the
increase in the value of input 3-3 in the period of
2004/2008. are schools that in the past have had
low values of this input. In other words, during a
period of ten years of school work there was some
"ironing" of this input. There are several reasons
for something like that, such as: investment funds
by the municipality, various donations that are the
result of suggestions of "parents' council", as well
as funding by the European Union, when it comes
to new programs, i.e. the experimental classes or
new projects And workshops and so on. It is quite
certain that the funds were first invested where the
situation was bad, where it was supposed to help,
stimulate, and encourage (Obrenovac, Pancevo).
There were renovations, provisions of instructional resources, etc.., which directly influenced the
increase in the values of input 3-3. Later on, other
schools were next in line, in terms of their equipment, but for them there were no so drastic chang742
es in the values of input 3-3. The funding received
from the European Union were mainly in equipment (computers, various teaching aids and tools,
CNC machines, desks, etc..), and rarely or never
implied the painting or some construction works,
which has also affected the values, or rather the redistribution of values of input 3-3. Overall, in the
survey in 2004/2008. compared to the 1994/1998.
survey there was a decline in the values of input 2
and input 3-3, in less than 5% on average, while in
the same period there was an increase in input 1 of
almost 30%, mainly due to decrease in the number
of students in the population of age 15 to 18 (see
Figure 3.) but also less interest in the vocational
technical school.
in thousands
Figure 3. Growth of (school) population in Serbia
in the period since 2000. to 2005. according to
[17], p. 14.
Efficiency, by definition, is the ratio of output
and input, so in an effort of making the efficiency
of school as big as possible, greater or equal values
of the output as from the 1994/1998 survey should
be expected, especially because the inputs of the
survey in 2004/2008. compared to 1994/1998.
were slightly lower.
Output 1 was related to the percentage of
graduate students. This output is obtained as the
ratio of the number of graduate students of the base
generation and the total number of students of the
base generation. Table 19. shows that the largest
output in the 1994/1998 survey has school E, and it
is 88.51, while this output in the same period is the
lowest in school I, only 54.54. During this period,
the difference between the schools with the largest and schools with the lowest values of input 1 is
nearly 63%. When we analyze the state of output 1,
see Table 19, in the 2004/2008 survey a great analogy is noted. Namely, in this period also, school
E notes the largest and school I the smallest input.
Still, this time the difference between these schools,
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
technics technologies education management
in values of the output 1, is significantly higher and
it is over 88%. The question is: "Has the school
significantly improved by getting better students at
the high school enrollment or has it improved the
school mode by itself? Outside opportunities, but
also data from a few years ago, however, suggest
that the solution is in the way of work. In an effort to summarize the conclusions of the analysis
of output 1, in the 1994/1998 and 2004/2008. surveys, it is not difficult to conclude that in a certain
number of schools (B, D, H, I) there was a decrease
of the value of output 1, while that decrease is almost negligible. However, what is encouraging is
the fact that in schools that had a bad value of output 1 there was a significant success, primarily due
to actions and activities undertaken by the schools
themselves, which resulted in output generally being fixed by 5.68%.
Output 2 meant the number of graduate students. This output is the number of students who
have successfully completed the fourth year of high
school or who graduated, and thus were selected
to compete for admission to some of the faculties
in the Republic. When you look at the average of
this output for the observed schools, in these intervals is striking fact that there has been a noticeable
increase of this output by 5.33%. True, in some
schools this output convergence negative, e.g. in
school C, D, H and I, which is probably the consequence of the number of and classes and size of
school, and therefore the number of students completing their education. However, a great number of
schools records positive growth in output 2, in particular schools F, H and I. The reasons for this phenomenon are difficult to explicitly explain but the
possible causes are: the introduction of the experimental (interesting, profitable) classes in schools, a
wish list of students enrolled in secondary school,
the experiences of previous generations and so on.
It is interesting to see the response of this output
at the national level, and also the situation when it
comes to the accomplishment of students in high
school education areas.
In Figure 4. is recognizable step out in
2001/2002. in the three-year secondary schools, and
in 2002/2003. vocational schools. In 2001/2002.
compared to the previous school year, significantly
less students of three-year schools graduated (about
7.5 thousand), and 2002/2003. graduated signifiVolume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
cantly more students, although not as half as in the
previous case, four-year vocational school students
(about 3 thousand) compared to the previous school
year. This can be explained by the 1999/2000. enrollment, due to the bombing of Serbia in the spring
of 1999., being done without taking the qualifications exam, and the students massively opted for a
four-year schools, which some of them would not
be able to enroll if they took the test. The fact that
the above mentioned difference in the number of
graduate students for two consecutive years is half
less in four-year schools says that a certain number
of students enrolled in four-year vocational schools
(of those above mentioned 7.5 thousand) could not
without difficulties master the legitimate curriculums, so during the schooling they got diverted to
three-year schools. This is evident from the results
for 2002/2003., when the number of graduate students in three schools has increased by about 4.5
thousands compared to the previous school year. It
can be concluded that about 3 thousands students
from the observed population still managed to keep
up in four-year schools and complete them successfully, according to the number of graduates for
2002/2003.
♦ 3 – year vocational school ■ 4 – year vocational school ▲ gymnasium
Figure 4. Students who have completed high
school in Serbia during the period since 20002001. to 2004/2005., according to [17], p. 14.
If you look at how things stand in terms of
this output in the neighborhood, then the situation looks as in table 21. (see [17], p. 84.) From
Table 21. it can be concluded that the number of
students who have earned a diploma of secondary
school is much greater in Western Europe than in
the countries of the Balkans and Eastern Europe
countries. The reason for this phenomenon may
be a mismatch in the educational systems of these
countries.
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Table 21. Students with high school diplomas in
European countries since 2000. to 2004.
Source: According to [17], p. 46
Data for the output 2 generally do not vary significantly, and if certain deviations appear, they
are mainly a consequence of changes in population growth. However, this output is interesting
for the very high schools, in evaluating the results
achieved during the four years of education of a
generation of students, as it is for faculties that
these students are interest group to, i.e. potentially
as future freshmen.
The quality of student on the way out is directly related to the efficiency of schools. Namely,
high level of output 3 indicates that a large number of students successfully adopted the knowledge during schooling in parent school and so
eliminate or overcome certain shortcomings in
the eight-year schooling, where the crown of such
efforts and learning is successfully passed examination for admission to college. By comparative
analysis of this input in observed periods, in can
be concluded that it later study it was slightly bigger, specifically by 6.19%. In most schools there
is a noticeable increase in output 3, a fact which
is encouraging and points to a certain progress in
744
education in recent years. It would be difficult at
this moment to amount any reasons that have contributed to this phenomenon.
It might be best to repeat the process of the
efficiency assessment of observed schools in the
upcoming survey, and then conduct a comparative assessment of schools, but certainly there are
a few facts that could be potential causes of improving the quality of student on the way out, and
the most important among them are: increase in
the number of pilot classes in schools, divisions of
classes into smaller groups, so called group work,
financial assistance from the European Union to
schools, favorable developments in the economy,
and therefore higher income in education, better equipment of schools in the aesthetic sense
but also in terms of teaching materials and so on.
Values of output 3 in the previous (1994/1998.)
and subsequent research in 2004/2008. are presented in Table 19. There has been a slight trend
to increase this output, which is the ultimate goal,
when it comes to high schools.
6. Conclusion
The efficiency of operation of SHMTS has
not increased in the last ten years. Namely, in the
1994/1998. survey Technical school of Zeleznik
mainly was ineffective in all variants of inputs/outputs. However, in the 2004/2008 survey the number
of ineffective schools, with some variations of inputs/outputs, is much higher, indicating that the efficiency of SHMTS did not increase in this period.
The efficiency of operation of SHMTS either has
not increase due to increased levels of education and
training of teachers. Proportional number of employed (output 1) was increased in the last 10 years
by 30% as a result of the rationalization of schools
in the Republic, and relocation of a large number of
schools in Kosovo and Metohija, because of teachers in two or more schools and so on. The quality of
students at the entrance (input 2) in the period since
1994/1995. to 2004/2005. declined by 4.5%, which
means that students with poorer accomplishment
are now enrolled in mechanic schools. This entry
is a reflection of reduced interest for the work in
industry of Serbia (which is in crisis) but also work
and student achievement in elementary school. Unfortunately, the efficiency of SHMTS has not inVolume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
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creased even due to improved working conditions
and equipment in schools. Equipment of schools
(output 3) in the last decade has dramatically improved, and generally the values of these inputs
are now more balanced, because the schools that in
1994/1998. were in poor condition are now renovated and equipped with new educational materials, thanks to donations from the European Union,
local governments and so on, but it did not affect
the increase of SHMTS efficiency. On the contrary,
the number of inefficient schools in the survey in
2004/2005. is higher than in the 1994/1998. survey.
Analyzing the output: the percentage of graduate
students (output 1), the number of graduate students
(output 2) and the quality of students on the way
out (output 3) all, without exception, note increased
values in the last ten years. This is an indicator that
encourages and suggests better days in our school
system. Changes in any sphere of human activities
carry with them certain risks, but also enhancements
and improvements. Changes in the educational system are especially vulnerable, because any failures
in education are reflected with some delay, which
can be highly undesirable, because it takes some
time for trained staff to take their place in the economy and society of a country. A well known matter
is that the wealth of a nation, among other things, is
appreciated through the educational resources of a
country. Effort in the work was using DEA methods
to find solutions that would improve performance
and efficiency of secondary schools, both mechanical (and other vocational school) and gymnasium.
DEA method for inefficient units (schools) identifies exemplary units (schools) that would, with the
inputs/outputs of such school, be efficient. In order
to rank the observed schools, Andersen – Petersen’s
model was used.
Future researches should be focused on further
implementation of different modalities of DEA.
Conducted research for the relative efficiency assessment of Belgrade’s SHMTS gave results that
were, for objective reasons, limited. A key reason
is, of course, the incompleteness of the data relating to the quality of students at the entrance.
If there was a possibility to extend this datum to
information from a number of faculties, it is certain that the results would be heavier. In this context, perhaps a suggestion should be given to the
Ministry of Education where it would be priceless
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
for further researches to have more complete information on continuing education of students. In
that case, a precise assessment of equipment in
schools would have to be defined, and this would
ultimately contribute to the perception of the key
weaknesses of observed units (schools). Such
steps would enable the definition of measures that
would make inefficient schools become efficient,
and efficient school more efficiently. Research has
shown that a proportional number of staff at the
school is now more evenly distributed and that it
moves on average on the level of 18.17 students
per teacher. Unfortunately the students some wise
spoiled the achievements that come from elementary school to high school with, and the decline
was 4.5% on average, while the equipment of
schools is now more balanced. Almost all schools
in the sample, in about 10 years, were renovated
and equipped with teaching aids necessary for
quality teaching. The result of these efforts is that
the outputs in all the schools in the sample are increased on average by 6%.
However, the process of schooling does not end
with this, so remains the question and dilemma
of how the students who enrolled in college will
manage in the new environment. Encouraging fact
is that, during training in high school, they passed
the foreseen tests, exams, project assignments and
so on, and it is expected from a well trained and
ready graduates of high school students to successfully solve and master the tasks on a higher
level, too. How will our students be ready and prepared to master new knowledge and experiences
remains to be seen, and it just might be the subject
of new analysis of this problem in high vocational
schools and universities.
Acknowledgment
This issue forms part of the results of research
on project 179001 “Organizational and information
support to the quality management system as a key
factor in improving the competitiveness of domestic enterprises and ensuring their faster access to
EU and world markets” financed by the Ministry of
education and science, Republic of Serbia.
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References
1. Andersen, P., Petersen, N., (1993), A Procedure for
Ranking Efficient Units in Data Envelopment Analysis, Management Science, 39 (10), 1261-1264.
2. Banker, R., Charnes, A., Cooper, W., (1984), Some
Models for Estimating Technical and Scale Inefficiencies in Data Envelopment Analysis, Management
Science 30(9), 1078-1092.
3. Banker, R., Morey, R., (1986), Efficiency Analysis for
Exogeneously Fixed Inputs and Outputs, Oper. Res.
(USA) 34( 4), 513-521.
4. Banker, R., Morey, R., (1986), The Use of Categorical Variables in Data Envelopment Analysis, Manage. Sci. (USA) 32( 12), 1613-1627.
5. Charnes, A., Cooper, W., et al. (1990), Polyhedral
cone-ratio DEA models with an illustrative application
to large commercial banking, Journal of Econometrics.
6. Charnes, A., Cooper, W., Lewin, A., Seiford, L.,
(1995), Data Envelopment Analysis: Theory, Methodology and Applications, Kluwer
7. Charnes, A., Cooper, W., Divine, T., Ruefli, T., Thomas, D., (1989), Comparasion of DEA and Existing
Ratio and Regression Systems for Effecting Efficiency Evoluations of Regulated Electric Co., Research
in Non – Profit Accouting, 5187-5210.
8. Charnes, A., Cooper, W., Rhodes, L., (1978), Measuring the Efficiency of Decision Making Units, European Journal of Operational Research, 2 (6), 429-444.
9. Charnes, A., Cooper, W., Golany, B., Seiford, L.,
Stutz, J., (1985), Foundations of Data Envelopment
Analysis for Pareto – Koopmans Efficient Empirical
Production Functions, Journal of Econometrics, 30
(1/2), 91-107.
10. Charnes, A., Cooper, W., Seiford, L., Stutz, J., (1982),
A Multiplicative Model for Efficiency Analysis, Socio-Economic Planning Sciences 16(5), 223-224.
11. Cook, W., Kress, M., (1990), A Data Envelopment
Model for Aggregating Preference Rankings, Management Science 36( 11), 1302-1310.
12. Cooper, W., Tone, K., (1995), A Survey of Some Recent Developments in Data Envelopment Analysis,
Invicted lecture presented at EURO XIV Conference
Jerusalim, 149-166.
14. Dyson, R., Thanassoulis, E., (1988), Reducing
Weight Flexibility in Data Envelopment Analysis,
Journal of the Operational Research Society 39( 6),
563-576.
15. Fare, R., Grosskoph, S., Lowel, A., (1985), The
Measurement of Efficiency of Production, Kluwer
academic Publisher, Boston
16. Grujčić, Ž., (2001), Istraživanje efikasnosti neprofitnih organizacija primenom bazne DEA metode,
magistarski rad, Mašinski fakultet, Beograd
17. Juzbašić Kostić, B., (2006), Srednje obrazovanje
2000 – 2005, Statistički bilten, Ministarstvo prosvete i sporta, Beograd
18. Kamakura, W., (1988), A Note on 'the Use of Categorical Variables in Data Envelopment Analysis,
Management Science 34( 10), 1273-1276.
19. Martić, M., (1999), Analiza obavijenih podataka sa
primenama, doktorska disertacija, Fakultet organizacionih nauka, Beograd.
20. Moracanin, V., C. Besic, S. Dedic, M. Kljaic-Dervic, (2011), Competence education and training for
quality, TTEM 1/2011., pp. 35-39
21. Saric, I., N. Repcic, A. Muminovic, M. Colic,
(2010), External and internal evaluation of the
course „Computer-aided design“ at the Faculty of
Mechanical engineering Sarajevo, TTEM 4/2010,
pp. 867-874
22. Thompson, R., Russell G., Langemeier, L., ChihTah, L., Euntaik, L., Thrall, R., (1990), The Role of
Multiplier Bounds in Efficiency Analysis With Application to Kansas Farming, Journal of Econometrics, 4693-4708.
23. Wong, Y., Beasley, J., (1990), Restricting Weight
Flexibility in Data Envelopment Analysis, Journal
of the Operational Research Society 41( 9), 829835.
Corresponding Author
Janko M. Cvijanovic,
Megatrend University,
Belgrade,
Serbia,
E-mail: jcvijanovic@megatrend.edu.rs
13. Cvijanović, J., Dimitrijević, V., Grujčić, Ž., (2002),
Efikasnost neprofitnih organizacija, Ekonomski institut, Beograd.
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Foreign Investments in Banking System of
Serbia and Western Balkans Countries
Zaklina Spalevic1, Mirjana Knezevic2, Zeljko Bjelajac3
1
2
3
Faculty of Law for Economy end Justice, University Business Academy, Novi Sad, Serbia,
Faculty of Economics, University of Kragujevac, Kragujevac, Serbia,
Faculty of Law for Economy end Justice, University Business Academy, Novi Sad, Serbia.
Abstract
Banking system and banks in one country and
its economy are in close interrelation and defined
by structure and character of property, social and
political relations. Serbia, as the country that prefers membership in EU is involved in European
integrations, beyond other things, through process of harmonization domestic with EU regulations in banking area. Banking system of Serbia
is connected with financial flows in Europe. With
enactment of The law on banks are created prerequisites for application highly defined world standards into banking system of Serbia.
In Western Balkans countries, during past
several years, a great progress has been made in
banking system reforms, therefore in this paper
are demonstrated achieved results of the conducted reform, not only in Serbia, but also in Bosnia
and Herzegovina, Croatia and Slovenija. Author
in this paper endeavors to demonstrate the significance and goals of foreign investments in Serbian
banking system and Western Balkans countries,
stressing that in this phase of banking sector development in Serbia there is interest expressed by
strategic investors for taking over of the existing
banks, as well as for the establishment of new
ones, which will additionally improve the level of
competitiveness in Serbian banking system.
Key words: banking system, foreign investments, legal framework for foreign investments.
1. Introduction
Financial system is the reflection of wider institutional regime – economic system. It con. sists
of financial markets and financial institutions, financial flows and financial instruments. These
components of financial system enable transfer
of financial capital from economical units that are
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
incorporated into the system, towards economical
units that can use it optimally in certain conditions.
In such manner financial markets link economic
units that posses surpluses of financial resources
with those that lack the resources[1].
Financial market plays an important role in directing the capital movements towards end users,
i.e. investors, as well as in provision of validity
of data on economic units that participate on it.[2]
The successful work of financial institutions, and
therefore success of transitional process depends
on the development of financial instruments [3].
Banking in European Union as the part of or
specific form of international banking is defined
by numerous directives. In European Union, in
order to have high level of liberalization in the
flow of the capital, are defined rules that apply to
the overall European capital market. Transfer of
capital from one country to another can seriously
disturb financial situation in member states. European Union bodies bring in directives that have
the task to regulate transfer of capital within EU
boundaries, i.e. to abolish all restrictions for capital flows among individuals that are residents of
countries EU members [4].
Directive on unique financial services market in
European Union are enacted on January 1, 1993.
and is applicable to banks and other credit institutions and securities market. The real directive for
banks defines the conditions for establishment of
the bank, the freedom for providing services and
establishment of supervisory bodies [5]. According
to this Directive, banking sector of European Union
consists of the following types of banks: Commercial universal banks that perform business internationally; Depository and savings institutions;
Corporative cooperative mutually organized banks;
Specialized credit institutions, mortgage houses
and savings banks for building construction.
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Other Directive for banking regulates numerous questions in this area. It is defined the minimal
amount of founders’ capital of 5 million EURO,
and that only credit institutions can perform depository activities. License for banks in introduced
and it guaranteed to the banks the possibility to
establish branch offices in other countries in EU
and offering the services in them without special
additional conditions and licenses. Directive defines the control in doing business in the banks by
their home countries, with the obligation to divide
control function with bodies in branch office’s
country. Also are enacted numerous directives
on periodical balance of account, monitoring and
control of the great exposure of credit institutions,
performing surveillance over credit institutions on
consolidated basis [6], as well as directives that
regulate doing business with securities.
EU regulations in the banking area should secure the same treatment of all the transfers on the
capital market through the same exchange rates
and interest rates. Member states are obliged to
provide for liquidity of commercial banks via their
central banks, as well as to conduct restrictive
measures in freedom of capital flow when there is
the danger for continuance of serious disturbances
in monetary policy.
European banks have a good position on the
rank list of all world banks, but in international
banking business they lack behind banks from
USA and Japan [7].
Serbia as the country with aspirations to become the member of EU should be prepared in
advance and take those measures that are based on
non discriminatory principles, liberalization and
harmonization process. With the liberalization of
domestic capital market, Serbia would fulfill the
conditions for acceptance in EU. It is necessary to
take care about protection of national, our own interests and take those measures that can lead to the
improved financial position of Serbia and accentuate its advantages compared to financial markets
of EU members. In this direction is performed the
reform of financial system of Serbia, that reflected
to all the sectors that are part of the system, as well
as banking sector.
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2. Comparative legal review of banking
systems in Bosnia and Herzegovina,
Croatia and Serbia
Countries in Western Balkans gradually find
their way towards safer and more stable future
through process of joining EU. This reflects progress, although unequal, and regional cooperation.
They face numerous challenges that could have
far-reaching consequences on their safety, stability
and well being. For Serbia, Croatia and Bosnia and
Herzegovina, European Union remains key factor
of reforms and establishing structures necessary for
ensuring peace and prosperity. Legal and regulatory
reform in Western Balkans countries is prerequisite
for transformation of their legislative systems into
market oriented systems totally harmonized with
EU legislation. Creation of market oriented legal
and regulatory environment assumes existence of
high quality, modern, market oriented laws and
adequate institutional infrastructure necessary for
their conduct that will contribute to foreign direct
investments attraction into banking sector.
During the last several years, intensive legislative activity in Western Balkans country led to
preparation of significant number of adequate
laws. On the intensive legislative activity in all the
countries in the region significantly impacted: preliminary preparations for EU integrations, agreements reached with International monetary fund
and World bank, and signing of CEFTA agreement
on free trade in the region (2006). As the result
of these processes, some of the laws were significantly improved, but there are also significant deficiencies, like: unnecessary large number of regulations in some areas, and the lack of necessary
regulations in another, insufficient capacities for
preparation of complex legislative in ministries
and other administrative bodies and poor quality
of some new laws as the consequence of the fact
that they were prepared and enacted quickly and
without necessary support of the experts. Implementation of the law is far more serious problem
due to lack of or poor functioning of institutions
necessary for their implementation.
Bosnia and Herzegovina is country in transition with difficult legacy of war that burdens both
transitional process and process of economic development. Parallel with reconstruction process
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that was initiated after signing of peace agreement
in Dayton, Bosnia and Herzegovina (BH) enters
into phase of positive economic development and
economic stability with signing of Agreement on
stabilization and accession to EU. As the potential
membership candidate in EU BH wanted to reach
European standards as soon as possible and therefore took over the obligation to strengthen political, economical and institutional stabilization in
the country, with major reforms. Although BH is
not yet the member of World Trade Organization
(WTO), its activities related to imports and exports are largely adapted to the existing principles
of WTO. Except for reconstruction of economic
capacities BH finishes also reform process related
to legislative system and monetary policy, which
will additionally conditions for foreign investments. BH today has very stable and convertible
currency, fully related to EURO. BH currency,
convertible mark (KM) is one of the most stable
national currencies in South East Europe. Inflation
is minimal, thanks to the engagement of Currency
Board and relative strict fiscal policy.
Bosnia and Herzegovina today has stable and
market oriented banking system, whose legal regulation is based upon international standards of doing
business and surveillance system. Foreign investments represent one of the priorities of strengthening of BH economy, especially foreign investments in banking sector. Certain progress has been
reached in the area of fiscal and investment freedoms and freedom of work. In that sense, numerous
regulations were enacted. On liberalized market are
valid The law on central bank of Bosnia and Herzegovina [8], and sub legal regulations, Law on banks
[9], Law on foreign exchange business [10], Law
on agency for banking of BH Federation[11].
Before the enactment of these laws important
were several regulative: agreements, resolutions,
etc. The first regulative of Central bank of BH was
agreement for Dayton [12] that defined jurisdiction and responsibility of Central bank of BH for
conducting monetary policy. According to Dayton
agreement main defined authorization of Central
bank was issuing permits for doing business for
banks and banking surveillance. Banking system
on that time consisted of illiquid and insolvent
banks, banks in public ownership. Valid legislative was outdated and did not correspond to the
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
transition period of that time in which banking
system existed. Many initial resolutions initially
were enacted by Dayton agreement that regulated banking system at the level of BH and on the
level of the entity with defined goals for reorganization of banking sector. Banking system in that
period had certain specificities comparing to the
outstanding banking system in the surrounding:
governor of Central bank was not citizen of that
country, international community conducted surveillance over banking system, huge attachment
and large dependence of International monetary
fund, etc. In time was conducted the change in
ownership structure of banks, so that now they are
in private ownership. Current banking system in
BH is legally organized, harmonized with actual
legislative, which attracted foreign capital in the
country, as well as many foreign banks.
Depending upon economic and banking system actual in Serbia, Croatia and BH, activities of
Central bank are different to some extent. Law on
Central bank of Bh proscribes that Central bank
of BH could not award credits by issuing money,
and therefore acts as currency board. Goals and
main tasks of Central bank are achieving and
maintaining stability of domestic currency Convertible mark in such manner that issues domestic currency according to the arrangement known
as currency board, to define, adopts and control
monetary policy, to keep and monitors official
foreign exchange reserves of Central bank on safe
and profitable manner, etc. Within its jurisdiction
defined by this law, Central bank is totally independent from BH Federation, Serbian Republic
and every other public agency and organs, in order
to have objective execution of its tasks.
The latest alterations of the Law were brought in
2006. [13] which performed synchronization of positive regulation with the regulations of Constitution
of BH, related to monetary policy. Constitutional jurisdiction of Central bank of BH is enactment, adoption and revision of monetary policy of the country.
The basic alteration is related to extension of the period for selection of internal audit in order to modulate period of appointing the deputy of internal audit,
the regulation of the law is altered that defines the
minimal level of obligatory reserves, proposes the
alteration of the deadline for submitting quarterly
financial reports to government of BH.
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Besides alterations and amendments of the
Law on Central bank BH, important for banking system of the country is Law on foreign exchange business that defines for residents and non
residents for paying debts abroad can use foreign
currency, and domestic payments except for proscribed cases, are performed in convertible marks.
Liberalization of foreign exchange business in BH
with adoption of Law on foreign exchange business led to development of financial market, capital market, payments abroad, etc.
Law on banks defines establishment, operation, management, supervision and cessation of
legal entities that operate in accepting monetary
deposits and offering credits, and other operations
according to this law in BH Federation. Bank is
established and operates as stock company. No
one can in own behalf and for own benefit accept
or enable acceptance of monetary deposits, or
award credits on the Federation territory, if does
not have the permit from Agency for banking of
BH Federation. Minimal amount of stockholders
capital in banks money and the lowest amount of
net capital that bank must maintain, could not be
less than 15.000.000 of convertible marks [14].
Law on Agency for banking of BH Federation
establish Agency as independent non profit institution of BH Federation in order to improve safety,
quality and legal operations of market oriented
stable banking and micro credit system in the Federation. Basic tasks of Agency are issuing permits
for establishing and operating of bank, surveillance
over business of the bank and micro credit organizations, management or surveillance over the procedure of sanitation and liquidation of banks, initiation of bankruptcy procedure, adopting of sub legal
regulative that regulate operation of banks, etc. In
performing operations Agency is fully independent.
Agency cooperates with Central bank of BH including also obligation of submitting monthly reports
on its operations, performs international contacts
related to: issuing permits for business for banks
and micro credit organizations, surveillance over
banking operations and micro credit organizations,
gathering information on banks and micro credit
organizations and their activities on mutual basis.
Rights of foreign investors in BH are especially
protected and foreign investors are in their rights
equal with domestic. According to the regulations of
750
Law on policy and direct foreign investments [15],
foreign investors have the right to open account in
national or convertible currency in any commercial bank on the territory of BH, conversion of KM
into any other convertible currency as well as free
and undisturbed transfer abroad all the incomes
achieved by investments into BH in all convertible
currencies. Domestic and foreign persons have the
right to open banking accounts in foreign currencies in all authorized commercial banks, as well as
the right to dispose funds and withdraw them.
Without new foreign investments, BH for sure
could not fast enough develop infrastructure of the
land, significantly and faster increase industrial
production and employment nor develop other
sectors. Unlike BH, neighboring countries more
radically liberalized their business environment.
BH was characterized as the country of slow transitional pace towards higher economic freedoms.
One of the most important prerequisites for foreign investments attraction, as well as for overall
economic prosperity of the country is political
stability. Bosnia and Herzegovina has good conditions for conducting initiated reform in order to
reach membership status in EU [16].
Like in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia and
also in Croatia have outstanding are similar laws:
Law on credit institutions [17], Law on payments
in the country [18], Law on foreign exchange business [19], Law on financial inspectorate [20], Law
on financial conglomerates [21], Law on finalization of settlements in financial systems and systems for settling financial instruments [22], Law
on institutions for electronic money [23], Law on
Croatian bank for reconstruction and development
[24], Law on housing bonds and state incentives
for housing bonds [25], Law on credit unions [26],
Law on State agency for insuring savings deposits
and sanitation of banks [27], Law on insurance of
deposits [28], Law on preventing o money laundering and financing terrorism [29].
Law on National bank of Croatia [30], defines
status, position, goals, tasks of National bank of
Croatia, that is Croatian national bank with Republic of Croatia, credit institutions, international
institutions and organizations and bodies and institutions of EU, tasks and authorities of Croatian
national bank since the date of the admittance of
Republic of Croatia in EU, as well as after introVolume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
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duction of EUR as official currency in Republic
of Croatia. National bank of Croatia is central
bank of Republic of Croatia, whose task is to define and conduct monetary and foreign currency
policy. It is independent in its jurisdiction in operations of issuing and requisition of approval
and consent according to laws that define credit
institutions operations, credit unions, institutions
for payments, performing operations of supervision and surveillance according to laws that define
credit institutions operations, credit unions, payments institutions, account maintenance of credit
institutions and performing payments operations
on those accounts, awarding credits to credit institutions and admitting in deposit credit institution funds. Credit institution with headquarter in
Republic of Croatia is legal entity that has the permit issued by National bank of Croatia and is established as stock company. It can be founded as:
bank, savings bank, housing savings institution or
institution for electronic money. Basic capital of
the bank is at least 40 RC kuna, savings bank at
least 8 RC kuna, and housing savings institutions
at least 20 million kuna.
Foreign direct investments in Croatia, according to the data from National bank of Croatia were
24,47 billion EURO between 1993. and 2010.
When they decide where to invest, foreign investors estimate several aspects of the country. One of
the basic is market size. Both Croatia and Bosnia
(as well as Serbia without Kosovo) have market of
around 4-5 million inhabitants, although of different purchasing power. Markets of these sizes are
not attractive in order for big companies to focus
their strategies on them. Such markets although not
for negligence; do not provide for location of huge
production capacities that would have regional or
wider dimension. All this repels foreign investors
because it narrows business area and increase risks.
In Croatia over 90% of assets now is owned by
non domestic owners. Croatia with their vivid legislative activity contributed to creation of favorable climate for foreign investments into banking
sector. Foreign banks came and bought Croatian
banks in Croatia according to Croatian regulations. Foreign banks in Croatia funded banks that
only by their name and owners were foreign, but
these are Croatian banks according to their legal
status, registered by Croatian legislative, operVolume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
ate according to Croatian laws, and pay taxes in
Croatia. Therefore, these are Croatian economic
entities. It was expected that these banks would
immediately decrease interest rates, which was
unrealistic expectation because also these foreign
banks behave according to the rules of markets on
which they operate. The rules of the market of this
under developed market enable them to have big
interest rates on loans. In Croatia, Serbia, and in
BH risks on placements are very high, possibility
for remuneration is very uncertain, and therefore
each bank as well as foreign ones, calculate, in the
costs of its money, the good that sells, and that risk
of uncertainty to cash the claims. These are reasons why interest rates are high and they would
still be high. But foreign banks in Croatia initiated
development of technology and many branch of
economy (industry, tourism, agriculture).
Although Serbia currently faces large political
and economic challenges, it has key role in the
region from economical and political standpoint.
Serbia is an important factor of the stability of the
region that would have benefit from stable and
prosperous Serbia fully integrated into family of
Europe nations. Regional cooperation and good
neighboring relations are more important then
ever in order to Serbia and the region as a whole
could go towards EU.
Process of reform of banks and liberalization of
interest rates led to important progress of Serbia
in this segment. In the beginning of 2002, the four
major public banks were closed down. Banking
system in Serbia is dominantly in private ownership, and mostly foreign banks own it. All banks
in Serbia are founded as separate legal entities
with healthy balances that were not burdened by
bad loans. Due to restrictive monetary policy of
National bank of Serbia, banks in Serbia are additionally capitalized and the participation of the
capital in overall assets is 24% which is very high
compared to standard 8%. In Serbia there are currently 33 banks, where 10 biggest participate in
business assets with 70%, then 8 branches of foreign banks registered according to the law that defines registration of economic entities, according
to the consent of National bank of Serbia [31].
Region of Western Balkans was transformed
during last several years. Situation in BH, Croatia
and Serbia is not the same, and in all countries in
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technics technologies education management
the region are raised very big expectations from
foreign investments. Exception is Slovenia that
went one step ahead comparing to Croatia, BH
and Serbia. It is the only country member of EU in
the region and on the first place according to the
size of the assets of banking sector, as well as per
average assets per capita. Slovenian banking market is despite of economic crisis and weakening of
economic activities in the region kept the growth
of overall assets and profitability so that banking
system of Slovenia is stable. Economic progress
continues, inflation rate decreases, and is achieved
certain political stability.
Besides for great progress in banking system
reforms that operates on health grounds with high
profit, in all the countries of western Balkans is
significant problem of high interest rates [32]. It
is a great question whether regarding interest rates
something could be done in the situation of global
financial crisis. Ratio between banking assets towards gross domestic progress was near 50% in
most of the countries, 94% in BH, and even 121%
in Croatia. In the last two years occurred great
expansion of banking on account of foreign debt,
not only on domestic depository base. In all the
countries in the region banking sector is prevalently in foreign ownership, therefore banks became
investment banks with all the deficiencies of investment banking in the world. Interest margin in
regional banks is still pretty high which gives the
foundation for profitable business, due to greater
risk and less market competition compared to developed countries.
Limitation factors for strengthening of foreign
investments in countries in the region of western
Balkans represent lack of strong management
institutions; weak rule of legislative and partial
reforms, therefore foreign investments could be
achieved only in the conditions of political stability, clear property rights and contracts protected
by the law.
3. The reform of domestic banking system
Serbia is still the country in transition, although
this process started twenty years ago. Universal
changes, in the sense that all areas and branches
of the law are covered by changes, in this moment
show that these are changes of overall legal sys752
tem and not the changes in legal system. The main
reason for the inflow of foreign investments into
banking system of Serbia was its reform, whose
process we could look through the reform in property structure.
The reform of banking system started at the
end of 2005. with the enactment of The law on
banks [33] and other relevant sub legal acts. Law
on banks was enacted on December 10, 2005. and
was in application since October 1, 2006. Serbia accepted European standards and harmonized its legislative that regulate this area with EU countries. It
was created legislative framework for operations of
banks based on international practice. Solutions in
the law are prepared according to the models present in the legislative of developed European countries, having in mind certain requirements stated in
EU Directives regarding banking [34].
The law on banks and solutions of the questions of control over establishment and doing
business of the banks is responded to the requests
of harmonization process of our legislative in the
banking area with the rules and legal solutions that
adopt comparative legislatives with the respect of
legislative of EU [35].
The foundation for the development of banking system of Serbia is new legislative and alteration of the regulations that regulates business of
companies and banks. Banking system of Serbia
in the beginning of the reforms demonstrated the
effects of social and economic status of Serbia in
1990 s. The reasons for insufficient development
of banking sector were numerous: low standard of
living of the citizens, unfavorable economic situation, clients did not have enough knowledge about
bank’s products, unfamiliarity with market conditions for doing business, etc [36].
National bank of Serbia was the leader of the
reforms, with the role of severe surveillance and
control over establishment and operating of the
banks [37]. In the cases defined by the law it can
take away the license for operating from commercial bank. The necessity for such control is obvious from several reasons, and above all due to the
nature of the activity, protection of the interests of
the users, prevention from unfair competition in
this field, provision and protection of general interests in operating, important for the protection
and safety of individuals and the property.
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technics technologies education management
With the creation of appropriate legislative
framework and with successfully conducted reform of banking system, Serbian market becomes
interesting for foreign banks. Renewed banking
system became attractive for foreign banks investments that contributed to the development of
new banking products with the entrance to Serbian
market; they improved the quality of channels of
distribution, increased the quality of service and
introduced health competition, better information
for the users and strengthened the trust.
Strengthened competition in banking sector
and achieved economic stability provided financial support also for the economic entities; interest
rates were reduced, banking costs decreased, large
number of people were employed in banking sector, trust of clients was regained and credits were in
expansion [38]. Loans of the banks with longer maturity, offered to the citizens the possibility to solve
problems of housing, and to the economic sector is
enabled to be more active because it had the access
to the more favorable sources of capital. The country’s credit rating was improved, which led to direct foreign investments into banks. With the introduction of shareholding into property structure of
economic entities, were created the conditions for
speeding up privatization process of stated owned
banks. Harmonized legislative, increased census
for the establishment of the bank, re-directing financial transaction towards banks with the leading
role of National bank of Serbia, all contributed to
the regained trust among citizens.
Serbia established a modern and stabile banking sector with the changes in property structure,
which was necessary, but not the sufficient prerequisite for the reform of banking sector. Strengthening of the banking sector and increased inflow of
the savings deposits, motivated foreign investors
that introduced new technologies and new banking products [39].
4. The role of National bank of Serbia in attracting foreign direct investments
According to the Law on banks, the regulations
of this law as well as The decision on closer conditions and procedure for giving and taking over the
concord for opening the branch office and branches of the bank abroad are applied to the branch
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
offices and branches of the banks in foreign countries [40].
According to the law National bank is authorized for issuing licenses for operations and surveillance over banks, enacting the law, definition
of standards of prudency, protection of stability
and integrity of banking and payment system of
the country. It enables the domestic banks to enter
foreign market, as well as provides the inflow of
foreign capital.
Operation abroad the bank can perform only if it
receives special authorization from National bank
of Serbia, according to the new Decision on conditions for giving authorizations to the banks for doing
business abroad, and the conditions for taking over
this authorization [41]. This act, enacted on January
19, 2007. in compare to the previous act [42], liberalized the conditions for giving the authorization,
because it did not define that the foreign exchange
reserves on the accounts of the banks are at least 6
million EURO or the same amount in some other
convertible currency. National bank of Serbia can
take away the authorization for operations with foreign countries from the bank that does not comply
with the conditions given in this act.
Thanks to National bank of Serbia, due to its restrictive policy, regarding solvency and also liquidity, with the measures of supervision and monetary
policy, banking sector in Serbia was very well prepared for strikes of world financial crisis.
Banks that operate in Serbia were not hit by
global financial crisis in the same manner like
their headquarters. Our banks are highly capitalized, and the control from National bank of Serbia is very rigorous and conservative. Republic of
Serbia guarantees for all the deposits up to 50.000
EURO, with the aim to protect deposits and savings of the citizens. On the other hand, the rate of
required reserve that commercial banks must deposit at the National bank of Serbia on savings deposits of the citizens is 40%. In case of bankruptcy
of the foreign bank in Serbia, clients would not
suffer damage. Only shareholders would suffer
the loss. In the most drastic case, when the bank
would suffer from overall fiasco, savings would
be protected, that is returned, because the state
guarantees for it, but in the same time approved
credits would not be written off, but they would
have to be paid off to the new owner.
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technics technologies education management
Nevertheless, the banking system is full of
challenges, and new tasks are in front of it in the
future. National bank of Serbia is opened to issue licenses for credible financial institutions in
the future. Market capacity is satisfactory, above
all for those that want to take over some institution. State of Serbia should consolidate its share in
ownership in the remaining part of banking sector
and, depending of market conditions, transform
its share into private ownership. It is expected that
the shares of the state in some banks are privatized. There is the interest expressed by strategic
investors for taking over the existing banks, and
also for the establishment of new institutions according to Greenfield licenses. It would additionally for sure increase the level of competitiveness
of Serbian banking market, which is in fact one of
the key goals of National bank of Serbia. At the
same time, this process will contribute that citizens of Serbia have available wider range and better quality of banking services.
5. Legal framework for foreign investments
Foreign investments due to their complex nature
are not only legal, but also economical category.
According to the prevalent understanding in legal
theory, foreign investments cover transfer of funds
or material from one country (exporter) into another country (country host) in exchange for direct or
indirect participation in incomes of this company
[43]. International movement of investments involves except for movement of monetary capital
also transfer of fixed and non fixed assets from one
country to another in order to be used in order to
create wealth with overall and partial control of the
investors [44]. Mentioned EU Directive defines the
following terms: direct foreign investments, long
term credits, investments into fixed assets, access
to capital and financial markets, guarantees on the
capital markets, provided domestic and foreign
funds and other financial instruments, bonds, collective investment companies, securities, financial
loans, residential and non residential, financial institutions and credit institutions.
Depending on the criteria, foreign investments
can be divided into direct investments or foreign
direct investments, portfolio investments and
mixed forms or contracted joint ventures [45].
754
The main forms of foreign investments according to our positive legislative are investments in
which foreign investor according to the contract
on joint venture gains share or stocks in domestic
company and establishment of the new independent company or with domestic and other foreign
investors [46]. As the special forms of foreign investments, our legal system defines concessions
and BOT arrangements [47].
Foreign direct investments that have crucial
role in economic development and therefore in
development of banking system in Serbia, are less
than in neighboring countries: Romania, Bulgaria, Czech Republic and Hungary. Although such
investments are of key importance because they
have positive impact over production growth,
export growth and increase in employment, and
technological development, in Serbia is continual
trend of small investments in foreign currency
from abroad [48]. Direct investments are defined
as the type of investments in certain company that
lead to ownership control over it. Direct investments are the riskiest form of international capital
transfer, but beyond it they are in extreme development and expansion. It is probably the logics
of well known business motto that bigger risk involves bigger profit. This profit can be achieved in
various forms, and therefore are many motives for
direct foreign investments.
Foreign companies that already entered our
market formed Foreign investors council in order
to improve business climate and initiate communication between foreign investors, government
of Serbia and international community. Therefore
they have published so called White book where
are, beyond other things listed main obstacles
for foreign investments. In Serbia previously the
main obstacle for foreign investors was political
risk, while now there are legal insecurity, incoherent laws, legal practice, complicated administration etc. Universal character of changes in Serbia
in the sense that all legal system an all branches of
the law are overcome with changes at this moment
indicates that these are the changes of the overall legal system, and not the changes within legal
system. Having in mind that there is no area without new regulations, it is totally understandable
(although not totally acceptable) the existence of
certain incompleteness and contradictions in the
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existing judicial system. Many laws are mutually
incoherent. The problem was moving from the
need to enact them, up to the contemporary question and impossibility to implement them.
In order that judicial system functions well, it
is necessary to have cohesion the parts with the
whole system, as well as cohesion among parts
themselves that is it is necessary to have compliance between laws and other legislative with the
Constitution, and the laws themselves should be
coordinated among them. Huge legislative exists
in the sphere of property relations. Property concept is complex, rather unclear and legally disorganized. Reasons for such condition are numerous.
Some of these reasons are: there is no adequate,
applicable and coherent legislative, wrong approach to the legal definition of certain questions
in this field (privatization process and denationalization process are wrongly regulated in the sense
of the sequence of their regulation), changing of
some concept, etc.
Property concept is complex, rather unclear
and legally undefined. The Constitution enacted
in 1990. within property concept retains, secures
and equally protects: public, state, private and collective property. Public (social) property as the
form of property ceases to exist, and as its successor and in the dominant role is private property,
wrapped up and transformed through privatization
process. Transformation of public property into
other forms of property was performed in short
period of time with the application of numerous
legal and sublegal regulations. The model of state
ownership in Serbia was defined by the law from
1995. in which all the public property was transferred to the state [49]. This law affirms and gives
dominant role to state property that is the basis for
property monopoly. Therefore, it becomes the so
called brake of the decentralization as the actual
direction for growth, not only in our country, but
also abroad. Decentralization is possible only with
the demolition of the existing property monopoly.
Constitution of Republic of Serbia [50] enacted in 2006. secures private, collective and public
property and guarantees their equality and equal
protection. Public property is state owned property,
property of autonomous province and property of
local government units. The existing public – social
property is transformed into private property under
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
conditions, in the manner and within deadlines defined by the law [51]. Constitution enacted on 2006.
defines public property as the new property form,
because legislative up to now did not recognize the
category of public property, nor this form was defined by positive legislative. Further legal elaboration is yet to be expected through The law on public
property, whose task is to apply regulations from
the Constitution to the change in property concept.
Privatization process and the process of denationalization, although they are two sides of the
same process in domestic legislative were ongoing
separately with different legislative. We think that
it is necessary to equalize, harmonize and timely
well divide organization and definition of these two
questions [52]. Privatization leads to the change in
the property structure relations and according to the
current progress privatization should be conducted
first, and then to approach to the conducting of denationalization. This means that the state sells at the
same time the capital and assets of companies and
capital and assets of previous owners that yet were
not returned to them. The problem is everything
that is within the area of construction of judicial
state and what has to be done in order for foreign
investors to come to Serbia.
Legal safety and more stable financial market
will also bring in bigger investments.
6. The prospective of foreign investments
into Serbian banking system
Besides all the difficulties that follow it, Serbia is
very interesting for foreign investors due to big economic potentials and quality and low costs of labor
force. Improved credit rating of the country leads to
the increase in already significant net foreign investments in the banks. Experience until now and growing interest of Greenfield investors indicate to the
importance of restructuring of banks and strengthening of surveillance and regulatory function of National bank of Serbia for attracting of foreign investments and transformation of banking sector. Foreign
investments directly influence over financing of
trade deficit that is balance of current payments and
improvement of the balance of payments.
In order to have more and more of foreign capital in investments intended for specific purposes in
Serbia it is necessary to have new legislative frame755
technics technologies education management
work in the area of foreign investments. Except for
that, it is necessary to have simplified procedure
regarding establishment, to decrease public expenditures, but also to accelerate privatization process
and denationalization process as well, in order to increase the trust of foreign investors. Primary conditions for foreign investments are: national treatment
of the investment, impossibility for expropriation
and nationalization of the property, free transfer of
profit, dividends, ownership over real estates, local
or international arbitrage in cases of disputes, possibility to employ foreign citizens etc.
Positive side of foreign investments in domestic
banks is that domestic banks are faced with large
competition from foreign banks and are forced to
increase their efficiency in order to become competitive on the market. There is the negative trend
of increased debts of the citizens at the banks and
big interest rates and inflation [53].
Besides the adequate legislative privileges, it is
also necessary bigger engagement on the plan of
foreign policy and access to international organizations, bilateral and multilateral agreements that
provide safer surrounding for foreign investors.
7. Conclusion
Banking system is the constituent part of economic system and economics of national economy
and enables its functioning by transferring investments with instruments of financial market and
financial institutions. Relationship between banking system and economy is cohesive relationship.
The most of banking sector of Serbia today is already in European Union, because it is owned in
majority by foreign strategic investors from EU
countries. Enactment of the Law on banks in Serbia created legislative framework for bank operations, based on international practice.
The reform of banking system in Serbia led by
National bank of Serbia is been carried out. Newly
created business climate on the reformed Serbian
market brought in large banks and their representatives. Nevertheless, challenges and obstacles in this
sector are still present. One of them is political insecurity in the country, and other is legislative framework for doing business of the foreign investors.
We think that it is necessary to allow issuing
of stocks in foreign currency, to remove too big
756
obstacles to transactions on secondary market of
short term securities, and to improve the procedure of intervention of National bank of Serbia
on foreign currency market. Republic of Serbia
should clearly define its further strategy for majority and minority participation in some of the
banks. The way and frequency of additional capitalizations, as well as the level of capital adequacy
of some of the banks confirm that some individuals that became owners of some of the banks are
exclusively interested in quick increase in market
prices of stocks and their fast re-selling, in hope
for lucrative profit.
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16. Favorable geographic position; highly qualified
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Corresponding Author
Zaklina Spalevic,
Faculty of Law for Economy end Justice,
University Business Academy,
Novi Sad,
Serbia,
E-mail: zaklinaspalevic@ymail.com
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technics technologies education management
ICT knowledge and skills of Croatian polytechnic
students
Darko Dukic1, Goran Kozina2
1
Department of Physics, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, Croatia,
2
Polytechnic in Varaždin, Croatia.
Abstract
Within a short period of time, information and
communication technologies (ICTs) have profoundly changed society, making their impact noticeable in virtually all aspects of everyday life.
ICTs are today viewed as essential tools that one
has to master in order to fully participate in the
information society. The aim of this paper was
to establish which ICT knowledge and skills are
present among Croatian polytechnic students, as
well as the level of ICT equipment available to
them. In this way we tried to examine the extent to
which students are prepared for the use of modern
technologies in the learning and teaching process,
as their implementation in higher education is part
of the strategic documents of the Republic of Croatia. Our research included 767 students enrolled
in five Croatian polytechnics. The obtained results
showed a good level of equipment, whereas the
level of ICT skills can be seen as partially satisfactory (when interpreting the results it should be
kept in mind that the survey was based on selfassessment). Within the analysis, inferential statistics methods were used to establish the significance of differences in ICT competencies with
regard to defined features (gender, year of study
and professional field of study).
Key words: ICTs, knowledge and skills, level
of equipment, polytechnic students
1. Introduction
Over the past few decades, information and
communication technologies (ICTs) have transformed the world. In modern society, they are
without a doubt the main driving force in all aspects of human activities. This influence has led
Noble [1] to conclude that ICTs are the most
powerful new tool for global social action today,
whereas for De Ferranti, Perry, Gill et al. [2] ICTs
758
are the key elements that accelerate the transition
of knowledge. Modern technologies exert a particular impact on the economy, which is of threefold
character. The first is the result of using ICTs in
different business functions. The second is manifested through investments in ICTs that contribute
directly to economic growth and development.
The third impact is related to the activities of the
sector that produces ICT goods and services, with
an increasing share in the global economy.
ICTs represent an essential tool of the information society. Christiansson [3] defines ICTs as the
technology to handle information from its capture,
storage, manipulation and transfer, to delivery
through different media on all functional levels. For
Ritchie and Brindley [4] ICT is a generic term used
to encapsulate the diverse range of technological
developments (e.g., computer storage and retrieval,
computing capacity, wired communications, wireless communications, portable technologies) that
have enhanced the internal and external activities of
organizations. These authors feel that the manner in
which these strands of technological development
have been integrated to provide greater synergy is
especially important. According to Bekkers, Fenger
and Korteland [5] ICTs are a set of tools that offer
new methods of service delivery, communication,
and information sharing, which, in turn, enables
new forms of collaboration, and improves access to
and organization of information.
ICT knowledge and skills are today viewed as
essential competencies. They are required if a person is to take an active role in the information society, which bases its development on technological
advances. A special responsibility in the process
of acquiring ICT knowledge and skills lies with
educational institutions. To prepare young generations for life and work in technologically advancing environments, they not only need to implement
ICTs, but also to adequately train the teachers. All
the strategic documents of the Republic of Croatia
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technics technologies education management
state that the country's educational system should
be transformed so that it can rise to the challenges
of the information society. As a result, technology
enhanced learning is increasingly present throughout Croatian educational institutions.
This paper presents the results of research
whose aim was to establish which ICT competencies are present among Croatian polytechnic students, and what level of ICT equipment is available to them. Our intention was to investigate the
extent to which students are prepared for the use
of modern technologies in the teaching and learning process, i.e. for participation in the knowledge
distribution project. The significance of the paper
lies in the fact that these issues have not been adequately analyzed in the Republic of Croatia, particularly with regard to polytechnic students.
2. Students and ICTs: a brief overview of
research to date
The technological progress and use of stateof-the-art devices in the education process, especially in the past decade, have stirred the interest
of researchers and experts in different aspects of
students' relationships with ICTs. Some published
work resulting from this interest focused on ICT
equipment levels and student competencies.
The results of research by Cuckle, Clarke and
Jenkins [6], published in 2000, indicated that Postgraduate Certificate of Education students in the
United Kingdom had a wide range of ICT skills
at the start of their course. Much of this experience had been gained during their undergraduate
studies or at home. Students also had considerable
enthusiasm for acquiring new competencies, but
they were not always able to transfer their skills
for use in the classroom. The authors found significant differences in ICT use between students
studying different subjects. The availability of
ICT facilities in schools also affected use of ICTs.
In the paper published in 2001, Lim and Kendle
[7] report on surveys of the IT skills of Australian
undergraduate students. The authors found that most
students had some reasonable computer skills at the
start of their university studies, but the level of skill
was not uniformly high. According to this research,
many IT literate students lacked a sufficient level of
skill to use the new technologies, particularly webVolume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
based flexible learning. Lim and Kendle pointed out
an urgent need for IT training for university students
in order to achieve successful learning outcomes
and to satisfy the needs of future employers.
The paper published in 2004 by Haywood, Haywood, Macleod, et al. [8] presents research in which
the authors gathered information from 13,000 students at seven European universities about their
skills with various ICT applications, their approaches to training and support, and their views about the
importance of ICTs. The authors concluded that the
majority of students had adequate ICT skills for the
needs of their university curricula and for employment across Europe. The research found that a minority of students were less well-equipped, and that
differences between male and female students and
those studying different subjects were small.
The research by Usluel [9], published in 2007,
aimed to examine whether the information literacy
of students in departments of primary education in
Turkish universities varies according to their ICT
usage level, the duration of ICTs experience, gender, and grade. Their results showed that level and
duration of ICT usage were determining factors
for information literacy. In addition, significant
differences among grades show that training during university education has an important role in
increasing information literacy.
In their paper from 2009 Hanson-Baldauf and
Hughes Hassell [10] explored the perceived ICT
competencies of American students enrolled in
school library certification programs. The authors conclude that the integrative use of ICTs
should be incorporated in school library certification programs.
The aim of Wilkinson, Roberts and While [11]
was to develop and validate an instrument designed
to measure nursing students’ reported skills and
experience with ICTs; confidence with computers
and the Internet; attitude to computers; and attitude
to ICTs for education. In their paper published in
2010, the authors emphasize that in order to design and develop high quality flexible and distance
learning resources, it is important to understand
how healthcare students’ ICT skills are developing
and how they view and adopt technology enhanced
learning. Wilkinson, Roberts and While conclude
that additional re-validation of their instrument is
needed using larger samples across the UK.
759
technics technologies education management
Hew and Leong [12] published a paper in 2011,
in which they attempted to fill in the gap of lack of
information pertaining to Malaysian students’ ICT
competencies. The research indicated that there
are no significant gender differences in terms of
word processing, presentation, spreadsheet, World
Wide Web, email, database, social networking and
utility competency among students. It was found
that there is a significant difference in terms of
PC maintenance competency, but no significant
gender differences were established in terms of
computer usage and computer experience. The research also revealed that English proficiency has
a positive correlation with the ICT competencies.
Our paper is marginally related to the research
of ICT usage by university students in Scotland
and Croatia, the results of which were published in
2010 by Penny, Dukić and Dukić [13]. However,
due to the different content of the questionnaires
and time discrepancy, these two papers, and the
other above mentioned studies cannot be compared, except in very general terms.
3. Methods and participants
A special instrument was developed for the needs
of our study. The data were collected in an anonymous survey, with students from five Croatian polytechnics (the respective Polytechnics in Varaždin,
Slavonski Brod, Karlovac, Šibenik and the Marko
Marulić Polytechnic in Knin) as respondents.
The data were analyzed by descriptive and inferential statistics methods. Descriptive statistics
methods were applied to describe the basic features of the data collected in the study, whereas
statistical significance of differences between
defined groups was investigated by the KruskalWallis and Mann-Whitney test [14, 15, 16]. We set
the statistical significance level at p<0.05.
Female students outnumbered male students in
our sample. Almost two thirds of the surveyed students were enrolled in the first year, whereas only
18 third-year students participated in the survey.
Because of this relatively low number, third-year
students were added to those in their second year
for the purposes of our analysis. Regarding the professional field of studies, students were divided into
four groups. Taking this criterion into account, the
largest number of respondents were students of so760
cial and technical studies, whereas students of biotechnical studies were the smallest group.
Table 1. Distribution of students according to
chosen characteristics
Characteristic
Gender
Male
Female
Year of study
First
Second
Third
Field of study
Technical studies
Biomedicine and
health care studies
Biotechnical studies
Social studies
Number of
respondents
Percentage
351
416
45.76
54.24
503
246
18
65.58
32.07
2.35
273
35.59
116
15.12
89
289
11.60
37.68
4. Level of ICTs equipment
Several items in the questionnaire referred to
the level of ICT equipment. Table 2 shows the
distribution of students in terms of whether they
own a computer, and the type of computer they
predominantly use.
Table 2. Student distribution according to possession and type of computer
Computer
Yes
No
Total
Type of computer
Desktop
Portable
Total
Number of
respondents
Percentage
760
7
767
99.09
0.91
100.00
378
382
760
49.74
50.26
100.00
The results of our research indicate that Croatian polytechnic students are well equipped in
terms of ICTs. Out of the 767 students included in
the survey, 760 (99.09%) stated that they owned
a computer. The shares of desktop and portable
computers were almost equal. In view of the current trends it can be safely assumed that the share
of portable computers will continue to increase
significantly.
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
technics technologies education management
Table 3. Student distribution according to Internet
access and its type
Number of
respondents
Percentage
746
21
767
97.26
2.74
100.00
13
588
97
48
746
1.74
78.82
13.00
6.43
100.00
Internet access
Yes
No
Total
Type of access
Dial-up
ADSL
WLAN
Mobile Internet
Total
The results for Internet access are quite satisfactory as well. Out of the 767 surveyed polytechnic students, 746 (97.26%) stated that they had
this facility. For the most part, our respondents
have broadband access, but it should be noted that
the survey did not collect data on the speed of Internet access.
The highest average grade was given by students for their skills in using Internet browsers,
followed by skills in using e-mail. These were the
only two variables where the median reached 5. A
higher than 4 average score was calculated for word
processing skills and presentation design. Not unexpectedly, students gave the lowest average grades
to their knowledge and skills in using statistical and
mathematical packages, designing web sites and
programming. On the basis of the calculated coefficients of variation it can be concluded that the analyzed variables are for the most part characterized
by wide data dispersion. The narrowest dispersion
was determined for those features where the highest
average values were obtained.
5. ICT knowledge and skills
The research of the level of ICT knowledge
and skills was based on the self-assessment of the
surveyed students. The respondents were asked
to evaluate their competencies on a Likert scale
consisting of five grades, ranging from 1 (insufficient) to 5 (excellent). Table 4 shows descriptive
statistics calculated for the analyzed ICT knowledge and skills.
Figure 1. ICT knowledge and skills (means)
In order to investigate the significance of gender differences in ICT competencies the MannWhitney test was applied.
Table 4. Descriptive statistics for the analyzed ICT knowledge and skills
ICT knowledge / skill
Word processing
Presentations
Spreadsheets
Internet browsers
E-mail
Graphics
Statistical packages
Mathematical packages
Multi-media
Databases
Programming
Designing web sites
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
Mean
4.28
4.16
3.32
4.54
4.48
3.17
1.90
1.84
3.13
2.37
2.06
1.93
Median
4.00
4.00
3.00
5.00
5.00
3.00
2.00
2.00
3.00
2.00
2.00
1.00
Standard deviation
0.79
0.90
1.11
0.79
0.85
1.26
1.00
1.02
1.33
1.13
1.16
1.21
Coefficient of variation
18.51
21.57
33.45
17.33
19.03
39.78
52.33
55.29
42.31
47.56
56.50
62.35
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technics technologies education management
Table 5. Descriptive statistics and results of the Mann-Whitney test referring to ICT knowledge and
skills for male and female students
ICT knowledge / skill
Word processing
Presentations
Spreadsheets
Web browsers
E-mail
Graphics
Statistical packages
Mathematical packages
Multi-media
Databases
Programming
Designing web sites
Male
Mean
4.26
4.11
3.50
4.61
4.43
3.25
1.95
2.09
3.19
2.46
2.34
2.25
Median
4.00
4.00
4.00
5.00
5.00
3.00
2.00
2.00
3.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
The only three ICT skills where higher means
were calculated for female students were word
processing, designing presentations and using email. According to the results of the Mann-Whitney test, the following differences between male
and female students were statistically significant:
presentation design, working with spreadsheets,
using mathematical packages, using databases,
programming and web site design. Therefore, on
the basis of self-assessment it can be concluded
that male students generally have better ICT competencies than their female counterparts. In view
of the fact that the male population still seems to
be more enthusiastic about different ICT achievements, this result was also expected.
Female
Mean
4.30
4.20
3.17
4.48
4.52
3.11
1.87
1.63
3.09
2.28
1.82
1.67
Median
4.00
4.00
3.00
5.00
5.00
3.00
2.00
1.00
3.00
2.00
1.00
1.00
Mann-Whitney test
Z
-1.381
-2.160
3.939
1.420
-1.089
1.598
1.038
5.912
0.995
2.319
6.016
6.714
P
0.167
0.031
0.000
0.156
0.276
0.110
0.299
0.000
0.320
0.020
0.000
0.000
The Mann-Whitney test was also used to investigate the significance of differences between firstyear students and those enrolled in the second and
third year.
In all cases, higher means were calculated for
second- and third-year students in comparison to
first-year students. The results of the Mann-Whitney test indicate that all the analyzed differences in
ICT knowledge and skills are statistically significant, which leads to the conclusion that courses of
study at polytechnics contribute to the improved
ICT competencies of enrolled students.
The Kruskal-Wallis test was used to examine
the significance of differences in ICT knowledge
and skills related to the professional field of study.
Table 6. Descriptive statistics and results of the Mann-Whitney test referring to ICT knowledge and
skills for first-year vs. older students
ICT knowledge / skill
Word processing
Presentations
Spreadsheets
Web browsers
E-mail
Graphics
Statistical packages
Mathematical packages
Multi-media
Databases
Programming
Designing web sites
762
First year
Mean
4.16
4.02
3.14
4.48
4.38
3.09
1.85
1.74
3.02
2.25
1.99
1.83
Median
4.00
4.00
3.00
5.00
5.00
3.00
2.00
1.00
3.00
2.00
2.00
1.00
Second and third years
Mean
4.52
4.43
3.67
4.66
4.66
3.34
2.01
2.03
3.36
2.58
2.19
2.13
Median
5.00
5.00
4.00
5.00
5.00
3.00
2.00
2.00
3.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
Mann-Whitney test
Z
6.140
5.915
6.028
2.526
4.133
2.465
2.555
3.478
3.282
3.938
2.458
3.100
P
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.012
0.000
0.014
0.011
0.001
0.001
0.000
0.014
0.002
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technics technologies education management
Table 7. Descriptive statistics and results of the Kruskal-Wallis test referring to ICT knowledge and
skills of students related to their field of study
ICT knowledge / skill
Technical
studies
Mean Median
Word processing
4.41
4.00
Presentations
4.23
4.00
Spreadsheets
3.47
3.00
Web browsers
4.71
5.00
E-mail
4.57
5.00
Graphics
3.47
4.00
Statistical packages
1.86
2.00
Mathematical packages 2.13
2.00
Multi-media
3.54
4.00
Databases
2.51
2.00
Programming
2.52
2.00
Designing web sites
2.45
2.00
Biomedicine and
health care studies
Mean
3.75
3.52
2.28
4.18
4.28
2.31
1.69
1.44
2.42
2.01
1.64
1.42
Social
studies
KruskalWallis test
Median Mean Median Mean Median H
P
4.00
4.34
4.00
4.36 5.00 50.220 0.000
4.00
4.08
4.00
4.37 5.00 64.241 0.000
2.00
3.53
4.00
3.55 4.00 104.758 0.000
5.00
4.52
5.00
4.53 5.00 26.996 0.000
4.50
4.47
5.00
4.47 5.00 14.276 0.003
2.00
3.14
3.00
3.26 3.00 66.465 0.000
1.00
1.82
2.00
2.06 2.00 13.372 0.004
1.00
1.69
1.50
1.77 1.50 36.926 0.000
2.00
3.00
3.00
3.08 3.00 59.231 0.000
2.00
2.45
3.00
2.35 2.00 16.532 0.001
1.00
1.73
1.00
1.89 1.00 77.845 0.000
1.00
1.58
1.00
1.76 1.00 81.432 0.000
In most cases, the highest means were calculated for students enrolled in technical professional studies. It was only for presentation design, work with spreadsheets and use of statistical
packages that students of social studies achieved
higher means. The lowest average grade for all the
questions was given by students enrolled in biomedicine and health care programmes. According
to the results of the Kruskal-Wallis test, in all the
analyzed cases there is at least one student group
which exhibits a statistically significant difference
in comparison to others. The results of the MannWhitney test, which will not be presented here
due to limited space, indicate the significance of
almost all of the differences in the ICT knowledge
and skills between students in the field of biomedicine and health care on one hand, and the remaining three groups on the other hand.
6. Conclusion
An individual that lacks adequate ICT competencies is unable to meet the requirements of
the information society. ICT literacy is therefore
considered to be a fundamental skill of the modern age. Educational institutions, especially those
belonging to higher education, have the task of
preparing future generations for life and work in
an environment dominated by modern technologies. To fulfil this task successfully, they have to
incorporate the latest ICT achievements into their
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
Biotechnical
studies
curricula, and train their teachers to deliver this
ever-evolving content.
Taking the importance of ICTs as our starting point, the intention was to establish how well
Croatian polytechnic students are prepared for the
use of modern technologies in the teaching and
learning process. The research conducted to this
end has shown that the level of equipment is quite
high. Almost all the respondents stated that they
own a computer, with more than 97% having Internet access. The fact that this is mostly broadband access is definitely advantageous.
The results referring to ICT knowledge and
skills can be seen as partially satisfactory. The
surveyed students believe they are proficient users of Internet browsers, e-mail, word-processing
and presentation design applications. On the other
hand, very low scores were given to skills in using
statistical and mathematical packages, web site design, and programming. In general, male students
believe their ICT competencies are higher in comparison to female students. Furthermore, secondand third-year students gave a significantly more
positive assessment of the whole range of their
ICT knowledge and skills compared to first-year
students. This result suggests that polytechnics are
fulfilling their task in the field of the ICT training of students, at least to a certain degree. There
are, however, noticeable differences between students of certain professional fields. According to
our results, technical study programmes, includ763
technics technologies education management
ing those of computer science, are at the forefront,
whereas students in biomedical and health care
programmes were the weakest ICT users.
Generally speaking, polytechnic students in
Croatia are technologically well-equipped, and in
this sense have all the prerequisites for participating in more advanced forms of teaching. Their
overall ICT literacy is satisfactory, but they are less
proficient in specific ICT skills. Additional efforts
should therefore be undertaken, especially in certain vocational programmes of study, to improve
the current condition. Our survey of ICT knowledge and skills was based on student self-assessment, which is probably the biggest limitation of
this research. Nevertheless, the obtained results are
a solid foundation for gaining an insight as to how
well Croatian polytechnic students are prepared to
participate in the knowledge distribution project.
References
1. Noble, Ph.: Six Big Ideas: ICT as a Vital Tool for
Reform, In: Odugbemi, S., Jacobson, T. (Eds.): Governance Reform: Under Real-World Conditions, The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development
/ The World Bank, Washington, 2008, pp. 271-273.
2. De Ferranti, D., Perry, G.E., Gill, I., et al.: Closing
the Gap in Education and Technology, The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development /
The World Bank, Washington, 2003.
3. Christiansson, P.: ICT Supported Learning Prospects, The Journal of Information Technology in
Construction (ITcon), Vol. 9, 2004, pp. 175-194.
4. Ritchie, B., Brindley, C.: Risk Management in the
Digital Economy, In: Khosrow-Pour, M.: Encyclopedia of Information Science and Technology, Second
Edition, Information Science Reference, Hershey,
2009, pp. 3298-3305.
5. Bekkers, V., Fenger, M., Korteland, E.: Governance,
Democracy and the European Modernization Agenda: A Comparison of Different Policy Initiatives, In:
Bekkers, V., Dijkstra, G., Edwards, A., Fenger, M.
(Eds.): Governance and the Democratic Deficit: Assessing the Democratic Legitimacy of Governance
Practices, Ashgate Publishing Company, Aldershot,
2007, pp. 81-105.
6. Cuckle, P., Clarke, S., Jenkins, I.: Students' Information and Communications Technology Skills and Their
Use During Teacher Training, Technology, Pedagogy
and Education, Vol. 9, No. 1, 2000, pp. 9-22.
7. Lim, K.F., Kendle, A.: Computer and IT Skills of
Australian First-year University Undergraduate
Students, Chemical Education Journal (CEJ), Vol.
5, No. 2, 2001, http://chem.sci.utsunomiya-u.ac.jp/
v5n2/kfl/2001_IT_skills_CEJ.pdf
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8. Haywood, J., Haywood, D., Macleod, H., et al.: A
Comparison of ICT Skills and Students Across Europe, Journal of eLiteracy, Vol. 1, 2004, pp. 69-81.
9. Usluel, Y.K.: Can ICT Usage Make a Difference on
Student Teachers' Information Literacy Self-Efficacy,
Library & Information Science Research, Vol. 29,
No. 1, 2007, pp. 92-102.
10. Hanson-Baldauf, D., Hughes Hassell, S.: The Information and Communication Technology Competencies of Students Enrolled in School Library Media
Certification Programs, Library & Information Science Research, Vol. 31, No. 1, 2009, pp. 3-11.
11. Wilkinson, A., Roberts, J., While, A.E.: Construction of an Instrument to Measure Student Information and Communication Technology Skills, Experience and Attitudes to e-Learning, Computers in Human Behavior, Vol. 26, No. 6, 2010, pp. 1369–1376.
12. Hew, T.S., Leong, L.Y.: An Empirical Analysis of
Malaysian Pre-university Students' ICT Competency Gender Differences, International Journal
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1, 2011, http://www.ijnmt.com/JournalPapers/
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13. Penny, K.I., Dukić, G., Dukić, D.: Knowledge Management: Information and Communication Technologies Usage in Scottish and Croatian Students, 32nd
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Interfaces”, Cavtat, Dubrovnik, June 21-24, 2010,
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2217-8333, pp 111-117, Vol. 1, No. 2, 2012.
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Corresponding Author
Darko Dukic,
Department of Physics,
Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek,
Croatia,
E-mail: darko.dukic@fizika.unios.hr
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
technics technologies education management
Research into Attitudes of Accountants in Trade
Companies on the Importance and Role of
External Audit
Snezana Ljubisavljevic, Biljana Jovkovic
Faculty of Economics, University of Kragujevac, Serbia.
Abstract
In this paper we carried out the comparative
analysis of the referent audit literature of the United States of America (USA), the country where
the audit profession has reached the highest level
of development and attitudes of accountants in the
Republic of Serbia (RS) according to the role and
importance of external audit. The research included a sample of 214 companies of central Serbia
and initial hypotheses were tested with the aim of
proving the similarities and differences in auditing theory and practice of the two countries. The
results of the research show that in the majority of
answers in the questionnaire the attitudes of accountants of the USA and RS coincide, while the
differences are caused by underdevelopment of
capital market, stockholding and corporate governance in companies in RS.
Key words: external audit, attitudes of accountants, audit regulation in the Republic of Serbia,
credibility of financial statements
Introduction
The purpose of this paper is that through the
empirical research, conducted on a sample of
companies in the Republic of Serbia (RS), analyzes the attitudes of employed accountants on various aspects of external audit in order to prove at
what stage of development is accounting/auditing
practice in relation to the most developed country
in the world – United States of America (USA).
For this purpose, the paper is divided into the following five global parts:
–– Theoretical framework of research.
–– Initial hypothesis.
–– Main features of the sample and research
method.
–– Results of empirical research and
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
–– Suggestions for overcoming the crisis in
auditing profession and practice of RS.
Theoretical framework of research
The theoretical framework of research in this
paper will include a retrospective of the origin
and development of external audit in the developed countries of Europe, the United States, the
Republic of Serbia, as well as global attitudes of
the authoritative auditing literature of the USA regarding the role and importance of external audit.
It is acknowledged that audit and accounting are
not the achievement of contemporary society because there is evidence of their performance since
3000 BC. Specifically, audit was the characteristic
of organized human activity from earliest times,
and always consistently associated with economic
activities and responsibilities. Italy, as the third
most developed country in the euro zone, is considered the cradle of embryonic origin and development of audit in the early developmental period.
Back in the early ninth century accountants in this
country were also the auditors of books and in 831
the auditor’s record was found regarding the litigation between the creditor and debtor, as well as
the audit report in Pisa. The audit was performed
in Milan as well, in 1146, and the state control institution for city auditing was officially formed in
1225. Also, there are audit records from the 1279
on the subsequent examination of the treasury of
Pope Nicholas III. Ljubisavljević, S. (2000: 223)
Contemporary function of audit, in the sense
that we know it today, was created as a result of
separating management functions from ownership
functions in XVI century. The first association of
accountants and auditors of books was created in
Venice in 1581 and the Law on Bankruptcy in Scotland, from 1696, required an obligation to engage
the auditor of books in bankruptcy proceedings.
765
technics technologies education management
However, England is considered the cradle of modern auditing and the country in which public accounting has a long and glorious tradition because
in the late eighteenth century the first Institute of
Certified Auditors in the world – Institute of Chartered Accountants (ICA) was founded in it. Companies Act, from 1844, for the first time introduces the
obligatory audit of balance sheet by auditors who
could be elected from among stockholders, and
with the Law from 1855-56 for the first time ever
an institution of independent, external audit was established. Ljubisavljević, S. (2000: 216)
Unlike England and other Anglo-Saxon countries, in Germany, France, Italy and other developed
countries of the European Union (EU), the auditing
profession is relatively sparse and irrelevant, and
primary source of audit regulation is economic legislation that is to say commercial and tax codes as
well as the EU Directive (predominant legalism).
The first association of book auditors was founded
in Germany no sooner than in 1896 by the Berlin
book auditors. In this country there are two professional associations: 1) The Chamber of Auditors as
the national professional body under the Ministry
of Economy and 2) German Institute of Auditors
as the audit body of private sector with voluntary membership. There are also two professional
titles of auditors in Germany: 1) licensed auditor/
independent public accountant (Wirtschaftsprüfer –
WP) and 2) certified auditor (Vereidigte Buchprufer
- VB), who provides advisory services and can audit medium sized companies.
Unlike in Great Britain and the abovementioned
developed countries of the EU, in the United States
federal laws on operation of company generally do
not require audit but the requirement of external
audit arises from the requirements of the stock exchange, regulation of the Securities and Exchange
Commission (SEC) and general acceptance of the
usefulness of independent auditor’s opinion. The
first step in the development of auditing profession
in the USA was the establishment of the Association of Certified Public Accountants in 1887, which
became the Institute of Public Accountants in 1916,
later named the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA), and under that name still
exists. Because of the similarities in terms of historical and cultural factors in Great Britain and USA, in
both countries are present the elements of legalism
766
and liberalism and the key differences are related to
the predominant influence of administrative agencies in the United States in relation to the impact
of company law in Great Britain as well as to the
differences in educational and experiential requirements for the acquisition of certain auditor titles and
licenses. However, although there are international
differences in legal and professional regulation
of audit in some countries of the world, which are
conditioned by different social, economic, political,
cultural and legal terms, the developed countries
form a critical mass in the world’s financial audit,
because they spend relatively largest amounts to pay
audit services, development of the audit profession,
auditor education and researches. These countries
have made a major impact on the development of
the audit function and the profession in developing
countries in Europe, among which is the Republic of
Serbia. Ljubisavljević, S. (2000: 215)
In the Republic of Serbia (forerunners of today's
name of the country were Serbia and Montenegro,
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, Socialist Federal
Republic of Yugoslavia, the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, etc.) for many years there was no mandatory
auditing of company’s financial statements because
the social environment for its institutionalization
was not developed. The origins of the audit function date from 1898 when the Law on agricultural
and artisan cooperatives prescribed mandatory audit
of all cooperatives in Serbia every second year. After the Second World War, in 1948 the Ministry of
Commerce has established the Institute of Auditors
based in Belgrade, the Decree on auditing was issued as well as detailed Instruction for its execution.
Decentralization, increased number of economic
entities, foreign investments, increased privatization
and development of institutions of market economy
have caused in the last three decades the need to organize an adequate form of external audit.
The Social Accounting Service for many years at
the end of the twentieth century was the main body
of the external audit and in 1996 the first law on auditing of accounting statements was passed (now
the Law on Accounting and Auditing from 2006,
amended in 2009). In the Republic of Serbia there
are two professional institutions: 1) The Association
of Accountants and Auditors of Serbia, which is a
member of the International Federation of Accountants (IFAC) and 2) The Chamber of Certified AudiVolume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
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tors, whose members are licensed certified auditors
employed in domestic and foreign audit firms who
implement in their work the International Standards
of Auditing (ISA) and the Code of Professional Ethics of IFAC. There are two professional titles in RS:
certified auditor and certified internal auditor. Accounting and Auditing Law, Article 4
The greatest impact on the development of auditing theory in RS had the following capital works:
Martić, S., Control and Auditing (1987) faculty of
Economics, Belgrade; Andrić, M., Audit of Accounting Statements (1996) faculty of Economics
Subotica; Ljubisavljević, S., The Role of External
Auditors in the Environment, (2000) faculty of Economics, University of Kragujevac and Milojević,
D., Audit of Financial Statements (2006) Faculty
of Commerce and Banking and Belgrade Banking
Academy, Belgrade.
Taking into consideration that the accounting/
auditing profession has reached the highest level
of development in the USA, here are the views of
global well-known authors from the USA, as well as
from the international professional regulation, that
the audit profession and practice in the Republic of
Serbia can certainly emulate. Then, by empirical
study of the attitudes of accountants employed in
firms in central Serbia, we shall establish similarities and differences between a developing country
and the most developed country of the world.
It is undisputed that the primary role of the independent audit, as a permanent system activity, is
to change, adapt and improve financial statements
in accordance with the requirements of regulation
and users. Also, the function of verification and
giving credibility to the information contained in
financial statements of companies is an important
tool for ensuring the functioning of market economy. However, more and more complex business
conditions increased information risk that the users of audit reports are faced with and the auditor
is required to develop new models of reporting.
These circumstances are conditioned primarily
by the modern characteristics of corporate reporting and strengthening the social responsibility of
corporations. In fact, corporate governance refers
to the way in which the company is directed and
controlled: the achievement of business performances, risk management and establishing reputation in the market. Zabihollah, R., (2003: 27)
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
The abovementioned reasons set higher standards
for management and control, and widened the gap
between expected and actual performance of auditors in terms of: 1) problems in communication
between auditor and user, 2) misunderstanding
and doubts about the quality of audit and 3) insufficiently explicit or inadequate assurance in an audit report. After the great financial scandals in the
USA, in 2002 was passed Sarbanes – Oxley Act
which was later added sections in the Securities
Law, rules of the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) and the Public Company Accounting Oversight Board was established. The purpose
of the rules is to improve the reliability of financial
reporting and to increase the overall confidence in
securities market including the validity of the external audit process which is primarily related to:
the central role of the audit committee in ensuring independence, separate disclosure of fees for
non-audit services and mandatory rotation of audit partner. Bocker, C., Buget, J., Bussiek, O. and
Eckes, P., (2006: 42)
In order to explain the role of an independent
auditor as a tool for assessing the quality and verification of financial statements we shall consider
the following relevant areas of external audit:
–– Theoretical basis of financial audit.
–– The impact of environment on the change of
external auditor’ role.
–– The regulatory framework for the provision
of quality services and
–– Economic benefits and limitations of
independent audit.
The separation of ownership from control of the
invested capital is a feature of the corporate form
of company that creates demand for an audit, and
on this basis the famous audit theories originated:
the theory of agency (stewardship/monitoring hypothesis), the information hypothesis and security
hypothesis. Casserat, G. and Rodda, N., (2009: 43)
In agency relationship the investors as principals
entrust their resources to managers (directors of
company) as agents where the behavioral assumption is present that all parties involved in this relationship are to act rationally and try to maximize
their benefits. External audit is the price that has
been paid for the reduction of agency risk. Investors, as primary users, demand of audited financial
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information on which they base making important
business decisions. Security hypothesis relates to
the ability to transfer financial responsibility for
published information to the auditors, which leads
to a reduction of expected loss from litigation for
managers, creditors and other professional individuals involved in the securities market.
The environment and its changes have affected
the expansion of the scope and types of auditors’
services, as well as the increase of their quality. In
addition to audit and review of historical financial
statements and other financial information, in recent
years, the demand for a range of other assurance
services has increased such as: assessment of effectiveness of the internal control system, non-financial performance measures, the risks that company
faces, social security (e.g. employment policy),
corporate governance, compliance of regulation,
assurances regarding electronic commerce, environmental issues and the like. Besides the agreed
procedures and compilation of information in the
areas of traditional accounting, tax calculation and
management consulting as the main types of nonassurance services, the changes in the environment
required that in recent years external auditors often
provide other consulting services, as well, especially in cases of insolvency and business recovery of a
company. These services are provided in the United
States in accordance with Insolvency Acts, Companies Act from 2006, and other laws. Namely, when
companies are in financial trouble, secured creditors may intervene in various ways to protect their
interests while the external auditors take role to
analyze the business and eventually to reconstruct
companies that are still solvent but have financial
difficulties. Although the environment influenced
the change and expansion of external auditor’s
traditional role in the areas of changes in the audit
approach, increase of auditor’s responsibility and
perceived benefits for the audit report addressees
and third parties, we must not forget the crucial fact
that management remains responsible for disclosures in financial statements. Louwers, T., Ramsay,
R., Sinason, D. and Strawser, J., (2008: 18). These
influences of the environment particularly affected
the following questions:
–– Developing the concept of reasonable
(required) attention and skills of auditors in
detecting deceptions of management.
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–– The roles of auditors in improving the
credibility of financial information and
promoting operation of effective capital
market.
–– In addition to the audit, as an engagement
with a reasonable degree of assurance
which expresses a conclusion designed to
increase the level of user trust defined by
the International Auditing and Assurance
Standards Board (IAASB) of IFAC, the
International Framework for Assurance
Engagements (IFAE) states the other type
of services - limited assurance engagement,
in which the risk of non-assurance is higher
as well as the services that provide no
assurance; the mentioned services provided
by auditors are governed by special standards,
respectively: International Standards on
Auditing (ISA) and International Auditing
Practice Statements (IAPS), International
Standards on Review Engagements (ISRE)
and International Review Engagements
Practice Statements (IREPS), International
Standards on Assurance Engagements
(ISAE) and International Standards on
Related Services (ISRS).
–– In order to meet the growing information
needs of users in a changed audit environment
(globalization, complex business strategies
and transition from financial to the concept
of business reporting of companies), audit
and other assurance engagements should
include: reporting on the effectiveness of
the framework of company risk and on the
operational and financial reviews, assessment
of profitability and business viabilities of
company and interactions of companies
with the environment (these are the
recommendations of the special committee,
the Elliott Committee for assurance services,
that is formed within the AICPA).
The regulatory framework for ensuring the quality audit services (standards of professional bodies,
regulation of audit firms, self-regulation of accounting profession and independent regulation by
state) is provided by various bodies and committees in different countries but their tasks are similar. In the USA regulatory activities of professional
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accounting bodies are overseen by Professional
Oversight Board in terms of training, professional
development, ethical issues, professional conduct
and discipline, registration and monitoring, while
the decision to abolish the certificates and licenses
to practice brings the Accountancy and Actuarial
Discipline Board to a member, as well as the decisions about taking other disciplinary actions. An
important additional regulatory mechanism occurs
through the courts because the auditor could face a
lawsuit for negligence and incur the costs and damages for non-compliance with the auditing standards of professional practice.
Economic benefits and limitations of external
audit are well known to the certified public accountants and to some extent to the accountants
in companies, the audit clients. The research, presented on the following pages of this paper, will
show the situation in accounting practice in companies of the Republic of Serbia.
The overall objective of the research is to explain the primary purpose of external audit, which
consists in allowing auditor to express an opinion
on whether the set of company’s financial statements is prepared in accordance with the established Financial Reporting Framework, which may
include: IAS/IFRS, US GAAP and the like. Soltani,
B. (2010: 4). The specific objectives of the external audit research, as a tool for assessing the quality
of company’s financial reporting, are derived from
the overall objective and they consist in proving the
contribution of external audit in the following areas:
–– Increase of the credibility and usability of
financial statements.
–– Increase of the quality of quantitatively
expressed data.
–– Increase of objectivity, impartiality and
reliability of information.
–– Enhancement of the usefulness of
information for all interested.
–– Reduction of information risks for decision
makers.
–– Contribution to company’s business rating,
risk management and creating added value
to owners.
–– Enhancement of the rational allocation of
limited capital on market in the most profitable branches and companies. Ljubisavljević,
S., (2011: 178)
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Initial hypotheses
The general hypothesis in this paper is that if
there is a risk that the information contained in
company’s financial statements, which are used by
various stakeholders to make important business
decisions, inaccurate, unreliable or falsified, then
the external audit is to verify their quality.
Specific hypotheses of this study, which arise
from the general hypotheses and empirical research with the use of specific statistical methods
and methodologies, are:
–– There are many reasons that cause the need
for external audit.
–– Besides primary, external auditors provide a
range of secondary services.
–– The environment, in recent years, prompted
the expansion of independent auditors’
responsibilities.
–– Profession and regulators ensure the quality
of audit.
–– There is a wide range of economic benefits
from external audit.
–– There are inherent limitations of company’s
external audit.
–– In recent years there has been a decline of
confidence in the auditing profession.
The main features of sample and research
methods
Research into attitudes of accountants toward
external audit was conducted by a questionnaire
in 214 companies of the Republic of Serbia in mid
2011. The total sample was divided into three strata, as presented in Table 1, according to:
–– The legal form of company (47% of limited
liability companies, 32% of joint stock
companies and 21% of other legal forms of
companies).
–– Size of companies (57% of medium, 39% of
large and 4% of small companies).
–– Districts (24% of Šumadijski, 20% of
Moravički, 12% of Pomoravski and 44%
of other districts: Zlatiborski, Raški, Belgrade, Rasinski, Podunavski, Kolubarski,
Braničevski,
Zaječarski,
Borski
i
Mačvanski).
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The survey questionnaires contained six questions of closed type and respondents were offered
multiple responses. Respondent companies belong to very heterogeneous activities: agricultural
production, forestry, water management, manufacturing industry, textile production, construction
industry, chemicals production, machinery and
equipment manufacturing, production and supply
of electricity gas and water, trade, hotel management and so on. The offered answers to the asked
questions, in 214 validly completed questionnaires, were NO, and N/A (i.e. it is not known,
not applicable), and discussed topics in conducted
research were related to the following areas of external audit: 1) the need for independent audit 2)
types of services provided by auditing companies,
3) the impact of environment on the expansion
of auditor’s responsibility, 4) ways of providing
quality services, 5) economic benefits, and 6) the
inherent limitations of external audit.
Table 1. Structure of the total sample
Total companies
Legal form
JSC
LLC
Others
Size
Large
Medium
Small
District (13)
Šumadijski
Moravički
Pomoravski
Others:
214
Total
69
100
45
Total
83
122
9
Total
51
42
25
96
%
100%
32%
47%
21%
100%
39%
57%
4%
100%
24%
20%
12%
44%
Methods and models of the research used in the
analysis for drawing conclusions are based on the
questionnaire, methods of induction, deduction,
and descriptive statistics.
The results of empirical research in
Companies of the Republic of Serbia
Analysis of the total sample resulted in the following conclusions:
–– Dominant companies are of legal form
with limited liability, followed by joint
stock companies, and other legal forms of
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––
––
––
––
companies: state, public, utilities, municipalities, institutes, associations, military, etc.
The share of the medium-sized companies
is dominant, than the large ones, while the
small companies are unrepresentative by the
number, but it should be noted that although
under the current law they are not required to
conduct an independent audit, they saw the
need for engaging external auditor.
Out of 29 administrative districts, 13 districts
of central Serbia were analyzed and answers
to the questions do not differ significantly by
companies from different districts, so in the
further analysis only the three largest districts
are included.
Limited liability companies are the dominant
legal form in the structure of medium (48%)
and large companies (42%), followed by large
joint stock companies (39%), and mediumsized joint stock companies (29%).
Other legal forms are also, mostly of medium
size (24%), followed by large companies
(19%).
According to the Accounting and Auditing Law,
legal entities are classified by size into large, medium and small. In medium legal entity shall be
classified the legal persons who meet at least two of
the following criteria on the day the financial statement is produced: a) that the average number of
employees, in the year for which an annual report
is submitted, is from 50 to 250 b) that the annual
income is from 2.500.000 EUR to 10.000.000 EUR
in dinar counter value c) that the average value of
operating assets (at the beginning and at the end of
business year) is from 1.000.000 EUR to 5.000.000
EUR in dinar counter value. The legal entities that
have lower than the lowest amounts, in at least two
indicators of these criteria, are classified as small
legal entities, and the legal entities that have higher
amounts than the highest, in at least two indicators
of the criteria, are classified as large legal entities.
Accounting and Auditing Law, Article 7
Detailed analysis of responses showed that
they do not differ significantly by companies from
the strata selected which suggests the conclusion
about the unity of attitudes of accounting profession in the central Serbia. The following graphs
will show how the accountants, in surveyed comVolume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
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panies of selected sample, responded to the topics
given in the questionnaire and what importance
they attached to responses in percentages.
What reasons have caused the need for external
audit? Looking at the overall sample, we conclude
that accountants in the Republic of Serbia ranked
these reasons as shown in the following Graph 1:
a) Based on financial statements, important
business decisions are made by many users
(74% of surveyed accountants answered
with yes to this question).
b) The owners of capital need quality
information for decision making (49%).
c) The complexity of information increases the
risk of errors in financial statements (36%).
d) The users of financial statements do not
have direct access to accounting data (23%).
e) Managers may give a biased report in
financial statements (23%).
f) Managers see in the audit the eventual
insurance in the event of litigation (17%).
g) The owners suspect that directors would
abuse their capital (6%).
Graph 1 shows that all the seven answers are
well-known to accountants in 214 surveyed companies, because almost no one responded with not
known/not applicable (N/A). Since in the sample
dominate the medium sized companies whose legal form is limited liability company, (the number
of large companies whose legal form is joint stock
company is smaller) the owners are most often
managers and board members as well, as corporate
governance has not reached such a level of development as the countries of the developed world.
ence literature and practice of the USA and refer
to the following:
–– Owners do not doubt the abuses of management because they monitor and control it
directly (45% of companies) and
–– Owners are not far from the company and
have direct access to accounting data (29%
of companies).
However, when the analysis included only
joint stock companies, they have recognized that
the need for external audit occurs, among other
things, because managers may give a biased report
in financial statements (28% of companies).
How wide is the range of types of services provided by audit companies? Assurance services, as
we have previously mentioned, include primary
audit services (financial audit) and review as an
audit related service, while non-assurance services
are secondary audit services (accounting, tax and
consulting services) and other audit related services (the agreed procedures and compilation of
information) . Hooks, K., (2011: 15) Accountants,
in companies of central Serbia, are right to consider that the external auditors employed in an audit company should not provide both primary and
secondary services at the same time to the same
client, because they are incompatible activities,
therefore they gave the following order of services
provided by external auditors, shown by Graph 2
a) Financial statements audit (99%)
b) Review of other financial information (42%)
c) Assessment of the risks a company faces
(34%)
d) Traditional accounting services (20%)
e) Advice in case of insolvency and financial
difficulties (18%)
f) Non-financial performance measures (13%).
g) Tax calculation (10%)
h) Management consulting (9%)
Graph 1. The need for external audit
Also, large companies and complex corporations have refused to complete the questionnaire
justifying with the lack of time and confidentiality
of data. Therefore, the logical conclusions were
obtained, which differ significantly from the referVolume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
Graph 2. Types of services provided by an audit
company
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Given the fact that tax and consulting services
comprise the largest percentage of the total revenue of the “big four”, we conclude that, since the
analyzed sample consists of mainly medium companies, they have contracted the audit services to
one of the local audit firms which are currently 43
in the Republic of Serbia. Obviously, accounting,
tax, management consulting and other advisory services of the companies in the Republic of Serbia
negotiate with special companies that are exclusively engaged in providing consulting services.
The author of the paper suggests that audit companies should separately disclose revenue of primary
audit services from the revenue of secondary audit
services. It is surprising that although a large number of insolvent companies with extreme financial
difficulties is present in RS, they do not expect the
external auditor's assistance in the analysis of operations, reconstruction and business recovery. Graph
2 indicates that accountants in the companies of RS
are not familiar with a wide range of services that
auditing firms can provide clients.
Did the environment in recent years contribute
to the expansion of responsibility of external auditors? For the opinion set forth in the audit report
the auditor's primary responsibility is to the client
company (assembly of stockholders or other owners of capital, the board of directors and management), but is also responsible to the third parties
that make up the numerous stakeholders who often have conflicting interests (creditors, country,
stock exchange, employees and internal audit in
the client company, and the general public). The
environment in recent years prompted the expansion of external auditors’ responsibilities especially after the world-renowned accounting scandals,
because the regulatory institutions and public created the pressure to increase the professional training of auditors, as well as reliability and responsibility of all participants in financial reporting.
(Rittenberg et al. 2010: 828) Graph 3 presents the
answers of the surveyed companies in percentage, that show in what areas they see the biggest,
smaller or smallest environmental impact on the
expansion of external auditors’ responsibilities:
a) Increase of financial statement credibility
(65%)
b) Reasonable assurance and greater degree of
user confidence in financial statements (62%)
772
c) Paying due attention in detecting deceptions
(33%)
d) Evaluation of company’s interactions with
the environment (19%)
Graph 3. Auditor’s responsibility expansion
The responses to this question are directly correlated with responses to the question what are
the primary reasons for the emergence of external audit. More than 60% of surveyed companies
believe that there was the expansion of external
auditor’s responsibility in the areas of the increase
of financial statement credibility, reasonable assurance and greater degree of user confidence in
financial statements.
Over 70% of companies cited that making
significant business decisions based on financial
statements by many users, especially business
owners, is the primary reason for the emergence of
audit. Much smaller number, only one third of the
company, believes that the environment in recent
years affected the expansion of external auditors’
responsibilities in the field of paying due attention
in detecting deception. This is in accordance with
attitude of only 6% of companies in the sample
that the need for external audit results because
the owners suspect that directors would abuse
their capital. Also, underdeveloped economy and
business environment surrounding the companies in RS have caused that small percentage of
companies (only 19%) observe the auditor’s responsibility expansion in the field of evaluation
of company’s interactions with the environment.
The global economic crisis and the bankruptcy of
giant American corporations at the beginning of
XXI century (Enron, World Com, Parmalt, Tyco,
and Qwest) have encouraged the development of:
Knapp, M., (2011: 22)
–– Improvements of financial reporting and
self-regulation of the auditing profession
through investigations and discipline of its
members.
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–– Audit assessment of profitability, business
risk and business vitality (going concern
principle - the viability of companies).
–– Auditor’s knowledge of the client’s
company and branches and his interactions
with the environment (environmental audit)
The auditing profession in RS still lags far behind the USA practice at all three development directions because the company environment is very
turbulent and unpredictable and the effectiveness
of corporate governance is low.
What are the ways in which the profession and
regulators ensure the quality of audit? The heads of
the accounting of the surveyed companies have answered to the four offered answers in the questionnaire in the following order, as shown in Graph 4:
a) Prescribing standards and ethical codes by
professional body (68%)
b) Continuing professional education by the
accounting profession (60%)
c) Establishing the control of quality by an
audit firm (48%),
d) Independent regulation of professional
bodies by the state (21%)
In order to ensure the audit quality the profession and regulators have developed a regulatory
framework at four levels: 1) standard setting, 2)
self-regulation, 3) regulation of a firm and 4) independent regulation. Cassert, G., Rodda, N., (2009:
27) The main difference in the attitudes of the
USA and RS accountants is in the last instrument
for the audit quality assurance, since 26% of companies in RS believe that it is not provided by the
state. However, in RS there is assurance of the audit quality by taking disciplinary actions and sanctions by the state and there is a major influence of
the government through the Ministry of Finance
on accounting/auditing profession and practice.
Graph 4. Audit quality assurance
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What are the economic benefits of the external
audit? The economic benefits of the external audit
are multiple and can be viewed from micro aspect
(reduces the information risk for decision-makers)
and macro aspect (credible financial information
provide capital market development, financial stability and economic growth). Surveyed accountants of the analyzed sample companies ranked
the economic benefits of external audit, as shown
in the Graph 5:
a) Contribution to the improvement of internal
controls, risk assessment and business
efficiency (82%)
b) Facilitating the access to capital markets
(34%)
c) It is preventive for inefficiency and fraud
(22%)
d) It provides lower costs of acquiring capital
(17%).
Graph 5. The economic benefits of external audit
Contrary to the USA practice, the underdevelopment of capital market and a small number of
participants whose stocks are listed on Belgrade
Stock Exchange have conditioned the responses
of the surveyed enterprises in RS under b) and d).
For the third time in this paper it is confirmed that
accountants in 214 surveyed companies believe
that the external audit does not have the preventive role of inefficiency and fraud, because the
owners do not expect the possibility of fraudulent
financial reporting and embezzlement of funds by
management and employees (25%). Also, unlike
in USA, in RS is rarely the case that due to the
audited financial statements of small and medium
companies the potential creditors offer lower interest rates on loans, and potential investors a lower rate of return on their investments.
Does the external audit have inherent limitations? They are numerous, and in the questionnaire some of the most important are shown in the
Graph 6:
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a) The audit report of a standard form (45%)
b) The gap between the date of balance sheet
and audit report presentation (43%).
c) Audit testing with the sampling method
(43%)
d) Over-reliance on specialized computer
packages (19%)
e) Establishment of professional assessments
in highly specialized areas (14%)
Graph 6. The inherent limitations of audit
Concise and decisive audit report of a standardized, uniform form is, by opinion of the RS accountants, the biggest inherent limitation of the audit.
The assessment of historical information in financial statements, due to the later dating of the audit
report, as well as testing of transactions and account
balances with sampling method have their limitations. Unlike the accounting profession and practice
of USA, the accountants in RS do not think that the
inherent limitations of audit are the over-reliance on
modern information technologies (expert systems)
used by auditors in their work (35%), as well as the
request for the establishment of professional assessments in highly specialized areas that the ISA do
not deal with so the professional judgment or expert
involvement (34%) is necessary.
Suggestions for overcoming the crisis in the
auditing profession and practice of RS
Under the influence of the crisis that emerged
in the auditing profession and practice of USA in
the last ten years (the collapse and liquidation of
Arthur Andersen and other auditing scandals), in
recent years the quality of audit services has been
reduced in RS and there has been a decline of trust
in the auditing profession mainly for the following
reasons:
–– The existence of inadequate, unsafe and
non-harmonized legislative regulation.
774
–– Reduction of the audit risk of material fraud
detection.
–– The existence of low-quality reports of
standard form.
–– Low prices of audit services break the
quality of completed audit.
–– Greater focus of some auditing companies
to more attractive consultant activities.
–– Manipulating the data from the audit reports
presented over the Internet.
In order to overcome the crisis present in the
auditing profession and practice of RS, as well as
in developed countries of the world, the authors of
this paper suggest:
–– Improving the legislative auditing regulations, since the concept of self-regulation is
not sustainable.
–– Improving the quality and reliability of the
independent audit process through better
auditing evidence and more precise definition
of the necessary qualifications of auditors.
–– Strengthening the professional responsibility
of auditors and standardization of their
ethical behavior.
–– Extending the standard form of audit
report with additional notifications and
more complex forms of assurance (e.g., to
increase requirements for the disclosure of
off-balance sheet transactions).
–– Timely submission of financial and audit
reports.
–– Risk management and creation of company’s
added value by increasing the value of its
stocks.
Conclusion
The research in this paper proved a general
initial hypothesis and special hypotheses derived
from it:
–– External audit verifies the quality of the
information contained in company’s
financial statements because of the risk that
they are inaccurate, unreliable or falsified.
–– The accuracy of information in financial
statements increases their usefulness for
making right strategic and tactical business
decisions.
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–– The primary service provided by external
auditors is financial statement audit and
review of other financial information,
but they can also provide a wide range of
secondary services.
–– In recent years the environment has
affected the expansion of responsibilities
of independent auditors most in the areas
of increasing the credibility of financial
statements, reasonable assurance and greater
degree of confidence in financial statements
and increasing due attention in detecting
deception.
–– Profession and regulators ensure the quality
of audit by prescribing standards, ethic codes
and continuing professional education by
the Chamber of Certified Auditors and the
Association of Accountants and Auditors
of Serbia, and by establishing a system of
quality control by audit firms.
–– The main economic benefits from external
audit consist of improvement of internal
controls, risk assessment and business
efficiency, as well as easier access to capital
markets.
–– The majority of companies state that the
inherent limitations of external audit are
the audit report of a standard form, the time
gap between the date of balance sheet and
signing of audit report, and the audit testing
based on samples.
–– Decrease of trust in the auditing profession
and suggestions for overcoming the crisis
are similar in the USA practice and auditing
practice of RS.
The impact of the macroeconomic environment
in which companies of RS operate, the low level
of economic growth in particular of the economic (real) sector, the underdevelopment of capital
market, corporate governance and environmental
protection have caused the differences in attitudes
of accountants towards the role and the importance of external audit in relation to the USA on
the following issues:
–– The accountants of RS companies believe
that the owners of capital do not doubt
the possibility of giving a biased report in
financial statements by management, which
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
––
––
––
––
––
is logical given the fact that most companies
in the sample consist of limited liability
companies whose members are most often
directors of companies as well.
Companies in RS observe too closely the
range of services that external auditors and
audit companies can provide, because more
than one third of surveyed companies do
not use traditional accounting services, tax
calculation and management consulting as
a secondary type of services by audit firms.
A very small number of respondent
companies (less than one fifth) believes that
in recent years there has been expansion
of responsibilities of external auditors
in the field of evaluation of interaction
with the environment which suggests the
underdevelopment of environmental audit
and environmental protection in RS.
In the RS companies the attitude that dominates
is that there is a good self-regulation of auditing
profession and that interference of the state
and the relevant ministries is unnecessary as
well as taking disciplinary actions against the
professional bodies, auditing companies and
certified auditors.
Nearly one-third of surveyed companies
do not recognize the economic benefits
from external audit in the form of obtaining
capital on favorable terms, prevention of
fraud and inefficiency, and easier access to
capital markets.
Also, one third of companies from the sample
do not consider that an inherent limitation
of audit is the over-reliance on specialized
computer packages and the formation of
professional evaluation in highly specialized
companies and economic sector.
Therefore, the authors suggest that in order to
reduce the gap between expected and actual performance of an auditor it is necessary, by continuous seminars and workshops on the role of external auditor in the environment, to further educate
the accountants and general public of RS. This
survey included 214 companies of central Serbia,
and it enabled us to derive the abovementioned
valid conclusions because the sample is representative what was proven by the analysis performed
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technics technologies education management
with four aspects (total sample, company’s legal
form, company size and the largest districts) according to which the conclusions that are valid for
the whole sample are also valid for other aspects
of the observation.
References
1. Bocker, C., Buget, J., Bussiek., O. and Eckes, P.,
2006, Handbuch der Revision, Schaer – Poeschel
Venlag, Stuttgart.
2. Cassert, G. and Rodda, N., 2009, Modern Auditing,
John Wiley and Sons Ltd. Publication.
3. Hooks, K., 2011, Auditing and Assurance Services:
Understanding the Integrated Audit, Wiley & Sons,
Denver
4. Knapp, M., 2011, Auditing Cases, 8/e, South Western
Cengage Learning.
5. Louwers,T., Ramsay, R., Sinason, D. and Strawser,
J., 2008, Auditing and Assurance Services, 3/e, Mc
Graw – Hill Irwin, New York.
6. Ljubisavljević, S., 2000, The Role of External Auditor
in an Environment, Faculty of Economics, University
of Kragujevac, Kragujevac.
7. Ljubisavljević, S., 2011, ‘Auditing as a Tool for Assessing the Quality of Financial Reporting’, 42th
International Symposium: Quality of Financial Reporting – challenges, perspectives and limitations,
Zlatibor.
8. Rittenberg, L., Johnstone, K., Gramling, A & Schwieger, B., 2010, Auditing: A Business Risk Approach, 7e,
South-Western Cengage Learning, Mason
9. Soltani, B., 2010, Auditing - An International Approach, Mate LLC, Beograd.
10. Zabihollah, R., 2003, ‘High Quality Financial Reporting – The Six – Legged Stol’, Strategic Finance,
Institute of Management Accountants, New Jersey,
USA, February 2003.
11. Accounting and Auditing Law, Official Gazette of
the Republic of Serbia 46/06 and 111/09.
Corresponding Author
Biljana Jovkovic,
Faculty of Economics,
University of Kragujevac,
Serbia,
E-mail: bjovkovic@kg.ac.rs.
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technics technologies education management
Satisfaction of high school students with the
applicability of their knowledge
Vladan Radlovacki1, Mladen Pecujlija1, Bato Kamberovic1, Radmila Jovanovic2, Milan Delic1, Ivan Beker1
1
2
Faculty of Technical Sciences, University of Novi Sad, Novi Sad, Republic of Serbia,
Medical Faculty, University of Novi Sad, Novi Sad, Republic of Serbia.
Abstract
In this pilot study, 427 high school students
in Serbia were surveyed to determine predictors
of the satisfaction with the applicability of their
knowledge obtained in the course of their education (main parameter of the research). Results
show statistically significant variations of the main
parameter depending on the course year. Findings
prove the most significant predictors of the central parameter are the satisfaction with the work
of professional subject teachers, the knowledge
gained in the current year of education and the
attractiveness of the study program. Satisfaction
with the teachers' skill to transfer knowledge and
by the student's own estimate of his/her activities
during lectures proved not to be the predictors of
the central parameter. These are very interesting
findings. Results indicate the high possibility that
high school students are mostly uninterested in the
acquisition of knowledge, which is very disturbing. Findings are commented in detail and appropriate conclusions have been drawn out.
Key words: quality of teaching, applicability
of acquired knowledge, quality improvements,
student's estimates
1. Introduction
Operative management of the teaching process
in general involves the every-day concerns about
activities of education program.
Strategic management includes improving the
teaching process quality. It involves long-term investing of efforts and resources of various kinds,
having in mind that effect of such investments
cannot be determined immediately. These investments are a way to purposeful action in the future.
Purposeful means more effective (reaching the
goals with the better performance level) and more
efficient (using all the resources in a more rational
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
manner). The term characterizing the outcome of
such changes today is - better quality (Vulanović
et al. 2007).
This study generally addresses a very important
element of teaching management strategic dimension. It is a long-term impact on the applicability
of the knowledge pupils get in high schools.
The aim of this pilot study is to estimate how
students perceive the applicability of the acquired
knowledge, in order to obtain basic information
about the topic and to establish a reliable instrument that could be more widely applied. Such information could help the design of activities aimed
to improve the education process.
It is of interest to know does the estimate of
knowledge applicability change through schooling years in the age of high school students.
Further, information on predictors of knowledge applicability among treated dimensions of
education process quality is a source of information about how students perceive their role within
the education process.
These findings may guide to the improvement
the education process. Improvements are a characteristic of adequate quality management systems.
Management principles in education are discussed
further in the text.
1.1 Quality management
Quality Management has become a synonym
for rational processes management in accordance
with the defined goals.
Currently the most widely used definition of
quality is given in ISO 9000:2005 - Quality management systems - Fundamentals and vocabulary.
The definition of quality - "degree to which a set of
inherent characteristics fulfills requirements" - is the
basis of the philosophy applicable to the manufacturing and services sector, government institutions
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technics technologies education management
at all levels, private, state and mixed-ownership
companies, joint ventures, small, medium and large
size organizations, educational institutions from elementary schools to universities and academies etc.
Most simply put, for all types and categories of legal entities regardless of the activity.
ISO 9004 is another standard in ISO 9000 series. It refers to the recommendations for achieving sustainable success of an organization. Among
other guidelines, it describes 8 management principles that establish a philosophy of achieving
user satisfaction and satisfaction of other interested parties. Today, the use of quality management
standards' requirements becomes unavoidable in
education, as well as in other areas. Developed
countries apply these standards with great experience, while developing countries still have a lot to
do in the area.
The most principled application of the philosophy of quality (achieving management system beyond the requirements of ISO 9001) today has a
unique name - the Total Quality Management or
TQM.
One of the definitions of TQM reported by
Choi and Eboch (1998) is that "TQM is ... a collective, interlinked system of quality practices
that is associated with organization performance".
According to the same source, in the nineties of
the last century, TQM was often associated with
complying to the requirements set by the Malcolm
Baldrdige National Quality Award (NIST, 2010).
Kaynak (2003) provides definition of TQM as
"a holistic management philosophy that strives
for continual improvement in all functions of an
organization". Tarí et al. (2007) define TQM as
"a way of improving activities and performance
in firms". If the organization consistently applies
all management principles and if it can provide a
valid justification for that, one could say that it has
achieved TQM.
1.2 Education and quality today
During the last decade of the twentieth century,
efforts were made to introduce elements of TQM
in education (Kanji & Tambi, 1999). In the UK at
the time, several state institutions were assessing
the quality of the education system. The British
Accreditation Body performed the accreditation
778
of educational institutions in the UK since 1984.
Since 1997 the Quality Assurance Agency was
held liable for assuring quality in education.
Bornmann et al. 2006 report that the universities in Western Europe were using the procedure
of multi-stage evaluation and quality assurance of
the teaching process for a certain period.
Countries in transition significantly delay with
evaluating the quality of the teaching process. A
case study of evaluation in education is reported
by Marcus et al. 2009. About 1000 students at a
university in Romania participated in the survey
about quality of teaching, and results are presented
mostly using descriptive statistics. It is indicated
that teaching and learning activities are more important than those activities related to material
base, facilities and services.
Serbia, as well as Romania, applies a system of
accreditation of educational institutions. The evaluation of the teaching process becomes one of the
mandatory requirements. Although the evaluation
of the teaching process has been carried out, the
evaluation results in Serbia still have no significant impact on the design of education development national strategy.
The importance of quality management in education is described in a series of studies created in
various European regions. Examples are numerous (Stukalina 2010, Vlašić, Puhar & Krizman
2009, Sarbu et al. 2009, Csizmadia et al. 2008,
Duh 2007, Dieter, 2008 are some of them). In addition to these, there are many examples of studies related to application of quality management in
education outside Europe. Among them, a number
of studies deal with the teaching process customer
satisfaction and related aspects (for example Sapna, 2005, Gardner 2010, Mergen, Grant & Widrick 2000, Wang & Liang 2008).
No sources available to authors were found
treating topics of this research in detail.
2. Instrument, research method and sample
2.1 Instrument
In an attempt to explore teaching and learning
performance indicators in educating engineers,
Cabrera et al. 2001 used a research design having
a broader research construct than the one presentVolume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
technics technologies education management
ed in this paper. Taking into account various students characteristics, teaching practices and class
climate (relationships between different groups in
the class), they concluded that teaching practices
most significantly affect the output of the teaching process - goals related to the competencies of
trained engineers.
Although this study does not deal with many of
the variables used in Cabrera et al. 2001, some of the
variables are the same. Elements used in the operationalization of the teaching practice at Cabrera et
al. 2001 include the satisfaction with the teachers’
work. Authors of this study divided teachers into 3
groups (homeroom teachers, teachers of professional subjects and teachers of other subjects) bearing
in mind the significance of each group and different
roles these groups have in the teaching process.
Cabrera et al. 2001 found that the satisfaction
with the teachers' skills to transfer knowledge, expressed by students is significant (the estimate is not
related to particular groups of teachers, or particular
teachers). Elements related to the skills of teachers
to transfer knowledge, as well as those indicating
general satisfaction with their work, are in the group
that showed a significant impact on the process outcomes. For this reason, both parameters are taken
into account as potentially relevant for our study.
This and the study of Cabrera et al. 2001 have
similar goals. Namely, a significant part of the
scale in the questionnaire at Cabrera et al. 2001
which represents the object of the study - personal competence - refers to the practical aspects of
knowledge that an engineer acquires during education. In our study, applicability is treated as a
whole, without studying its components in detail
(it remains for the studies that follow).
In order to complete the study, the authors decided to include a group of variables related to
the activity of the students. Kuh et al. 1997 explored relations between the students' goals and
the teaching process. It was determined that the
study should include a set of elements that are
covered by one name - active learning. Kuh et al.
1997 consider active learning through more than
20 elements. The authors have chosen to represent
this dimension of the teaching process using two
elements: the satisfaction with their activities during classes and satisfaction with their work (learning) at home.
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
Having in mind the scope of research, the
characteristics of high school students and youth
in Serbia in general, the authors of the research
included three variables that were initially considered relevant for the research problem. These
are satisfaction with knowledge gained in the current school year, satisfaction with attractiveness
of the curricula and satisfaction with the way students are evaluated. All of the authors are active
participants in the teaching process as lecturers at
universities and they are aware of the importance
of the way students assess these elements. As it
turned out, these supplements contributed to the
completeness of the study results.
Only one objective parameter is included in the
research. It is the respondents' year of schooling.
The questionnaire was created ad hoc, in accordance with the objectives of the research and
available sources. The results of the research,
however, indicate the general issues that require
further research. Elements of the questionnaire are
the dimensions of the teaching process used for
this study.
2.2 Reliability of the questionnaire
After the survey, 427 students handed in the
completed questionnaires. Since the calculated
Cronbach factor a is 0.8647 (a > 0.7), the questionnaire can be considered entirely valid for the
purposes of this pilot study.
2.3 Hypotheses and research method
Described aim and the instrument created for
the research imply two hypotheses. The first is:
H1: students' subjective estimate of the acquired knowledge applicability does not show statistically significant variations by schooling years.
The absence of variations of students' opinions
about the applicability of the acquired knowledge
could lead to a conclusion that a distribution of practical knowledge provided by the curriculum during
the education is balanced through years of schooling.
Second hypothesis is:
H2: it is possible to find predictors of the satisfaction with the applicability of acquired knowledge
among the subjective estimate of teaching process
dimensions provided by high school students
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technics technologies education management
It is, of course, clear that the subjective estimates of the knowledge applicability may not be
realistic, but it is very important to know which
dimensions of the teaching process students associate with the knowledge applicability.
Data acquisition is made using the questionnaire described in previous sections. Respondents
are asked to provide their satisfaction with the
questionnaire elements upon the Likert scale (1 unsatisfied to 5 - strongly satisfied).
Hypothesis H1 testing was performed using
one-way ANOVA of two parameters: YEAR and
Applicability.
Testing of the hypothesis H2 was performed
using multiple linear regression analysis.
2.4 Sample
The survey was carried out in June 2010 using
the sample consisted of students in a high school
in Novi Sad, Serbia. It is one of several technical
schools, which has 12 different departments. Subjective estimates of students from all 12 various
departments are covered by the survey.
The research included 427 students. Students'
success ratings in the sample are various. The success of students from a sample after the first semester varies from year to year. In the fourth year they
are the best (average success rating is 3.84). Average ratings in the previous year were significantly
higher - for the fourth-year students the average
is 4.22. Ratings of high school students in Serbia
range from 1 (unsatisfactory) to 5 (excellent).
158 students from the first year of studies completed questionnaires (37.00%), 112 of them were
attending the second year (26.23%), 96 students
were attending the third year (22.48%) and from
the fourth year of schooling, there were 61 students (14.29%).
Having in mind described characteristics, the
sample can be considered as representative for the
purposes of this pilot study.
3. Results
3.1 Descriptives
The first step of testing hypotheses is extracting
basic descriptive statistics (table 1).
Satisfaction with the work of homeroom teachers has the best evaluation over the observed dimensions of the teaching process (4.1). This parameter
has a maximum standard deviation (1.324), which
means that students agree on this parameter the least.
Students expressed obvious dissatisfaction with
the way their success is estimated because this parameter has the lowest average rating (3.04). The
variable dispersion (1.25) is among the largest, so
the students do not agree on this parameter just
like with the previous one.
3.2 The impact of respondents' schooling year
on subjective estimate of applicability of
acquired knowledge (ANOVA)
This chapter treats testing the hypothesis H1.
Figure 1 show the results of analyzing variance of
searched parameters.
Since ANOVA's p - value is below 0.01, hypothesis H1 is not considered sustainable. Differ-
Table 1. Descriptive statistics of teaching process dimensions by elements
Variable, satisfaction with:
N
N* Mean
SE Mean
the work of homeroom teacher
426
1
4.10
0.064
the work of professional subjects' teachers
423
4
3.83
0.054
the work of other teachers
425
2
3.59
0.052
the knowledge acquired in current year of schooling
427
0
3.65
0.054
applicability of acquired knowledge (central parameter)
424
3
3.74
0.052
the attractiveness of a curricula
424
3
3.08
0.054
teachers' knowledge transfer skills
423
4
3.37
0.053
way pupil's knowledge is evaluated
423
4
3.04
0.061
activities during the class
425
2
3.53
0.055
activities (learning) at home
426
1
3.38
0.061
N - number of questionnaires
N* - number of uncompleted questionnaires by variable
780
StDev
1.32
1.12
1.07
1.11
1.08
1.11
1.10
1.25
1.14
1.26
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technics technologies education management
ences in subjective opinions on the applicability
of acquired knowledge by years of schooling are
statistically significant. As shown in Figure 1, the
students' satisfaction with the acquired knowledge
applicability raises significantly, as the end of their
studies approaches (with the exception of a very
small change in the trend between the second and
third year of schooling).
Figure 1. Interval plot of "Applicability" by
respondents' years of schooling
3.3 Predictors of respondents' satisfaction
with applicability of acquired knowledge
- linear regression analysis
Analysis of variance and calculated coefficient
of determination, indicate reliability of the regression model at the confidence level of 95% (p
<0.05, R2 = 44.4%).
Table 2 presents the results of linear regression
analysis based on data acquired from 406 completed questionnaires.
Results indicate that the predictors of respondents' satisfaction with knowledge applicability
can be extracted from data. Thus, the hypothesis
H2 is considered sustainable. Each of the predictors is specially highlighted in table 3.
4. Discussion
Results indicate that students are more satisfied
with the applicability of acquired knowledge as
schooling goes on. A factual maturing of students
may be the cause for this finding. On the other
hand, it is possible that changes of satisfaction with
knowledge applicability (central parameter) is only
a reflection of the fact that students are more aware
of the need to acquire the applicable knowledge
and/or that the knowledge that is being transferred
can, generally, be applied. The finding, it is evident,
is influenced by the fact that from the first to fourth
grade, the share of practical teaching generally follows the trend expressed by the students (there are
less general and more practical subjects). In addition, the influence of performing so-called practical
teaching carried out in the companies should not be
disregarded. The Serbian economy has been in crisis for a long time. Fewer and fewer companies receive students for practical training (particularly in
recent years), and in firms that do this, students are
usually not given an adequate opportunity to apply
the obtained knowledge.
Years of schooling, regardless of the p-value
(p<0.05) can be considered only a weak predictor
of knowledge applicability estimates because the
Table 2. Results for determining predictors of respondents’ satisfaction with knowledge applicability
Predictor
Coef
SE Coef
Constant
0.68
0.209
Estimates of the work of homeroom teacher
0.05
0.035
Estimates of the work of professional subjects' teachers
0.12
0.047
Estimates of the work of other teachers
-0.04
0.053
Estimates of the knowledge acquired in current year of schooling
0.33
0.048
Estimates of the attractiveness of a curricula
0.26
0.050
Estimates of teachers' knowledge transfer skills
0.08
0.055
Estimates of the way pupil's knowledge is evaluated
-0.09
0.047
Estimates of activities during the class
0.02
0.042
Estimates of activities (learning) at home
0.07
0.038
Year of schooling
0.10
0.039
406 cases used, 21 cases contain missing values, S = 0.81 R-Sq = 44.4% R-Sq(adj) = 43.0%
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
T
3.26
1.55
2.65
-0.84
6.87
5.12
1.50
-2.00
0.57
1.82
2.53
P
0.001
0.122
0.008
0.401
0.000
0.000
0.134
0.046
0.569
0.070
0.012
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technics technologies education management
Table 3. Predictors of respondents’ satisfaction with knowledge applicability
Dimension of teaching process
The year of schooling
Satisfaction with the work of
homeroom teacher
Satisfaction with the work of
professional subjects' teachers
Satisfaction with the work of
other teachers
Satisfaction with the knowledge
acquired in current year of
schooling
Satisfaction with the
attractiveness of curricula
Satisfaction with teachers'
knowledge transfer skills
Satisfaction with the way my
knowledge is evaluated
Satisfaction with my activities
during the class
Satisfaction with my activities
(learning) at home
Predictor (regression
coefficient and p - value)
YES (coef 0.10, p=0.012)
NO (p>>0.05)
Weak impact - coefficient close to zero
Parameter is considered irrelevant
YES (coef 0.12, p=0.008)
NO (p>>0.05)
strong impact
Parameter is considered irrelevant
YES (coef 0.33, p=0.000)
strong impact
YES (coef 0.26, p=0.000)
strong impact
NO (p>>0.05)
Parameter is considered irrelevant
YES (coef -0.09, p=0.046)
NO (p>>0.05)
Weak impact - p-value is high (close to the
limit), coefficient is close to zero, but negative
Parameter is considered irrelevant
NO
(coef 0.07, p=0.07)
corresponding coefficient in the regression model
is one of the lowest and close to zero (Table 3).
Students suppose that the overall satisfaction
with acquired knowledge is a predictor of knowledge applicability estimates. Described finding at
first glance is encouraging because it might point
to a mature reasoning. A more detailed insight into
this finding must take into account the information
on what students do after finishing school - study
or try to get a job. The finding indicates that both
groups (not considered separately in the study) associate total satisfaction with acquired knowledge
with a central parameter. The corresponding coefficient is one of the largest in the regression model
- see Table 3.
The next finding is very important - students believe that attractiveness of curriculum is directly related to the applicability of knowledge. In contrast
to the previous one, this finding may indicate the
immaturity of the reasoning. "Uninteresting", at the
age of high school students, very easily is equalized
with "hard" and "unnecessary". Root of the problem (or, perhaps, only one of them) is most likely in
students' development. High schools could have, in
principle, lot to offer, but it becomes very difficult
782
Comment
Possibly weak impact - coefficient close to
zero, p-value slightly above 0.05
and often impossible, if a family and society do not
create a "positive ground" in the form of an appropriate personality development.
Knowledge acquired by attending professional
subjects is considered applicable (as expected),
while it is not the case with other subjects - students do not associate knowledge acquired by attending general subjects with a central parameter.
It is unlikely that the cause of the last finding lays
solely in the emotional component of the relations
students - teachers. In other words, it is hard to
believe that this finding is not at all influenced by
the content of the curriculum of general subjects.
Students might believe that knowledge acquired by learning about general subjects does not
contribute to the knowledge applicability, although
it cannot be directly claimed based on the finding.
The facts that the curricula in a number of Serbian
schools for many years have not been significantly changed, nor were adjusted to social changes,
may be the cause of students' estimate that general
knowledge is impractical. A more detailed study
could provide an answer to the question of whether students even consider it unnecessary (this conclusion is also emerging as quite possible). If this
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
technics technologies education management
proved correct, it might mean that students have
an impression of spending a lot of energy on general subjects and yet consider them non-applicable. Such an impression is of course wrong, but
it must be borne in mind that, if it exists, from the
students' point of view, it is also very discouraging, reduces the effects of schooling and mentally
takes students away from school as an institution.
The existence of this opinion is even more probable if estimates on satisfaction with activities at
school and at home are taken into consideration
(Table 3). Students do not associate their activities at classes to a central parameter, and activities
at home seem irrelevant, as evidenced by the low
value of the corresponding coefficient (Table 3)
and p-value slightly above 0.05.
Two parameters remained untreated. The first
is the satisfaction with the skill of teachers to
transfer knowledge. The fact that students do not
associate this parameter to the applicability of acquired knowledge is, at least, unexpected. This
finding is at first sight contradictory to the finding on estimating the work of professional subjects' teachers, which is strongly associated with
the central parameter. It is necessary to determine
which component (or components) of relations
between students and teachers of professional subjects is (are) identified as essential for the central
parameter, if it is not the skill to transfer knowledge. Taken into account that the predictor of the
central parameter is attractiveness (of curricula),
then the impression can be got that students expect
teachers to be interesting, and not skilled in transferring knowledge (it is known that one does not
exclude another), which makes the situation more
complex. It is known that effective learning involves making efforts, as opposed to enjoying the
interesting lectures, for which the efforts are not
needed. All of the above makes quite possible the
assumption that the student's interests for learning
is relatively low, and that the motive for the majority of interactions in which students participate is
mostly the desire to have fun. Interesting curriculums, and, especially interesting presentation of
knowledge, it is known, are necessary elements of
good education. However, for the effective education outcomes and for the applicable knowledge,
it is necessary for the student to be motivated by
something more - by the desire for cognition as an
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
essential source of strength for necessary efforts.
Attractiveness of the curricula and interesting way
of presenting the knowledge is only a catalyzer of
an effective knowledge transfer.
The last processed parameter is expressed satisfaction with the homeroom teacher. It proved to
be irrelevant for the purposes of the research. The
finding is expected, since homeroom teacher duties include mostly pedagogical and administrative side of the educational process for students in
the sample.
The study is based on high school students' subjective estimates. Although relations among study
variables observed by statistical methods give a
quite clear picture of what students associate with
knowledge applicability (one of the most important outcomes of schooling), we can never be sure
that we took into account "all of the" parameters
to create the "ideal" picture of the situation on this
issue. This, of course, should not be the reason not
to continue research in this area.
Studies that follow, as in the referenced (and
other relevant) sources, should treat detected problems in more detail, taking into account a number
of new parameters. The best possible basis for this
is regular acquiring the relevant data as a part of
the quality management system of an education
institution. Faculty of Technical Sciences in Novi
Sad, for instance, already harmonized its processes with the requirements of international standards
for quality management systems - ISO 9001. The
task of quality management system is to define the
control mechanisms as a prerequisite for keeping
the process within the planned performance level
and to determine the competence, responsibility
and resources needed for these mechanisms. This
system should also incorporate regular acquiring
and analyzing the data as a prerequisite for applying system improvements.
5. Conclusion
This pilot study was conducted on a sample of
427 high school students in one of several technical schools in Novi Sad, Serbia. Its aim was to
determine whether a schooling year and other dimensions of teaching process are predictors of satisfaction with applicability of knowledge acquired
by students (central parameter). The questionnaire
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technics technologies education management
used in the research is proven to be a reliable research instrument.
The most significant predictors of the central
parameter were estimates of professional subjects
teachers, the knowledge acquired in the current
school year and attractiveness of the curriculum.
Results point to a number of phenomena causing the need to conduct further studies in more
detail (taking into account that the sample can
be considered representative only for this pilot
study). Designing and conducting detailed studies
on more extensive samples could provide sufficient information on the causes of problems of the
education system.
The application of purposeful changes of the
educational system as a whole (in terms of quality
management - improving) requires strategic action, coordinated between a number of institutions.
These improvements should be applied using adverse project management strategies (for example
described in the study by Poli et al. 2010).
References
1. Bornmann, L., Mittag, S., Daniel, H. D. (2006):
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Corresponding Author
Vladan Radlovacki,
Faculty of Technical Sciences,
Novi Sad,
Serbia,
E-mail: rule@uns.ac.rs
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Personality and absence in sport context
Nikbakhsh Reza
Islamic Azad University-South Tehran Branch, Iran
Abstract
This study was designed and performed with
the purpose of determining the relationship between Five Factor model of personality and absenteeism in sport context. Statistical population
in this research was the elite male basketball players and samples were the entire super league basketball player in Iran (195 persons).
Absenteeism and previous absence (absence
history) were collected from club records. Also,
athlete’s personality characteristics determined by
personality inventory (McRae & Costa) and individual attributes and demographic variables by
using checklist. The Pearson Chi-square test was
used for examining hypothesis.
The results showed that there were average neuroticism score, high extraversion score, average
openness to experience score, low agreeableness
score, average conscientiousness score of elite basketball players in comparison with normal males.
Also, the result of present study showed that there
were no significant relationships between neuroticism, extraversion, and openness to experience,
agreeableness, conscientiousness, and absence (P<
0/05). There were not any significant relationships
between demography characteristics (age, education,
marital status, experience in basketball, experience
in basketball league, and experience in basketball
national team membership), and previous absence
(absence history) with present absence (P< 0/05).
Based on the finding of this research it seems
that: The Big Five factor of personality in basketball context isn’t a useful instrument for absence
counter-productive behavior test and organizations
can control absence by changing environment or
giving disciplinary instructions to athletes.
Key words: The Big Five factor of personality,
absenteeism, demographic variables.
Introduction
Understanding the causes of absenteeism has
been a difficult problem for organizational re786
searchers (e.g., Johns, 1997; Martocchio & Harrison, 1993; Rhodes & Steers, 1990) (11). Absence
behavior continues to attract researchers’ attention
because of its prevalence among employees in
many organizations. Absenteeism is “any failure
of an employee to report for or to remain at work
as scheduled, regardless of reason” (Cascio, 2003,
p.45) (3, 25). Researchers’ interest in absenteeism
is in part due to the potentially important organizational and individual consequences of this behavior.
Absenteeism might reflect negative work
norms, such as social loafing, and lead to demoralization. In a broader perspective, absenteeism can
be viewed as part of withdrawal syndrome, where
employees react to undesirable working conditions by behaviors designed to distance themselves
from work, including lateness and intent to leave.
It is possible to be reflecting negative work
norms by absence and lead to decrease motivation, since ones working in an organization, transfer their behaviors, personalities and individual
motivations to it (10, 11, and 22).
From the other aspect, absence can be considered as sing of with drawl treat, in a way that persons prevent from undesirable work conditions by
doing negative behaviors like absence (12).
Being under the control or out of it (being
obligatory and optional) is already the important
issue in absence literature. The concept of absence is probably different in people depending
on situational and time condition (12). Regarding
to ability to control absence or not to control it,
researchers have propounded a previous model
of decision for absence (consciously decision for
being absent). The view of the ability to control
the absence assumes that an employee takes a conscious decision for being absent. So, according to
this theory, individual’s absence can be predicted
beforehand (9). From this view, the factor affecting on absence is individual characteristics. Some
studies suggest that personality variables have important effects on work behaviors and attitudes.
Since, personality affect on attitudes and attitudes
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on motivation, then leading to behavioral results
(21). Based on dispositional theories, people have
almost constant characteristics that influences on
their attitudes and behaviors (5). Personality characteristics prepare persons for doing different behaviors in special conditions (2). Specific study
of individual behavior is considered as his/her
personality determination and because of this, by
knowing individual behavior, it can be predicted
that which behaviors this person shows with this
kind of personality, in different conditions.
In previous years, personality studies haven’t
had an acceptable frame for describing the structure and nature of the personality and there have
been different ideas on personality characteristics
among researchers. However, today, it has been
agreed that Five factor model of personality often
called “ Big Five “ introduced by Goldberg (1990)
can be used for more description of prominent
aspects of individual personalities. Big Five factors include neuroticism, extroversion, openness
to experience, agreeableness, and consciousness.
Today, these five factors have been current in all
of the personality assessments. Big five specifications are the same and inherited in many cultures
and languages. Using these main characteristics is
beyond the personality frame (8). Five personality
traits have affirmed the most ability in expressing
individual behavior in organizations. Studies have
shown that there is a specific relationship between
personality dimensions of five factor and job performance and five factor characteristics are reliable predictors for job performance (28, 26, and
1). There has been also a relationship between employee absence and job performance and success.
Because, work performance will decrease if the
person doesn’t attend in his/her work.
Many studies have shown that absence reflects
the intrinsic and long-term personality traits expressing, absence constancy in periods of time and
different situations. Judge and Martocchio (1994),
in the study of effects of disposition on absence,
suggested that personality variables have significant effects on job attitudes and behaviors (14).
Judge et al (1997) also concluded that conscientiousness and extroversion personality traits, predict the absence. They have suggested that five factor personality model is a useful base for determining dispositional basis of absence. Specially, their
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results have shown that there is less possibility for
conscientiousness and introversion employee to become absent. These specifications have noticeable
stability and probably come for genetic (13). Conte
and Jacobs (2003) showed that five factor personality dimension (conscientiousness, extroversion, and
neuroticism) are related significantly with absence
(4). However, Salgado (2002) has expressed that
five factor personality traits assessments are not the
reason for predicting absence (24).
According to contrasting study in the field of
the relationship between “five factor‘’ personality
dimensions and absence, different conditions of
sports context and organization (clubs and teams)
with the other organizations, and not considering
five factor dimensions in sports context, This research has been done with the purpose of answering to the following questions:
–– How is the personality characteristics
of basketball elite players (big five
characteristics)?
–– Is there any relationship between any
personality five factor traits with the absence
of elite basketball players?
–– Is there any relationship between the absence
and previous absence (absence history) of
elite basketball players?
–– Is there any relationship between individual
and demography variables with the absence
of elite basketball players?
Method
The procedure of this study was correlation.
The population of this study included male elite
basketball players and the samples were 195 athletes from basketball super league with the mean
of 24.84 ± 4.65 year for age, 11.85± 4.69 year for
experience in basketball, 8.75 ± 5.15 year for experience in basketball league, and 1.47 ± 0.63 year
for experience in basketball national team membership (in Iran).
Personality five factor model questionnaire
(NEO-FFI) was used for measuring personality
traits. NEO-FFI includes 60 questions and is used
for assessing personality main five factors. This
questionnaire has been translated into Persian,
then standardization among Iranian. The questions are closed including five choices (strongly
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disagree, disagree, ‘neither disagree nor agree’,
agree and strongly agree) that subject chooses one
of them to answer the question.
Various studies at different cultural and age
groups have expressed the validity of five factor
test. Many similar results have got on male and
female, white men and black men, young men,
adults and old ages. There for, test has a suitable
factorial validity in different sexes, ages and racial
groups. Test-retest and internal consistency used
for made criteria and studies in different age and
cultural groups, shows the reliability of NEO test.
Also 30 questionnaire was distributed and collected among research groups for removing probable defects existing in questionnaire and reliability coefficient calculated by using Cronbach’s
Alpha was a = 0/80.
Demography characteristics were collected by
15 item questionnaire (for collecting athletes individual data) and absence by using check list (for
collecting data related to absence number and previous absence and the number of practice sessions).
In this study, descriptive statistics has been
used for calculating frequency, mean, percent,
standard deviation, and Kolomogrov-Smirnov and
Levin tests. This research is correlation. Because
variables were not normally distributed, so, nonparametric test (Pearson chi-square) test was used.
Significant level has been considered p< 0/05 for
all the calculations.
Figure 1 shows that 57.5 percent of participations were lack of absence in club competitions,
26.7 between 1-5 absences, 12.3 between 6-10,
and 3.4 of them had more than 10 absences.
Figure 1. Number of participations absence
Figure 2 shows that 38.9 of participations
haven’t had absence in last year club competitions
(previous absence), 42.6 between 1-5 absence,
11.1between 6-10, and 17.32 of participations had
above 10 absences in last year.
Results and Discussion
Data in table (1) shows that the mean score
of neuroticism in participations 17.36, the mean
score of extroversion 30/96, mean score of openness to experience 26.42, the mean of agreeableness 28.55, and the mean score of conscientiousness was 35.72.
Table 1. Participations personality characteristics
Personality trait (score)
Neuroticism
Extroversion
Openness to experience
Agreeableness
Conscientiousness
788
Mean
Standard
deviation
17.36
30.96
26.42
28.55
35.72
6.06
4.79
4.35
3.77
5.74
Figure 2. Number of participations previous
absence (absence history)
Research hypotheses test showed that there
was no significant relationship between personality traits (neuroticism, extroversion, openness to
experience, agreeableness, and conscientiousness)
and absence, and between previous and present absence, and between individual characteristics (age,
education, marital status, experience in basketball,
experience in basketball league, and experience in
basketball national team membership) and absence.
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The mean score obtained from neuroticism personality trait in elite basketball players was 17.36
that in comparison with the norms samples in
usual males, this score was average. So, it seems
that they are people tending to be calm and able to
control the stress, but sometimes, experience feeling like guilt, anger and grief.
The mean score obtained from extroversion
personality trait in elite basketball players was
30/96 that was very high in comparison with norm
samples in usual males. Therefore it seems that
they are individuals tending to be extrovert, gregarious, active and happy. They prefer to spend a
lot of time with the other people.
The mean score obtained from openness to experience in elite basketball players was 26.42 that
was average in comparison with norm sample in
usual males. So they tend to take some action but
they also have eagerness to do new things.
The mean score obtained from agreeableness
was 28.55 in elite basketball players that were
very low in comparison with norm samples in
usual males. So, it seems that they are individuals
tending to be serious, skeptic, proud and competitive and show their anger directly.
The mean score obtained from conscientiousness was 35.72 in elite basketball players that
were at the average level comparing with norm
samples in usual males. So it looks that they are
individuals tending to be conscientious, and well
organizer, they also believe in high standards and
try to develop their goals all the time.
The research showed that there is no significant
relationship between neuroticism and absence.
The study of Judge et al (1997), Salgudo (2002)
also showed that there is no significant relationship between neuroticism and absence (13, 24).
While the result Conte and Jacobs study (2003)
showed that neuroticism predicts absence (4).
Neuroticism is generally attributed to non adjustment between psychological and emotional
constancy. Individuals having high score in neuroticism measurement often are timid, anxious and
depressed. It seems that such characteristics makes
person fail in job or work, prevent professional maturity and result in negative behaviors like job desertion and absence. Neuroticism score of basketball players was average in this research and such
persons are generally calm and able to agreement
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with the stresses related to profession. There for, it
seems that these persons won’t to be absent from
exercise and less absence has lead to non significant relationship. Also, it wasn’t observed any significant relationship between extroversion and absence. Judge et al (1997), Conte and Jacobs (2003),
Detrick et al (2004) concluded that extroversion
predicts absence while, Salgado (2002) showed that
there is no significant relationship between extroversion and absence (13, 4, 6, and 24).
Extroverts are socio persons and often show
much interest for taking part in social groups and
activities. Although extroverts may imagine work
place as a place for associating with the others,
sometimes they may consider it as an obstacle
for spending time with friends and families and
involve in the other free activities. In this way, extroverts are often looking for new conditions and
exciting activities. In places that works and activities are repetitive, extroverts may consider work
as a boring and repetitive thing. For this reason, it
has been observed a positive relationship between
extroversion and absence in the above research
results, this is while, regarding to the variety of
activities and excitement in sport contexts, it looks
no significant relationship between extroversion
and absence will be very usual.
In this study, there was no significant relationship between openness to experience and absence.
The other researches, (Judge et al, 1997; Salgado,
2002; Conte and Jacobs, 2003; Detrick et al, 2004)
also showed that openness to experience doesn’t
predict the absence (13, 24, 4, and 6).
The elements of openness to experience behavior include being imaginative, pay attention to internal feeling, mental curiosity and independence
in judgment. Openness to experience persons is
curious about internal and external world and their
life is full of experience. It seems that these persons won’t be absent in these places because of the
existence of wealthy experiences in sport contexts
and satisfying curiosity.
There was no significant relationship between
agreeableness and absence. The researchers (Judge
et al, 1997; Salgado, 2002; Conte and Jacobs, 2003;
Detrick et al, 2004) also showed that agreeableness
doesn’t predict the absence (13, 24, 4, and 6).
Agreeable individuals are more willing to interpersonal interactions. Agreeable person is basi789
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cally altruist, feels sympathy with the others and
eager to help and believes that the others help too.
Agreeableness score was observed at a low level
in participations. Therefore, they are individuals
tending to be serous, skeptic, proud and competitive. Considering to this point that sport contexts
has serious and competitive characteristic, so it
seems that this competitive characteristic in sport
fields has caused to be less absent in elite basketball players, and may be this is the reason for being meaningless variables.
The result of this study showed that there was no
significant relationship between conscientiousness
and absence. Judge et al (1997), Salgado (2002),
Conte and Jacobs (2003), Detrick et al (2004)
showed that conscientiousness will predict absence,
while Salgado (2002) expressed that conscientiousness doesn’t predict absence (13, 24, 4, and 6).
Conscientiousness is described with personal
merit, obedience, and self-control. Conscientious
persons are often known as purposive, determined, categorical, on time and reliable. It looks
that in this study; non relationship between conscientiousness and absence is related to adjusting
the variables including nature of work, organization size or coaches behavior.
The result of this study showed that there is no
significant relationship between the present and
previous absence. While previous studies (Judge
et al, 1997; Rosenblatt & Shirom, 2005) showed
that previous absence is the predictor of the next
absence (13, 23). It seems that contradictory result
of this study with the other studies is because of
the effects of the other factors including coaches,
organization disciplinary approaches (heavy fines
for payment) or work achievement.
The result of this study showed that there is no
significant relationship between age and absence.
Leigh (1991) concluded that age of subject doesn’t
predict their absence (16). While Watson (1981),
Thomson et al (2000), Vivian et al (2003), Rosenblatt & Shirom (2005) showed that age predicts
absence (27, 30, and 23). May be, non significant
relationship between age and absence has been for
the reason of age range equality of athletes. Since
the age range of athletes was 24.83 and regarding
to the nature of this sport, it is not and possible
for adult and old people to attend in this spectrum.
Sport competitive context can be another reason
790
for nonexistence of relationship, in such a context,
absence from exercises may influence individual
physical fitness and lead to weak performance as
well as organizational and team problems. Therefore, person tries to attend in exercises for maintaining sport performance and development.
The result of this study showed that there is no
significant relationship between educations with
absence. Rosenblatt & Shirom (2005) showed that
education predicts absence (23). Maybe non significant relationship is for the other factors including
organization disciplinary approaches (heavy fines
in payment) or coach’s behavior.
The result of this study showed that there is no
significant relationship between marital statuses
with absence. While Watson (1981) showed that
there is relationship between the marital statuses
for justifying this relationship, Watson has expressed that married persons, involve in family
problems and duties and be more absent. But, it
seems that for elite athletes, extreme competitive
context, need for maintaining physical fitness and
need for performing different techniques & tactics
may cause that married and single, don’t be absent
from exercises. Also, club disciplinary actions (including determining heavy financial fines) may
lead to less absence in athletes and this result in
non significant relationship.
The result of this study showed that there was
no significant relationship between experience in
basketball, experience in basketball league, and experience in basketball national team with absence.
Muto & Sakurai (1993), Van den Heuvel et al
(2005) showed that those who exercise will be less
absent (20, 29). Van den Heuvel et al (2005) also
showed that there is no significant relationship between sport activity background and absence (29).
Most of the study participations had equal experience in basketball. May be this has been lead
to non significant relationship between experience
in basketball and absence. Or all the participations,
with much or less experience may have had high
motivation for participation in exercises and this
motivation has resulted in non significant relationship between experience in basketball and absence.
So far, no researcher has studied the relationship between experience in basketball league,
and experience in basketball national team and
absence. For analyzing non relationship between
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experience in basketball league, and experience in
basketball national team and absence, it may be
expressed that all the athletes with experience in
basketball league, and experience in basketball
national team, have probably experienced club
disciplinary actions (including financial fines, depriving from taking part in the matches, etc.), so,
difference in their absence hasn’t been a lot, and
this has caused to be no relation with absence. It
may also be expressed that athletes have understood the importance of exercises better and had
more motivation for taking part in exercises. So,
their absence hasn’t been repeated, or they may be
less absent because of more job satisfaction.
Conclusions
In summary, findings of this study suggest that
personality five factor models in sport context
(elite basketball players) is not a useful base for
testing negative behavior. On the other hand, Big
Five personality traits won’t predict the absence in
sport contexts (basketball). The result, specially,
showed that organizations can control absence
by changing the context or giving disciplinary
instructions, whereas personality characteristics
have considerable stability that probably comes
from genetics. In fact, participations almost give
equal answers to politics in controlling absence
and the results of this study are also expressing
this issue.
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Corresponding Author
Reza Nikbakhsh,
Islamic Azad University-South Tehran Branch,
Iran,
E-mail: R_nikbakhsh@Azad.ac.ir
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29. Van den Heuvel, SG., HG. Boshuizen, VH. Hidebrandt, BM. Blatter, GA. Ariens & PM.Bonger
(2005). ‘Effect of sporting activity on absenteeism in
a working population.’ Sports Medicine 39(3): e 15.
30. Vivan, C. S. Lau., Au. Wing Tung & M. C. Ho. Jane
(2003). ’A Qualitative and Quantitative Review of
Antecedents of Counterproductive Behavior in Organizations.’ Journal of Business and Psychology
18 (1): 73-99.
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Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
technics technologies education management
The Effect of Science Education through
Modeling on Pre-service Teachers’ Views on
Model and Modeling
Ozgul Keles, Mustafa Kisoglu
Aksaray University, Aksaray, Turkey
Abstract
The present study investigated the effects of
models developed within the framework of science
and technology laboratory applications course on
pre-service teachers’ opinions about model and
modeling. Thirty one (20 females; 11 males) preservice teachers from the faculty of education of
Aksaray University participated in the study. For
a 14-week period, the pre-service teachers working in groups prepared various models within the
framework of science and technology laboratory
applications course. “Opinions about Model and
Modeling Questionnaire” developed by Güneş et
al. (2004) was administered to elicit the pre-service teachers’ opinions about model and modeling
as pre-test and post-test. Moreover, at the end of
the study, the classroom pre-service teachers were
asked four open-ended questions to solicit their
opinions about model and modeling. The findings
of the present study revealed that the erroneous
information possessed by the pre-service teachers
about model and modeling before the application
changed in the positive direction. In the responses
given to the open-ended questions, the pre-service
teachers reported that they realized more meaningful and permanent learning through models they
created, they observed increases in their learning
speed and they believe in the usefulness of drawing on model and modeling in lessons.
Key words: Model, modeling, science teaching, pre-service classroom teacher
1. Introduction
The science teaching has an important role in
training science and technology literate individuals. However, due to many different topics and
abstract concepts, science is a difficult field to be
mastered by students. Therefore, in recent years,
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
visual materials such as posters, models, dummies have gained greater importance to facilitate
the learning of abstract concepts particularly in
science courses by students (Sarıkaya, Selvi, &
Doğan Bora, 2004).
Models are one of the tools used to make abstract concepts more concrete by visualizing them.
Harrison (2001) and Treagust, Chittleborough, &
Mamila (2002) defined the unity of all the processes carried out to make an abstract concept clear and
understandable by drawing on all the potential resources as modeling, and they defined the outcome
of the modeling as model. Models can be defined
as simplified representations focusing on some certain aspects of the systems they portray; they make
objects, incidences, ideas or the systems made up
by the combination of them or abstract things more
understandable or help learners to visualize them in
their minds (Gobert & Buckley 2000).
In fact, the concepts of model and modeling are
used to represent the structures employed by scholars to explain the steps followed to generate new
products (laws, theories, principles, equations, formulas etc.) and the outcomes obtained at the end of
these steps (Güneş, Gülçiçek, & Bağcı, 2004). This
is so because one of the most important functions
of models is to simplify complex concepts (Justi &
Gilbert, 2002). In this respect, model and modeling
have an important place in natural sciences (biology, physics, chemistry, mathematics) that aim to
put the information produced at the end of scientific
processes to the service of humanity.
One of the main objectives of the science courses
given at schools is to equip students with skills required to produce scientific information and apply
this information into practice (Osborne & Dillon,
2008). Hence, models used as a teaching material
in science teaching assume an important role in the
interpretation of science and facilitate the understanding of complex concepts (Morgil, Yılmaz,
793
technics technologies education management
& Seferoğlu, 2002). According to Ekici, Ekici, &
Aydın (2007), getting students to prepare models
not only contributes to better understanding of the
subjects but also help students internalize the nature
of modeling operation and raise their awareness of
modeling operation. Incorporating scientific models
into courses of natural sciences provides students
with opportunities to learn discipline-specific information conceptually and help them to see how
scientific information is produced and evaluated
as well (Ünal Çoban, 2009). Research in literature
shows that science teaching (biology, physics,
chemistry, mathematics) enhanced by models and
modeling improves students’ academic achievement, their conceptual learning levels and their interests in science courses (Brewe, 2006; Cerit Berber, 2008; Gökçe Şahin, 2008; Güneş & Çelikler,
2010; Harman & Akın, 2008; Hestenes, 2006;
Koçak, 2006; McLaughlin, 2003; Olkun et al.,
2009; Sarıkaya, Selvi, & Doğan Bora, 2004; Sinan
& Karadeniz, 2010; Ünal Çoban, 2009). The main
requirement of an effective and efficient teaching is
qualified and well-trained teachers. For any teacher
to be qualified they should master their subject area
knowledge well and they need to know how to impart this knowledge to their students effectively. At
that point, models are great contributions to teachers
to teach scientific incidences that can not be directly
observed and explained (Gödek, 2004). Thus, the
teachers who will give science education to students
should be knowledgeable about model and modeling. However, research carried out so far has revealed that teachers have low level of information
about model and modeling (Harrison, 2001; Kibble,
1999; Van Driel & Verloop, 1999). Even, the instructors teaching at education faculties have been
found to have inadequate information about model
and modeling (Güneş, Gülçiçek, & Bağcı, 2004).
Aktan (2007) carried out a study to investigate
the pre-service teachers’ opinions about and attitudes towards model types, modeling and teaching
models and found that though they show positive
tendencies to use models in their lessons when
they become teachers, various factors such as
lack of information and experience about scientific models were found to be negatively affecting
their perception of models. As a result of this finding, it was suggested that the pre-service teachers
should be provided with more opportunities to
794
gain more knowledge and experience about model and modeling throughout their education. This
lack of information and experience on the part of
the pre-service teachers indicates that they are not
sufficiently trained about model and modeling in
the faculties. When the fact that students are first
introduced to science courses in 4th and 5th grades
and that students at these ages are in concrete development stage are considered, it becomes clear
that the knowledge of classroom teachers about
model and modeling should be improved and erroneous information about them should be corrected
and teachers should be persuaded about the positive effects of models used in class on learning.
1.1. Purpose of the study
The present study seeks answers to the following questions;
1. What are the pre-service teachers’ opinions
about model and modeling before the
application?
2. Do science and technology laboratory
applications course carried out through
models created by the pre-service teachers
themselves affect their opinions about
model and modeling?
2. Research Methodology
The present study was carried out in line with
mixed method including both qualitative and
quantitative research methods. At the end of the
study in which single-group pretest-posttest model was used open ended questions were also asked
to the pre-service teachers.
2.1. Sample
The participants of the study are 31 second-year
students (20 females and 11 males) taking Science
and Technology Applications Laboratory course
from the department of Classroom Teacher Education of the Education Faculty at Aksaray University.
2.2. Instruments
As a data collection tool in the study, the questionnaire of “Opinions about Model and ModelVolume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
technics technologies education management
ing” developed by Güneş, Gülçiçek, & Bağcı
(2004) was used. There are 30 5-point Likert
type items in the questionnaire. The items are
subsumed under six headings as what the models are, their roles in natural sciences, how/why
they are used, what causes changes in models, and
what can be the models and then the participants’
opinions were sought (Güneş, Gülçiçek, & Bağcı,
2004). In order to determine the reliability of the
questionnaire, piloting study was carried out with
25 pre-service teachers who were not in the study
group and the reliability coefficient (Cronbach’s
Alpha) was found to be 0.85. This shows that the
questionnaire is highly reliable (Kalaycı, 2005).
In order to determine the effects of model and
modeling activities carried out within the framework of science and technology laboratory applications course on the participants’ opinions about
model and modeling, following four open-ended
questions were asked to the participants.
–– What are your opinions about science and
technology laboratory applications course
carried out through modeling?
–– Did preparing models for your course affect
your learning, if yes, how?
–– Did any change occur in your opinions about
model and modeling after the application, if
yes, how?
–– Do you think of making use of models and
modeling and encouraging your students
to make models in your lessons when you
become a teacher?
2.3. Application
The activities of the present study were carried
out within 24 hours. In 14-week fall term, within
the framework of science and technology laboratory applications course I, the questionnaire of “Opinions about Model and Modeling” was administered
to the pre-service teachers as a pre-test in the first
week of the term. In the second and third weeks of
the study, the researchers gave information about
model, modeling procedure, model samples, the
place and importance of model and modeling in
science teaching. In the fourth week of the study,
the pre-service teachers were divided into heterogeneous groups and they were informed about the
models they would develop in line with certain topVolume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
ics determined by the researchers. In the following
weeks, the pre-service teachers were instructed to
design models to be used for the presentation of
these topics; electroscope, periscope, lunar and
sonar eclipses, respiratory system, urinary system,
support and motion system and circulation system.
Each week, the designed models were presented by
the groups and the other groups shared their opinions about the designed models. In the last week
of the study, the questionnaire of “Opinions about
Modeling” was administered to the participants as a
post-test. Then open-ended questions were asked to
the participants to elicit their opinions about the use
of models and modeling in science teaching. All the
models designed by the students within the framework of the study were displayed at the end of the
term in 1st Science Festival organized by Aksaray
University Education Faculty.
2.4. Statistical Analyses
In the study, both qualitative and quantitative analyses were employed. The data collected
through the questionnaire of “Model and Modeling” were quantitatively analyzed and the data collected with the open-ended questions were qualitatively analyzed. Within the quantitative analyses,
first, the means of the items showing the erroneous
opinions of the pre-service teachers in the pre-test
were calculated to determine the effects of teaching
through models and modeling on the pre-service
teachers’ opinions about model and modeling. After that, the means of the same items from the posttest were calculated and the differences between the
means were found through independent samples ttest. In the qualitative analysis of the data obtained
from the open-ended questions, descriptive analysis was run. The pre-service teachers’ responses to
these questions were evaluated by the researchers
and responses were classified under certain categories and these are presented in Tables.
3. Results
The findings obtained from the study were subsumed under two headings. Under the first heading, the findings obtained from the analysis of the
pre-service teachers’ responses to the questionnaire items are presented and under the second
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technics technologies education management
heading, findings obtained from the pre-service
teachers’ responses to the open ended questions
are presented.
3.1. Findings Obtained from the Analysis of
the Pre-service Teachers’ Responses to
the Questionnaire Items
The pre-service teachers’ responses to the pretest and post-test were analyzed and the findings
concerning the changes seen in the erroneous
opinions of pre-service teachers after the application are presented in Table 1.
When table 1 is examined, it is seen that the erroneous opinions possessed by the classroom preservice teachers about model and modeling before
the application were changed in the positive direction after the application. The pre-service teachers
having the opinion that a model should include everything needed to explain a scientific event before
the application realized after the application that besides the shared characteristics between the model
and the object it represents, there can be other features not shared (t(30)=10.169, p<.001) (Item 7). At
the end of the study, it was observed that active participation of the pre-service teachers in modeling
process affected their perception of the degree of
similarity between the model and the object it represents. While the pre-service teachers were of the
opinion that models should be exact copies of the
objects they represent before the application, they
changed this opinion in the positive direction after
the application (t(30)=9.966, p<.001) (Item 8). In a
similar manner, while the pre-service teachers were
of the opinion that models should be like real objects before the application, they changed this opinion after the application (t(30)=8.979, p<.001) (Item
9). Before the application, high majority of the preservice teachers were of the opinion that a model
should be so similar to a real object that nobody can
reject the similarity, after the application, the number of the pre-service teachers having this opinions
decreased significantly (t(30)=11.934, p<.001) (Item
10). Moreover, the pre-test mean score obtained for
the item “Except for its size, a model should be exactly like a real object” was considerably reduced
after the application (t(30)=13.535, p<.001) (Item
12). After the application the number of the preservice teachers having the opinion that models are
miniaturized forms of objects also dropped significantly (t(30)=10.160, p<.001). It was also observed
that after the application, the pre-service teachers
Table 1. The changes seen in the erroneous opinions of the pre-service teachers about model and modeling according to data obtained from the pre-test and post-test
Items
7. A model includes everything needed to display or
explain a scientific event.
8. A model should be an exact copy.
9. A model should be like a real object.
10. A model should so similar to a real object that
nobody can reject the similarity.
12. Except for its size, a model should be exactly like
a real object.
15. Models are miniaturized forms of objects.
20. A model can be a diagram, a picture, a map, a
graph or a photograph.
29. Dummies and toys are also models.
30. Newton laws, Archimedes principle, Evolution
theory and Pythagoras theorem are models.
p<.001 Statistically significant
**
796
Application
Pretest
Posttest
Pretest
Posttest
Pretest
Posttest
Pretest
Posttest
Pretest
Posttest
Pretest
Posttest
Pretest
Posttest
Pretest
Posttest
Pretest
Posttest
Mean
3.71
1.84
3.94
1.55
4.06
1.97
3.87
1.77
3.97
1.94
4.16
1.90
4.55
1.77
4.32
1.35
1.84
4.48
S.D.
.739
.583
1.063
.568
.814
.795
.846
.717
.875
.574
.779
1.044
.568
1.087
.979
.486
1.068
.677
T
p
10.169
.000**
9.966
.000**
8.979
.000**
11.934
.000**
13.535
.000**
10.160
.000**
13.145
.000**
15.305
.000**
12.020
.000**
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
technics technologies education management
thinking that a model can be a diagram, a picture, a
map, a graph or a photograph mostly changed this
erroneous opinion and realized that models should
not be directly related to the fact the model aims to
explain but they are just tools used to gain information about a fact (t(30)=13.145, p<.001) (Item 20).
After the application, improvement was observed
in the pre-service teachers’ perceptions of model
samples. The pre-service teachers thinking that
dummies and toys are models changed their opinion in the positive direction after the application
(t(30)=15.305, p<.001) (Item 29). In addition, the
pre-service teachers’ active participation in modeling process enabled them to realize that in fact
principles, theorems, and laws are models used to
explain the facts (t(30)=12.020, p<.001) (Item 30).
3.2. Findings obtained from the analysis of
the open-ended questions
The pre-service teachers’ responses to the openended questions asked to qualitatively support the
effects of active participation in modeling process
on their opinions about model and modeling were
coded and categorized by the researchers under
common headings and then presented in tables.
The pre-service teachers’ opinions about the
science and technology laboratory applications
carried out through models and modeling are presented in Table 2.
According to the pre-service teachers, science
and technology laboratory applications carried out
through models and modeling enabled the learners
to learn by doing and experiencing, enhanced the
permanency of learning and helped to reinforce
the acquired information. The pre-service teachers thinking that modeling is highly effective and
should be used in other courses as well also stated
that it is time-consuming and tiresome. Moreover, the pre-service teachers stated that making
models to present the topics is conducive to their
professional development, improves their creativity, helps them to improve their weaknesses and
makes lessons fun. The pre-service teachers’ responses to this question are of great importance to
show the effects of model and modeling on teaching science concepts many of which are abstract.
The findings obtained from the analysis of the
pre-service teachers’ responses to the question
concerning the effects of modeling on learning
process are presented in Table 3.
According to results of the analysis, modeling
positively affected the pre-service teachers’ learning processes. The pre-service teachers think that
modeling makes meaningful learning possible in
a short time, increases the speed of learning, facilitates learning and comprehension, simplifies
complex issues, allows reasoning and interpreting,
improves psycho-motor skills, and helps transferring information into practice.
Table 2. The pre-service teachers’ opinions about science and technology laboratory applications
carried out through models and modeling
Question
•
Categories
Concerning learning;
• Permanent
• Visual
• By doing-experiencing
• Reinforcement
Concerning application;
1. What are your opinions about science and
• Effective
technology laboratory applications course
• Should be employed in all courses
carried out through modeling?
• Time-consuming
• Tiresome
Concerning its benefits;
• Allowing professional development
• Making more creative
• Improving weaknesses
• Making the lesson fun
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
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technics technologies education management
Table 3. Pre-service teachers’ opinions about the effects of modeling on learning process
Question
•
•
•
• 2. Did preparing models for your course
•
affect your learning, if yes, how?
•
•
•
•
Categories
Making meaningful learning possible in a short time
Increasing the speed of learning
Facilitating learning
Facilitating comprehension
Simplifying complex issues
Allowing reasoning and interpreting
Improving psycho-motor skills
Transferring information into practice
Table 4. Findings concerning the effects of the pre-service teachers’ active participation in modeling
process on their opinions about model and modeling
Question
•
• 3. Did any change occur in your opinions
•
about model and modeling after the
application, if yes, how?
•
•
Categories
Understanding that it makes permanent learning possible
Learning that different models can be developed for a related
topic
Improving knowledge level about model and modeling
Believing in the usefulness of model and modeling
Table 5. The pre-service teachers’ opinions about making use of modeling and encouraging their students to develop models when they become a teacher
Question
• 4. Do you think of making use of models
and modeling and encouraging your •
students to make models in your lessons
when you become a teacher?
Categories
Making use of modeling and encouraging students to make
models
The findings obtained from the analysis of the
pre-service teachers’ responses to the question
aiming to determine the effects of active participation in modeling process on their opinions about
model and modeling are presented in Table 4.
The results of the analysis reveals that all the
pre-service teachers want to make use of models and encourage their students to make models
when they become a teacher. This shows that active participation in modeling process has an important influence on the pre-service teachers’ desire to make use of modeling in their lessons when
they become a teacher.
According to the findings presented in the table, the pre-service teachers actively participating
in modeling process started to believe that models
make permanent learning possible. In addition to
this, the pre-service teachers stated that they realized that they can develop different models for a
topic by means of the models developed by the
other groups. Moreover, the pre-service teachers
stated that after the application, their knowledge
798
level about model and modeling improved and
they started to believe in the benefits of modeling.
The pre-service teachers’ opinions about making use of modeling and encouraging their students to develop models when they become a
teacher are presented in Table 5.
4. Discussion
At the end of the present study carried out to investigate the effects of science teaching performed
through the models created by the pre-service
classroom teachers on their opinions about model
and modeling, it was observed that the pre-service
teachers’ active participation in modeling process
has positive effects on their opinions about model
and modeling. This finding concurs with the findings reported by Ekici, Ekici, & Aydın (2007).
Before the application, it was found that the preservice teachers have some erroneous opinions
about the degree of similarity between a model
and the object it represents and what can constitute
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
technics technologies education management
a model. Similar erroneous opinions were also reported by other studies (Berber & Güzel, 2009;
Grosslight, Unger, & Jay, 1991; Güneş, Gülçiçek,
& Bağcı, 2004; Van Driel & Verloop, 1999). After
the application, positive changes were observed in
the pre-service teachers’ erroneous opinions about
model and modeling (Table 1).
The most important factors leading to this change
are believed to be the opportunity given to the students to make models and test these models. Indeed,
at the end of the application, though the pre-service
teachers thought that modeling process is time-consuming and tiresome, they stated that they learned
by doing and experiencing, they transferred information into practice while developing models and
this facilitated their learning the concepts (Table 2
and Table 3). According to Ünal, Akıncı, & Şahin,
(2000, cited in Koçak, 2006, 6), effective and meaningful learning is only possible by means of turning the existing knowledge into knowledge which
is the learner’s own product. To do so, the learner
should actively and personally participate in learning activity. The learner who is active in modeling
process can make learning meaningful by turning
information into learnable forms. The learner who
turns the target information into a model which can
represent it can make the relationships among the
components making up the target information clear
and understandable. As a result of this process in
which the learner is active, target information can
be learned more easily by making abstract information concrete and complex information simplified.
This positive change seen in learning may have
resulted in the pre-service teachers’ comprehending the importance of models and modeling in science teaching and positive changes in their opinions
about model and modeling. The findings obtained
from the analysis of the open-ended questions asked
to elicit the effects of the pre-service teachers’ active
participation in modeling process on their opinions
about model and modeling support this interpretation. At the end of the modeling process, the preservice teachers stated that making models have
positive contributions to permanent learning and
they started to believe in the usefulness of modeling
(Table 4). The pre-service teachers stated that they
would make use of models and modeling when they
became a teacher and they emphasized the role of
modeling in learning science concepts (Table 5).
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
5. Conclusion
At the end of the present study, it was observed
that the science and technology laboratory applications course carried out with the models developed by the pre-service teachers had positive effects on the pre-service teachers’ opinions about
model and modeling. In light of this finding, following suggestions are made:
The pre-service teachers should be equipped
with required information and skills for the proper
use of models and modeling.
Pre-service teachers should be promoted to develop models, particularly in science courses and
possible shortcomings of the developed models
should be discussed.
While making models, pre-service teachers
should be provided with the required materials to
make these models.
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17. Koçak, E. (2006). “İlköğretim 5. Sınıf Öğrencilerinde
“Sindirim ve Görevli Yapılar”, “Boşaltım ve
Görevli Yapılar” Ve “ Çiçekli Bir Bitkiyi Tanıyalım”
Konularının Modelle Öğretiminin Öğrenci Başarısına
Etkisi.” Yayımlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi, Atatürk
Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Erzurum.
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20. Sinan, O. & Karadeniz, Ö. (2010). Mitoz Bölünme
Konusunun Öğretimi İçin Örnek Bir Etkinlik.
İlköğretim Online, 9 (3), 1-7. Retrieved September
19, 2010, from http://ilkogretim-online.org.tr
21. Gödek, Y. (2004). Fen Bilgisi Öğretmen Adaylarının
Çözünme Kavramı Hakkındaki Düşünceleri. VI.
Ulusal Fen Bilimleri ve Matematik Eğitimi Kongresi, Marmara Üniversitesi, İstanbul.
22. Kibble, B. (1999). How do you picture electricity?.
Physics Education, 34 (4), 226-229.
23. Van Driel, H.J. & Verloop, N. (1999). Teachers’
knowledge of models and modelling in science. International Journal of Science Education, 21 (11),
1141-1153.
24. Aktan, M.B. (2007). Fen Bilgisi Öğretmen Adaylarının
Model Çeşitleri, Modelleme ve Öğretim Modelleri Üzerine Düşünceleri ve Eğilimleri. 1. Ulusal
İlköğretim Kongresi, Hacettepe Üniversitesi, Ankara.
25. Kalaycı, Ş. (Ed.) (2005). SPSS Uygulamalı Çok
Değişkenli İstatistik Teknikleri. Ankara: Asil Yayın
Dağıtım.
26. Kumcagız H., Avci I. A.: The effect of planned education given to students on their menstrual hygiene
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Corresponding Author
Ozgul Keles,
Aksaray University,
Aksaray,
Turkey,
E-mail: ozgulkeles@gmail.com
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
technics technologies education management
Fatigue crack propagation models: numerical
and experimental comparisons
Stasevic M.1, Maksimovic S.2, Geric K.3, Burzic Z.2, Vasovic I.4
1
2
3
4
NIS Petrol, Novi Sad, Serbia,
VTI-Aeronautical Department, Belgrade, Serbia,
Faculty of Technical science, Novi Sad, Serbia,
Institut GOŠA, Belgrade, Serbia.
Abstract
This paper`s objective is to establish convenient
and efficient numerical models for the crack propagation analysis of structural elements with initial
damages. The goal of this paper is the establishment of computation methods for the evaluation of
the residual life of structural elements in the presence of initial damage which appears in the form
of cracks. Initial cracks appear during the exploitation of structures in stress concentration zones.
Therefore in this paper computation method for the
evaluation of the residual life of structural elements
with initial damage subjected to cyclic loading
of constant amplitude is presented. Calculational
methods for the evaluation of the residual life of
structural elements with initial damage basically
rely on crack propagation analysis. In this paper two
numerical simulation approaches to crack propagation are presented. First approach is based on the
conventional Paris` law of crack propagation, while
the other utilizes the strain energy density method
during the analysis of crack propagation. The Strain
Energy Density Method (SED) uses the low-cycle
fatigue properties of the material. Therefore experimentally obtained dynamic properties of the material such as Paris` constants are not required when
this approch is concerned. For the S355 J2 G3 steel,
which was used in the research, low-cycle properties of the material and Paris` constants for the
crack propagation analysis have been determined
experimentally. The complete method for the crack
propagation analysis using low-cycle fatigue material properties is illustrated with the structural element in the form of a plate with a hole and a single
initial crack. Results of numerical simulation for
crack propagation based on strain density method
and conventional Paris` law of crack propagation
have been compared with experimental results.
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
Key words: Fatigue, crack propagation methods, strain energy density method, residual life
estimation, finite elements
1. Introduction
The occurrence of initial damages in the form of
cracks is possible on critical components of structures subjected to dynamic loads during exploitation. In this paper the attention is focused on the
structure of the CARDWELL II KB 210 A overhaul facility tower. During exploitation this facility,
which is basically a lattice structure, is subjected to
the spectrum of changeable loads which can cause
the occurrence of initial damages in the form of
cracks, as well as their propagation. For determination of critical locations the structural analysis
based on the Finite Element Method (FEM) is being used. Detailed structural analysis of the stress
state of the overhaul facility, based on FEM, is presented in [15]. Aside from determining the critical
elements from the aspect of fracture mechanics, it`s
also important to define the shape of initial damages. When structural elements of small thicknesses
are concerned, it is assumed that initial cracks go
through the entire thickness of the structural element. Apart from that, the assumption that cracks
go through the entire thickness of robust structural
elements is rather too conservative.
In those cases it`s necessary to assume the existance of a surface initial crack of a half-elliptical
or some other shape which propagates partially
through the thickness in critical locations of structural elements. When these shapes of surface
cracks are concerned, it is far more complex to
define the stress intensity factors (SIF) in an analytical form necessary for the crack propagation
analysis. Apart from accurate determination of the
stress intensity factor for the evaluation of residual
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life, it is important to accurately determine the trajectory of crack propagation.
Concerning the mode I crack propagation, the
trajectory is unambiguously defined. On realistic
structures the occurence of initial cracks is rather
frequent, especially at locations of stress concentration, which results in the occurrence of mixed
mode crack propagation. It is far more complex
to determine fracture mechanics parameters and
trajectory of crack propagation under these conditions. Numerical simulations based on Finite
Element Method, along with suitable criteria for
determination of initial angles after every increment of crack propagation, are being used in order
to determine the trajectory of crack propagation.
X-FEM (Extended Finite Element Method)
proved to be an efficient approach regarding 2D
mixed mode crack propagation. The objective of
this paper is to establish an efficient and reliable
numerical approach to mixed mode crack propagation analysis. For that purpose conventional
singular finite elements are being used, as well as
suitable criteria for determination of initial angles
after every increment of crack propagation.
It`s a well known fact that the overall life of
structural elements subjected to cyclic loading can
be divided into two periods, taking into consideration the aspects of calculation methods: period
until the occurrence of initial damage1 and period
of crack propagation2-4.
For the life evaluation of structural elements until the occurrence of initial damage in the low-cycle
fatigue domain the relations for which the magnitudes of low-cycle fatigue material behaviour properties have to be obtained experimentally are being
used. For the crack propagation analysis and evaluation of residual life of structures two approaches
can be used. First approach is based on conventional
crack propagation laws such as Paris`s crack propagation law, for which it is necessary to experimentally obtain dynamic properties of the material. The
second approach for crack propagation analysis is
based on the use of Strain Energy Density Method.
This approach uses the low-cycle fatigue properties
of the material, which are also being used for the
life evaluation until the occurrence of initial damage. Therefore experimentally obtained dynamic
properties of the material such as Paris` constants
are not required when this approch is concerned.
802
This research is focused on the second stage, or
in other words on prediction of residual life of a
structural element with initial damage in the form
of cracks. Regardless of which stage is in question, it`s necessary to develop new and improve
the existing life prediction numerical models. In
engineering practice the application of life prediction numerical models enables to reach life prediction of a structural element relatively quick. Every
single life prediction numerical model has to be
based on adequate criteria.Failure of structural element occurs during crack propagation, therefore
that stage has to be monitored with special care.
Since the presence of plastic strain leads to failure,
it’s important to include the influence of elastic
and plastic strain into criteria, which makes life
prediction for the crack propagation stage more
accurate in an attempt to describe true behavior
of structural elements during cyclic loading. One
of criterions which take into account presence of
both elastic and plastic strain is energy criterion.
During the formulation of energy criterion various parameters can be used. It’s best to use parameters by which it’s possible to adequately define energy which absorbs within the material and
subsequently leads to structural element failure.
Therefore, models formulated by Weertman and
Burck5,6 were based on parameters associated with
low-cycle fatigue properties. They have reached
the conclusion that it’s possible to determine the
level of absorbed energy until failure occurs with
knowledge of low-cycle parameters. Some time
later, Liu7 and many others used the parameters
associated with low-cycle fatigue in order to determine life prediction of structural elements with
initial damage. Chand and Garg8 have also contributed heavily with their own models completed
by modifying Weertman`s model through the use
of Rice’s method9,10 of superposition.
The focus of this paper is to establish the methodology for residual life evaluation of the tower
structure of the overhaul facility CARDWELL II
KB 210 A, Fig 1.
The overhaul tower is basically the lattice construction and its elements are made of S355 J2
G3 steel. It is subjected to changeable amplitude
loading, and therefore it`s necessary to carry out
the life evaluation in order to design such structures properly for the period until the occurrence
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
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of initial damage, as well as for the period of crack
propagation. The objective of the research presented in this paper is the establishment of crack
propagation analysis, as well as residual life evaluation for structural elements made of S355 J2
G3 steel. For that purpose the dynamic properties
of the material necessary for modelling the crack
propagation through the use of Paris` crack propagation law and the impact ductility of the material,
which is the basis for determination of low-cycle
behaviour properties of the material have been obtained experimentally.
low-cycle properties of the material, which means
that for the computational residual life evaluation
of structural elements with initial damage low-cycle properties of the material are being used, or in
other words the same properties which are being
used for life evaluation until the occurrence of initial damage. In order to verify the computational
method for the crack propagation analysis and residual life evaluation based on strain energy density the results have been compared to those obtained by experiments which involved the board
with a hole and a single initial crack.
The objective of this paper is to develop an adequate and efficient numerical approach which enables life prediction of structural elements during
the crack propagation stage. Besides that, formulated model is based on energy criterion. Within
the scope of the suggested model / procedure the
same parameters required for the stage which lasts
until the occurrence of initial damage are being
used. In engineering practice there are structural
elements with geometrical discontinuities in the
form of holes where the stress concentration occurs. One of the objectives of this paper is to establish an efficient approach regarding residual
life prediction of structural elements of the abovementioned tower with geometrical discontinuities
in the form of holes initially damaged through the
occurrence of cracks while being subjected to cyclic loading of constant amplitude.
2. Crack propagation models
Figure 1. «CARDWELL KB 210A» overhaul
facility tower
The other part of the paper comprises the calculation and experimental residual life evaluation for
representative complex specimens - boards with a
hole and a single initial crack subjected to cyclic
loading of constant amplitude made of S355 J2 G3
steel. For the crack propagation analysis and residual life evaluation of specimens with a hole and a
single initial crack Strain Energy Density Method
is being used. It has been aforementioned that this
approach for crack propagation analysis utilizes
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
In this paper two numerical simulation approaches to crack propagation and, accordingly,
evaluation of residual life for structural elements
with initial damages are presented. First approach
is based on conventional laws of crack propagation, such as Paris` law of crack propagation15.
The other approach is based on the strain energy
density method.
2.1 Conventional Crack propagation model
Conventional laws of crack propagation have
been almost exclusively used for the evaluation of
residual life of structures in the presence of initial
damages in the form of cracks in previous years,
such as Paris` law:
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da
= C ( D K ) m ..................... (2.0)
dN
where: a - crack length; N - number of cycles;
K - stress intensity factor; C, m - material parameters.
2.2 Crack propagation model based on lowcycle fatigue properties
While predicting life of a structural element with
initial damage it`s necessary to establish the functional dependency between the crack propagation
gradient da/dN and the stress intensity factor KI.
The severest damage accumulation occurs in
the process zone7,11, therefore it`s necessary to define and calculate the energy which causes damage in the process zone. For the zone around the
tip of the crack (process zone) it`s possible to define the energy generated through plastic strain wp
in a cycle using length unit as a function of stress
intensity factor range ΔKI:
1 - n / DK I2
w p =
y . ................ (2.1)
/
1
n
+
E I n/
where: n¢ - cyclic strain hardening exponent, E
– Young`s modulus of elasticity, In¢, y - constants
which depend on the cyclic strain hardening exponent n¢. For most metals the value of n¢ usually
varies between 0,10 and 0.25, with an average value close to 0.15. Since the dependency for energy
generated due to plastic strain wp as a function of
DKI is established, it`s necessary to establish the
dependency between the crack propagation gradient da/dN and wp. While establishing the dependency a fact that the crack propagates if energy
which generates due to plastic strain during the
cycle reaches the energy absorbed during the same
cycle Wc must be taken into account:
da wp
=
............................. (2.2)
d N Wc
In equation (2.2) energy absorbed during the
cycle WC can be defined if stress – strain relati804
on, or the material behaviour equation, is known.
Adequte relation for material behaviour which includes both elastic and plastic behaviour is known
as Ramberg – Osgood equation14:
S
S
ea = a + a/
E k
1
n/
................... (2.3)
where: ea – strain amplitude, Sa – stress amplitude and k¢- cyclic strength coefficient. If the material behavior equation is presented by equation
(2.3), energy absorbed during the cycle Wc represents the area below the curve in S-e coordinate
system, or:
Wc =
4
s /f e /f .................... (2.4)
/
1+ n
where: sf¢ - fatigue strength exponent, ef¢ - fatigue ductility coefficient. Finally, if equations
(2.1) and (2.3) get placed in equation (2.2), functional dependency between crack propagation gradient and stress intensity factor gets established.
Subsequently, that dependency can be integrated
from initial crack length ai to final crack length ac
in order to obtain the relation which could be used
for the prediction of life of structural elements
which contain initial damage:
N=
(1 - n )y
/
4 E I n/ s e
/
f
ac
∫ (DK
/
f a/
I
- DK th
)2 . ........ (2.5)
where DKth is range of threshold stress intensity
factor. DKth is a material constant but it is sensitive to stress ratio R=Smin/Smax. A relation between
DKth and R is given below based on experimental
results [8]
DKth = DKth0(1 - R)g .................... (2.6)
where DKth0 is the range of threshold stress intensity factor for the stress ratio R=0, and g is a
material constant which varies from 0 to 1 [12,13].
For most of materials g comes out to be 0.71 [8].
Equation (2.5) presents the law of crack propagation based on strain energy density method. It`s
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obvious that in this dependency cyclic characteristics of material from low-cycle fatigue domain are being used instead of dynamic parameters
from more conventional laws for crack propagation by Paris, Forman and others. Main advantage
of this approach is the use of same cyclic material
characteristics being used for life prediction until
the occurrence of the initial crack for the analysis
of crack propagation.
where r is radius of hole and a - the length of
crack. Analytic expression for SIF (3.1) is verified
using finite element method (FEM).
Figure 2. Geometry of cracked structural element
3. Definition of stress intensity factor
Equations which refer to crack propagation
gradient and life prediction until the failure occurs
are formulated as functions of stress intensity factor DKI. Stress intensity factor (SIF) includes the
geometry of a structural element and the type of
outer loading into calculation. In the analytical relation for the stress intensity factor:
K I = Y S π a , . ..................... (3.1)
Y stands for the corrective function which describes the geometry of a structural element and
the type of loading, a – crack length, S – stress.
Within numerical examples uniaxial load which
affect the cracked structural element have been
analyzed, Figure1. Since the structural element
contains a hole of radius r and a single crack of
length a0, the corrective function looks like this for
uniaxial loading11
Figure 2 presents the appearance of a structural
element which contains a hole and a single initial
crack (w=50mm, r=10mm, t=5mm, a0=3.5 mm).
To validate analytic equation for SIF (3.1) here finite element method is used. Stress intensity factor
is calculated by using the finite element method.
More precisely, stress intensity factor gets calculated by using singular finite elements for various
crack lengths. Based on discrete values of stress
intensity factor calculated by using the finite element method, analytical formula in polynomial
form gets derived for the stress intensity factor
necessary for the analysis of crack propagation.To
validate analytic equation for SIF (3.1) here finite
element method is used. A representation of the
finite element analysis for structural element with
hole and one crack is shown in Figure3. Namely,
Figure 3 presents stress distribution of damaged
structural element for crack length a = 0.00127 m.
Y = z Yw Yb1 ......................... (3.2)
and
z=
1
2
1
π w
cos 2 r
180
2
; Yw =
1
;
π (2 r + a )
cos
2 (w - a )
..................................... (3.3)
- ( a/ w)
- ( a/ w)
Yb1 = 0 . 7 0 8 3 3 + 1 . 2 9 2 7 5 e 0 . 1 7 1 9 7 + 0 . 2 9 2 2 3 e 4 . 8 1 6 1 7 +
- ( a/ w)
+ 1 . 1 0 0 5 7 e1 . 0 4 2 6 7
..................................... (3.4)
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
Figure 3. Stress distribution for structural element
with a circular hole and one crack
(F = 5200 N and a = 0.00127 m) using finite element analysis
After stress distribution, as a result of finite element analysis for different values of crack length
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a, it is possible to determine stress intensity factors. Obtained values for stress intensity factors
using numerical approach, (FEM), as well as analytical approach (Eq. (3.1) with Eqs. (3.2) to (3.3))
are listed in Table 1.
Table 1. Comparisons FE and Analytic Solutions
for Stress Intensity Factors
a0 [mm]
K IFEM
K IAnal (eq.3.1)
D [%]
1.27
2.5
4
6
12.8
15.4
17.4
19.6
12.23
15.6
18.24
21.07
4.45
-1.30
-4.83
-7.50
1
2
3
4
Comparisons in Table 1 shows good agreement
between analytical results and numerical results
for values of stress intensity factors for different
values of crack length a. Due to that fact, relation
for the corrective function (Eq. (3.2) with (3.3)
and (3.4)) can be used in formulated procedure for
crack propagation prediction of damaged structural element presented in Fig 1.
4. Experimental determination of material
properties
For the crack propagation analysis of structural
elements the following has been experimentally
determined: (1) dynamic properties and (2) lowcycle properties of steel S355 J2 G3. It should be
pointed out, regardless of the method for determination, that:
- For the determination of fatigue crack propagation rate da/dN and fatigue threshold DKth,
which are being used for determination of dynamic properties of material, three point bending
test on standard Charpy specimens through the use
of the resonant high-frequency pulsator was performed. The test itself was carried out with force
control. The pulsator accomplishes sinusoidal unidirectional changeable moment load in the range
from -70 to 70 Nm. Crack increment measurement
system, FRACTOMAT and foil crack gauge used
for that purpose are supposed to register the deviation of electrical resistance of the foil crack gauge.
On the basis of this test and obtained crack
length (a) - number of cycles (N) dependence, fatigue crack propagation rate da/dN is being obtained. Depending on the applied changeable load,
806
expressed through the deviation of the stress intensity factor range ΔK, log da/dN - log (ΔK) curves are being drawn.
Determination of dependence of the fatigue
crack propagation rate per cycle da/dN on the
stress intensity factor range ΔK relies on determination of coefficient C and exponent m of the
Paris equation.
Eight specimens, with marks A1 - A8, have
been subjected to low-cycle fatigue at room temperature on a servohydraulic MTS system. Testing
of resistance to low-cycle fatigue has been carried out at strain amplitude levels De/2 = 0.5, 0.6,
0.8, 0.9 i 1.0 %. The strain-controlled loading regime with cyclic assimetry factor Re = -1 has been
applied. Low-cyclic fatigue properties of S355 J2
G3 steel, determined through the testing of its resistance to low-cycle fatigue in strain controlled
conditions, with cyclic assimetry factor Re = -1, is
presented in table 2.
Table 2. Low Cyclic Fatigue properties of S355
J2 G3 steel
Material properties
Modulus of elasticity, E [MPa]
Cyclic strength coefficient, K' [MPa]
Strain strengthening exponent during
cyclic loading, n'
Fatigue strength coefficient, s'f [MPa]
Fatigue strength exponent, b
Fatigue ductility coefficient, e'f
Fatigue ductility exponent, c
Value
207650.0
1245.1
0.1924
1217.4
-0.1104
0.6347
-0.5521
5. Comparisons numerical and experimental results
Procedure for the life prediction of structural
elements during the crack propagation stage formulated in previous chapters will be applied on
a structural element which contains a hole and a
single crack subjected to constant amplitude cyclic loads. For the calculational crack propagation analysis and for the residual life evaluation of
structural elements with initial damage in the form
of cracks, in-house software packages „P-GED“
based on the use of low-cycle fatigue properties
and “P-Paris” based on conventional dynamic
properties of the material has been developed.
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5.1 Crack propagation test
A structural element which contains a hole and
a single crack on one side of the hole has been
taken into consideration, Figure 3. An experiment
with the objective to determine crack propagation
was executed in order to verify the calculation
procedure for the analysis of crack propagation
based on strain energy density.
Testing was carried out using a servo-hydraulic MTS fatigue testing machine, Figure 4, with
computerized control and data lagging. The crack
length variation during cyclic loads was determined using the commercial thin foil crack gauge
and FRACTOMAT system from Rumul and
logged on a computer. This system enabled a very
accurate monitoring of crack length. The accuracy
is ±0.01 mm, which exceeds ASTM-617 - `Standard Test Method for Measurement of Fatigue
Crack Propagation Rates` standard by a factor
of 10. Before crack propagation measurements,
specimens were fatigue-precracked in the tensiontension mode to obtain a sharp initial cracking.
The crack was propagated at a constant applied
load using MTS machine. Examinations were
performed by applying constant amplitude cyclic
loads. Specimen was analyzed under constant amplitude loads: Smax=80 MPa and Smin=8 MPa.
The values of In¢=3.067 and y=0.95152 that are
used in this analysis (Table 2) were defined in reference [14].
Figure 5. Appearance of specimen with the initial crack and foil crack gauge
5.2 Comparisons results of numerical simulation with experiments
Experimental testing of crack propagation, as
well as the numerical simulation of crack propagation using the strain energy density method, under constant amplitude loading (Smax=80 MPa and
Smin=8 MPa) are presented in Figure 6 and Tables
3 and 4.
Figure 4. Experimental measuring of crack
propagation with use of foil crack gauges
Figure 5 presents a specimen with an adequately positioned foil crack gauge. Specimen material
is S355 J2 G3 steel with the following static (yield
strength of 409 MPa and tensile strength of 551
MPa).
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
Figure 6. Analysis of crack propagation:
Comparison of computation and experimental
results (Kc=139)
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In Figure 6 the comparative curves of crack
propagation rate depending on the number of cycles obtained through the use of the conventional
Paris` crack propagation law, strain energy density
method and experimental results, as well as experimental results are shown. The diagram illustrates
good agreement of results obtained through the
use of the conventional Paris` crack propagation
law with those obtained by strain energy density
method. The good agreement of results obtained
by these two approaches with experimental results
is also evident, Figure 6.
It`s noticeable that numerical approach based
on strain energy density method agrees better with
the experiment in comparison with the conventional Paris` crack propagation law, Figure 6
In previous Tables 3 and 4 are: SigmaF≡s'f,
EpsilonF`≡e'f,
DeltaKth0≡DKth0,
Psi≡y,
SigmaMax≡Smax, SigmaMin≡Smin, Y-is the corrective function defined by eq. (3.2) and C,m –
Paris`s constants. Numerical simulation results
for crack propagation on a structural element
which contains a hole and a single crack, based
on conventional Paris’ crack propagation method
Table 3. Complete numerical simulation results for crack propagation using strain energy density method and “P-GED” software
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Table 4. Complete numerical simulation results for crack propagation using Paris’s crack propagation
method and “P-Paris” software
and strain energy density method (SED), points
out that presented approach could be efficiently
used in the analyses of residual life. As previously
mentioned, presented strain energy density method uses cyclic characteristics of the material from
low-cycle fatigue (LCF) domain instead of dynamic parameters from more conventional laws for
crack propagation by Paris and others.
6. Conclusions
The primary objective of this research was
to prove the validity of the strain energy density
method for the crack propagation analysis. For
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
that purpose experimental determination of dynamic and low-cycle properties of S355 J2 G3
steel which was used for the production of support
elements of the overhaul facility CARDWELL II
KB 210 A tower has been performed. For a structural element in the form of a plate with a circular
hole and an initial crack on one side of the hole,
made of S355 J2 G3 steel and subjected to constant amplitude cyclic loading, experimental crack
propagation analysis has been carried out.
Results which illustrate crack propagation obtained through the use of the conventional Paris`
crack propagation law agreed well with those obtained by strain energy density method. The good
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agreement of results obtained by these two approaches with experimental results was also evident.
These results prove the validity of the strain
energy density method for the crack propagation
analysis, as well as for the evaluation of residual
life for structural elements with initial damages
in stress concentration zones. It was previously
mentioned that the basic advantage of the strain
energy density method is the fact that it utilizes
low-cycle fatigue properties, the same properties
which are being used for life evaluation until the
occurrence of initial damage. This approach does
not require any additional experimental tests for
determination of dynamic properties of material,
necessary for the employment of the conventional
Paris` crack propagation law.
References
1. Maksimović, S., Fatigue Life Analysis of Aircraft
Structural Components, Scientific Technical Review,
Vol. LV, No.1, 2005.
2. Maksimović, S., Aircraft strength analysis with respect fatigue and fracture mechanics, 2. Scientific
expert conference with international participation on
defensive technologies, OTEH 2007, Belgrade.
3. Jovičić, G., Živković, M., Maksimović K., Đorđević,
N., The crack propagation analysis on the real structure using the X-FEM and EFG methods, Scientific
Technical Review, No. 2, 2008.
4. Jovičić, G., Živković, M., Jovičić, N., Numerical
simulation of crack modeling using extended finite
element method, Strojniški vestnik- Journal of Mechanical Engineering, Vol. 55, No. 9, 2009.
9. Oh, Y.J., Nam, S.W, Low-cycle fatigue crack advance
and life prediction. J. Mater. Sci. Vol. 27, pp. 20192025, 1992.
10. Rice, J.R., Mechanics of crack tip deformation and
extension by fatigue, In: Fatigue Crack Propagation, ASTM STP 415, Philadelphia, PA: American
Society for testing and Materials, pp. 247-311,
1967.
11. Boljanović, S., Maksimović, S., Djurić, M., Analysis
of crack propagation using Local Strain Density
Method, Scientific Technical Review, Volume LVIX,
No. 2, 2009, pp. 12-17.
12. Beevers C.J, Fatigue crack propagation characteristics at low stress intensities of metals and alloys,
Metal Sci., 1977 August/September, 362-367
13. Ritchie R.O., Near theshold fatigue in ultra-high
strength steel, Trans ASME , J Eng Mater Tech,
1977, 99; 195-204.
14. Glinka, G., A notch stress-strain analysis approach
to fatigue crack propagation, Eng Fract. Mech, 21
(2); pp. 245-261, 1985.
15. Stasevic M., Analysis of Stress and Deformation
State fo the Cardwell KB 210 A Overhaul Facility
Tower, Magister Thesis, Faculty of Technical Sciences, Novi Sad, 2002.
Corrsponding author
Milenko Stasevic,
NIS Petrol,
Novi Sad,
Serbia,
E-mail: milenko.stasevic@nis.rs
5. Li D.M., Nam W., Lee C.S., An improvement on prediction of fatigue crack propagation from low cycle
fatigue properties, Eng. Fract. Mech., 60 (4), 1988,
pp. 397-406.
6. Boljanović, S., Maksimović, S., Belić, I., Fatigue Life
Prediction of Structural Components Based on Local
Strain and an Energy Crack Propagation Models,
WSEAS TRANSACTIONS on APPLIED and THEORETICAL MECHANICS Issue 2, Volume 1, pp. 196203, December 2006.
7. Liu, Y.Y., Lin, F.S., A mathematical equation relating
low cycle fatigue data to fatigue crack propagation
rates, Int. J. Fatigue, Vol. 6, pp.31-36, 1984.
8. Chand, S., Garg, S.B.L., Crack propagation under
constant amplitude loading, Eng. Fract. Mech., Vol.
21(1), pp. 1-30, 1985.
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A Numerical Study Effect of Aircraft’s Main Gear
Configuration on Airport Runway Damages
Gholam Ali Shafabakhsh1, Ehsan Kashi2
1
2
Department of Civil Engineering, Engineering Faculty, Semnan University, Semnan, I. R. of Iran,
Highway and transportation field of Semnan University, Semnan, I. R. of Iran.
Abstract
Nowadays, with growing aircraft industry in
the world, many differences Aircraft Company
make various airplanes. These differences commonly are aircraft usage varieties (E.g. Generic,
Military, Other commercial, Passenger), wheels
geometric shape and main gear configuration.
This article shows with use of Federal Aviation
Administration (FAA) new version software for a
numeral study to researching about effect Airbus
and Boeing aircrafts gear configuration in airfield
rigid and flexible pavement Cumulative Damage
Factor (CDF), that is the amount of the structural
fatigue life of a pavement which has been used up,
and in represent research this amount calculated
for each aircrafts by new version of LEDFAA
software; this software is capable to design and
analyse rigid and flexible airfield pavements and
composite pavement by FAA method, which has
several capability to analyse the Cumulative Damage Factor by any aircraft in the airfield pavement
system. This research shows among Boeing group
aircrafts, B-777 and among Airbus group aircrafts,
A-340-500/600 have most damage in flexible and
rigid pavement. In this paper for calculate Cumulative Damage Factor contribution for Airbus and
Boeing aircrafts, also rigid and flexible pavements
are compared and results and diagrams is shown.
Key word: Numeral study, Gear configuration,
Airfield pavement damage, Airbus and Boeing.
1. Introduction
Studying of airfields traffic has shown that always many aircrafts with different weight and gear
configuration are flighting. It is clear that this difference in airplanes cause to different power of damage in the rigid and flexible pavements. In industrial countries the Airport Pavement Management
System (APMS) has played main role to reduce
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
pavement damage and expense of maintenance and
repairing process [1]. In this case, Federal Aviation
Administration (FAA), studies on experimental
model with full scale testing and its research was
about result of making 2D and 3D models by finite
element method that prepared for using of aircraft
next generations [2, 3, 4]. In this research, LEDFAA software is used for evaluation of gear configuration effects on rigid and flexible pavement
damage, which it is acting by layered elastic design method. This software made by FAA and in
this numeral study used version 1.3, (June 2004)
of software. The LEDFAA is capable to design and
analyse rigid and flexible pavement and composite
pavement by FAA method [5]. This software has
several capabilities to analyse the cumulative damage factor by any aircraft in the pavement system.
2. Research History
There are many researches about the amount of
pavement damage and effecting different aircrafts
on its. Federal Aviation Administration simulated
with using of field's tests in full scale and with
helping the National Airport Pavement Testing
Facility (NAPTF) on the various aircrafts with position and arrangment in wheels and its weight [6].
Also in 2004, Erol Tutumluer & Tai Kim, use of
different tests for studying permanent deformation
behavior in airport pavement on the A380, B777300, B747 and other military aircraft that same of
aircraft in B777-300 and A380 had most effect to
the amount of rutting in rigid pavements [7].
In 2005, Chia-pei & Shih-ying Wang, use of
field research results in the Taiwan international
airport (Chiang Kai Sheck) [8], and shown their
results in the 3D finite element. The main gear
configurations make effect on the pavement and
have importance role to the design life for pavement and concrete slab thickness and they shown
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with simulation B777-300 and B747 that vertical
stress made to the pavement in the effect of static
loads is more than of doing dynamic loads.
In 2006, Rodney N.joel, the member of FAA's
airport engineering board, have studied by FAA's
different software such as LEDFAA and FEDFAA
and he recognize this point with using of old airport analyse and planning in the world and development its for aircraft next generation [9] Rodney
N.joel, indicated:
We should have predicting about airport pavement in the next years with seeing widen's aircraft
in the next generations and its damaging with using of its software in the 2D, 3D finite element and
as a result, the next generations should be more
biggest and widen.
With widening aircraft next generations, we
should be take care to numbers and arrangment
wheels and producer should be choosing best kind
of wheel's arrangment geometric.
3. Definition of Problem
Cumulative Damage Factor (CDF) is the
amount of the structural fatigue life of a pavement
which has been used up. It is expressed as the ratio
of applied load repetitions to allowable load repetitions to failure. When CDF=1, the pavement will
have used up all of its fatigue life. When CDF<1,
the pavement will have some life remaining, and
the value of CDF will give the fraction of the life
used. When CDF>1, all of the fatigue life will have
been used up and the pavement will have failed.
In these definitions, failure means failure in a
particular structural failure mode according to the
assumptions and definitions on which the design
procedures are based. A value of CDF greater than
one does not necessarily mean that the pavement
will no longer support traffic, but that it will have
failed according to the definition of failure used in
the design procedure, and within the constraints
of uncertainties in material property assumptions,
etc. Nevertheless, the thickness design is based on
the assumption that failure occurs when CDF = 1.
In this section, first we evaluated the contribution of Cumulative Damage Factor for aircraft in
Airbus and Boeing group. Then we have a case
study in a sample airport with mixed traffic and
similar assumptions. In this case we first design
airport flexible and rigid pavement with similar
assumptions for all of the Airbus and Boeing, then
results and diagrams about CDF contribution for
aircrafts are shown in next sections.
3.1 Traffic Assumptions in Sample Airport
For evaluation of Cumulative Damage Factor
distribution for aircrafts in the sample airport pavement, traffic assumptions in Table 1 are used. The
mixed traffic includes many difference models of
passenger aircrafts such as Airbus and Boeing. Also
annual departure in first year is assumed 1200, and
percent annual growth is assumed %5. Traffic assumptions for sample airport are shown in Table 1.
The total number of departures for the sample
airport in the design life of the pavement is given
by Equation 1 [5,10]:
b´ L
N = 1 +
´ a ´ L ................... (1)
200
Where:
N= total departures.
L= pavement design life.
a= initial annual departures.
b= percent annual growth.
And finally, total departures are calculated in
the design life for sample airport with replacement
traffic data in Equation 1 and are shown in below
by Equation 2:
5´ 2 0
N = 1+
200
´ 12 0 0 ´ 2 0 = 3 6 0 0 0 ..... (2)
Table 1. Traffic Assumptions for Sample Airport
Aircraft Group
Airbus
Boeing
812
Annual Departures
1200
1200
% Annual Growth
5%
5%
Design Life
20
20
Total Departures
36000
36000
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3.2 Structural Assumptions for Rigid and
Flexible Pavement
After calculation total departure, we should
calculate structural assumptions for sample airport
rigid and flexible pavement design. Structural assumptions are layers number and material options
that introduced in below:
–– Flexible pavement system which is showing
in Table 2, has four layer that made of
asphalt concrete surface, stabilize flexible
base, crushed aggregate sub base and natural
subgrade, also design life is assumed 20
years and California Bearing Ratio (CBR)
for subgrade is assumed 10.
–– Rigid pavement system which is showing in
Table 3 has four layer that made of Portland
Cement Concrete (PCC) surface, Cement
Treatment Base (CTB), crushed aggregate
sub base and subgrade, also design life is
assumed 20 years and values of modulus of
subgrade reaction (k value) for the subgrade
is assumed 141.4.
Subgrade modulus values for flexible pavement
design can be determined in a number of ways.
The procedure which will be applicable in most
cases is to use available CBR values and substitute
in Equation 3 [10]:
E = 1500CBR psi ........................ (3)
This method will provide designs compatible
with the current design procedure based on subgrade CBR. Resilient modulus and non-destructive test (NDT) data may also be used where the
reliability of the measurements is felt to be high.
All of the layers material option for flexible pavements is shown in Table2.
Table 2. Layers Material Options for Flexible
Pavements
Layers Material Modulus(psi) Poisson's Ratio
P-401 AC Surface
200,000
0.35
P-401 St flex
400,000
0.35
P-209 Cr Ag
53,379
0.35
Subgrade
15,000
0.35
Also the structural characteristics for rigid
pavement and layer's material option are shown
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
in Table3. Similarly, for rigid pavement design,
where values of foundation modulus (k value) for
the subgrade are available, the following Equations can be used [5]:
ESG = 26 K
1. 2 8 4
....................... (4)
l o g 10 ( E S G ) = 1. 415 + 1. 2 8 4 l o g 10 ( K )
........................................ (5)
Where:
Esg = Resilient modulus of the subgrade, psi.
K = Foundation modulus of the subgrade, Pci.
The Equations for converting CBR and k to
modulus are based on empirical data and were
used in the development of the failure models for
the layered elastic design procedures. The failure
models represent the relationship between computed pavement response (strain or stress) and
overages to failure measured in full-scale tests.
Therefore, with replace rate of CBR=10 and
K=141.4 in Equations 3, 5 to value of ESG that
calculate by same two Equations with 15000psi.
Then we replace the value of CBR=10 and
K=141.4 and we have similar condition for rigid
and flexible pavement. Another material option
for rigid pavement is shown in Table3.
Table 3. Layers Material Options for Rigid
Pavements
Layers
Modulus
Material
(psi)
PCC Surface 4,000,000
P-304 CTB
500,000
P-209 Cr Ag 35,429*
Subgrade
15,000
Strength R
(psi)
700
0
0
0
Poisson's
Ratio
0.15
0.20
0.35
0.40
4. Determine the CDF Contribution for
Airbus and Boeing Group Aircrafts
In this case, we must to do pavement design
process for both Airbus and Boeing group by software, and finding the CDF contribution for any
aircrafts. Also flexible and rigid pavements are
designed separately for any aircrafts with have the
same assumptions and finally results are shown in
figures and tables.
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4.1 CDF Contribution for Airbus Group
Aircrafts
With using of traffic data and structural assumptions which had shown in before section,
we are done flexible and rigid pavement design
for Airbus and Boeing group aircrafts, and layers thickness and pavement system thickness is
shown in Table 4.
With using the software results, CDF contribution on rigid and flexible pavements for every aircraft in Airbus group is shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1. CDF Contribution on Rigid and
Flexible Pavements for Airbus Group
Figure 1 shows that A340-500/600 has most
CDF contribution than other aircraft in this group,
and afterwards A380-800F and A380-800 have
most rates. It is notable that same aircrafts don’t
have any CDF contribution in this group and this
rate is zero for them. For sample A320 has lowest
weight and has special wheels arrangment. Figure 2, 3 shows weight and tire pressure for Airbus
group aircrafts.
Figure 2 shows tire pressure for Airbus group
aircrafts. And Figure 3 shows A380-800F and
A380-800 have most gross taxi weight and A-320
has lowest gross taxi weight in this group.
In figure 2 a comparison is doing between aircraft tire pressure in Airbus group and shows that
A340-500/600 with 228psi has highest tire pressure in this group. When Figures 2 and 1 are comparing we understand that tire pressure effects in
increasing CDF in total. For every aircrafts, this
result is very similar with others and therefore, we
could not judge in this group, and for final result
must study on all aircraft groups.
Figure 2. Airbus Aircrafts Tire Pressure
Figure 3. Airbus Aircrafts Gross Weight
Table 4. Layers Thickness and Pavement Total Thickness for Airbus Group
Layers Material
PCC Surface
P-304 CTB
Thickness (in)
16.72
6
Layers Material P-401 AC Surface P-401 St flex
Flexible
Thickness (in)
5
8
Rigid
814
P-209 Cr Ag Subgrade
6
P-209 Cr Ag Subgrade
15.32
-
Total Thickness (in)
28.72
Total Thickness (in)
28.32
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4.2 CDF Contribution for Boeing Group
Aircrafts
for conclusion, and we should study on different
models with various tire pressure.
With using of traffic data and structural assumptions, sample airfield pavement for Boeing group
aircrafts is designed, and layers thickness and pavement system thickness is shown in the table 5.
With using the software results, CDF contribution on rigid and flexible pavements for every aircraft in Boeing group is shown in Figure 4.
Figure 5. Boeing Aircrafts Tire Pressure
Figure 4. CDF Contribution on Rigid and Flexible Pavements for Boeing Group
Figure 4 shows that B777-300ER has most
CDF contribution than other aircraft in this group,
and afterwards B747-400ER has most rates.
It is notable that same aircrafts don’t have any
CDF contribution in this group and this rate is zero
for them. For sample B717, B727 and B737 have
lowest weight and have special wheels arrangment
[11]. The Figures 5, 6 have a comparison between
weight and tire pressures in Boeing different models which have most gross taxi weight.
Figure 5 shows comparison between tire pressures in Boeing aircrafts. This Figure shows B747400ER has highest rate in this graph with 230psi.
and when we compared two Figures 5, 4 we notice that tire pressure is most effect in rate of Cumulative Damage Factor, but the result of figure
5 is very same and similar, thus that isn’t suffice
Figure 6. Boeing Aircrafts Gross Weight
5. Flexible and Rigid Pavements Comparison in CDF Contribution for Sample
Airport with Mixed Traffic
In this section, with using before sections results, in the 11 model of Airbus and 16 model of
Boeing in software, 15 models which have highest
Table 5. Layers Thickness and Pavement Total Thickness for Boeing Group
Rigid
Flexible
Layers Material
Thickness (in)
Layers Material
Thickness (in)
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PCC Surface
P-304 CTB P-209 Cr Ag Subgrade Total Thickness (in)
16.48
6
6
28.48
P-401 AC Surface P-401 St flex P-209 Cr Ag Subgrade Total Thickness (in)
5
8
16.30
29.30
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CDF rate are chosen for mixed traffic in sample
airport. Traffic data and design assumptions are
shown in Table 6.
Design assumption about rigid and flexible
pavement, layers material and structural data are
shown in Figure 7.
rigid pavement. Also for flexible pavement B777300ER has most rates with 42% of total CDF.
Figure 8. Comparison CDF Rate in Sample Airfield with Mixed Traffic
We have found that between all of the Airbus
and Boeing aircrafts, B777-300ER has most CDF
rate in flexible pavement because this aircraft have
special gear configuration [12], also in Figure 9
four aircrafts gear arrangment is shown.
Figure 9. Wheels Number and Geometric Arrangment for Some Airbus and Boeing Aircrafts
Figure 7. Design Results by LEDFAA Software
for Rigid and Flexible Pavement
This results show that for sample airfield with
this mixed traffic, the flexible pavement thickness
is more than rigid pavement. Table 7 shows pavement layers thickness separately.
After design process for 15 aircraft in sample
aircraft mixed traffic, this result are shown in Figure 8 which calculated of CDF rate in rigid and
flexible pavements.
In Figure 8 we show A340-500/600 has 25%
and B777-300ER has 19% of the total CDF in
816
Because B-777-300ER has Triple Dual Tandem
(TDT) and its wheels arrangment shape lead to
wheel loading in a thin width of pavement surface
have engendered failures such rutting and cracks
and increasing rate intensity of making damage in
flexible pavement [14]. And when the thickness
of asphalt concrete surface in flexible pavement
is low, it is causing to damage rate in this aircraft
increasing. Pavement system work is load distribution upon higher level of subgrade that is larger
than levels of wheels bearing area. This load distribution is different in flexible and rigid pavement
in the Layered Elastic Design method; this load
distribution in rigid pavement is larger than flexible pavement [15]. Therefore we have most CDF
rate in mixed traffic for flexible pavement.
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Table 6. Traffic Data and Design Assumption for Sample Airport
Aircraft Model
B-747-200
B-747-400
B-747-400ER
B-767-300ER
B-767-400ER
B-777-200
B-777-200ER
B-777-300
B-777-300ER
A300-600
A300-600-opt
A330
A-340-500/600
A-340-500/600Belly
A380-800
A380-800F
Gross Weight
(lbs)
833,000
873,000
913,000
409,000
451,000
537,000
634,500
662,000
752,000
375,000
375,000
469,000
807,330
807,330
1,239,000
1,305,125
Tire Pressure
(psi)
200
200
230
200
215
185
215
215
218
193
161
200
228
222
194
197
Annual
Departure
1200
1200
1200
1200
1200
1200
1200
1200
1200
1200
1200
1200
1200
1200
1200
1200
%Annual
Growth
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
Design
Life
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
Percent Gross
Weight on Gear
95
95
95
47.5
47.5
47.5
47.5
47.5
47.5
47.5
47.5
47.5
32.9
29.3
95.0
95.0
Table 7. Pavement Layers Thickness Separately for Sample Airfield with Mixed Traffic
Layer
Flexible Thickness
Rigid Thickness
Surface
5
17.47
Base
8
6
In the rigid pavement, the CDF rate for A340500/600 is more than all of the Airbus and Boeing
aircrafts. And it is reasoning which aircraft gross
weight distribution in wheel and for any wheel
have 67,000lbs. also for this model 66% of weight
supports by main gear and 33% of weight supports
by nose gears.
6. Conclusion
Aircraft gear configuration is an effective factor on rate of pavement damages in airfields. Aircraft gear arrangment in weighty aircrafts have
to distribution upon higher level of subgrade, and
results show that whatever wheels arrangment be
widespread, the CDF for aircraft is lesser, and
unlike. Alike has shown in Figure 1 a little difference was in rigid and flexible pavement in CDF
rate for Airbus group. This difference is evaluated in two points:
–– Among all of the Airbus aircrafts, A340500/600 has more weight distributed on
each wheels. Because the weight of this
aircraft is up and number of wheels is down
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Sub Base
18.10
6
Subgrade
-
Total Thickness (in)
31.1
29.47
that lead to have most CDF contribution in
other aircraft in Airbus group.
–– Main gear arrangment for A-340-500/600
is three double dual tandem and total
wheels for this aircraft is 12. This aircraft's
arrangment is regulated than other aircraft
in Airbus group, and gross weight load is
distributed upon higher level of pavement,
so that cause to adjust the loading; also
during aircraft movement in runway and
taxiway, only two wheels are lead to rutting
in pavement. That this factor cause to CDF
contribution for this aircraft in rigid and
flexible pavement has not differed.
Figure 4 shows B777-300ER has most CDF rate
in flexible pavement for sample airport mixed traffic, but this rate is divided to half in rigid pavement
and go to 27% that is similar to B747-400ER which
has 24% of CDF rate. This difference make by kind
of wheels arrangment in B777-300ER, because this
model has triple dual tandem, as all of 12 wheels
are only in 4 tape of path in pavement surface. This
arrangment is evaluated in two points:
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–– The tire contact area on pavement is only
in 4 tape of path in pavement surface, this
reason cause to increasing damage in special
section of pavement surface.
–– In design process by LEDFAA with assume
material modulus, thickness of Asphalt
Concrete surface in flexible pavement is 5
inches and thickness of Portland Cement
Concrete surface in rigid pavement is 16.48
inches, therefore rigid pavement's high
thickness and rigidity cause to damages
rate for B777-300ER in flexible pavement
has been more than rigid pavement. Also
gross weight load distribution upon rigid
pavement is on wide levels of pavement;
and this factor cause to increasing CDF rate
for B-777-300ER in flexible pavement.
In Figure 10 the Airbus and Boeing group aircrafts weight and total wheels are categorized,
by using this Figure we understand the effect of
weight, total wheels and wheels arrangment on
pavement damages.
Figure 10. Gross Weight and Total Wheels for
Airbus and Boeing Aircraft in Mixed Traffic
Figure 10 represents that B747-400ER has
more gross weight and individual wheel load than
B777-300ER, but suitable wheels arrangment for
this aircraft cause to its damages been lower than
B777-300ER, because it is reason of liner arrangment in B777-300ER. And tire contact area on
pavement is only in 4 tape of path in pavement
surface, this reason cause to increasing damage in
special section of pavement surface.
818
Also Figure 10 represents A380-800 and A380800F have most gross weight in other aircrafts but
any of them don’t have maximum CDF rate, then
aircrafts gross weight only can not making effect
and wheels arrangment type and total wheels is
most effect in the CDF rate. Thus when we have
aircrafts gross weight and number of wheels for
aircrafts, capable to individual wheel load for Airbus and Boeing aircrafts, this work has done and
shown in Figure 11.
Figure 11. Individual Wheel Load for Airbus and
Boeing Aircraft in Mixed Traffic
Figures 10, 11 have shown the A380-800 has
1.3 million pound weight and have 20 wheels,
which this weight is balanced and divided in its
wheels, and each wheel supports 65 thousand
pound, this number for A340-500/600 which has
12 wheels is 67 thousand pound, thus with comparing between weight and individual wheel load
for these two aircrafts, we discovered the rate of
load transferring in pavement by any wheels in
A340-500/600 is more than A380-800, which that
is lead to increase the CDF rate for A340-500/600.
The present research has effective role in Airport Pavement Management System as cognize
about any aircraft distribution in CDF rate, it will
be help designers to manage the airfield pavement
and increase the pavement life. Obviously for universalization this result we must to study in more
aircraft group with different condition until this
numeral study be nearer to full scale tests.
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technics technologies education management
7. Reference
1. Navneet Garg, (2008) "Introduction to FAA’s national airport pavement test facility (NAPTF)" workshop
– accelerated pavement testing for airport pavements
and its impact on pavement design for new generation aircraft, Presented to 3rd Intl. Conf. on APT,
Madrid, Spain, September 30, 2008.
2. M. Willis, D. Johnson and B. Sukumaran, (2006)
"Three –Dimensional Finite Element Analyses of
Flexible Airport Pavement for the Next Generation
of Aircrafts". Minnesota Department of Transportation, USA, 2006.
3. Gopalakrishnan, K. and M. R. Thompson. (2003).
"Rutting Study of NAPTF Flexible Pavement Test
Sections". In Proceedings of the 2003 ASCE Airfield
Specialty Conference, Las Vegas, NV.
4. Gopalakrishnan, K. (2008) "Evaluation of accelerated
deterioration in NAPTF flexible test pavement", journal of Zhejiang university SCIENCE A, may 4 2008.
5. Federal Aviation Administration, (2004) "LEDFAA
User's Manual", third Edition.
6. Garg, N. and W. H. Marsey. (2002). "Comparison
Between Falling Weight Deflectometer and Static
Deflection Measurements on Flexible Pavement at
the National Airport Pavement Facility (NAPTF)".
Paper presented at the 2002 Federal Aviation Administration Airport Technology Conference, Chicago, IL.
12. Gopalakrishnan, K. and M. R. Thompson. (2004).
"Comparative Effect of B777 and B747 Trafficking
on Elastic Layer Moduli of NAPTF Flexible Pavements". In Proceedings of the 2004 FAA Worldwide
Airport Technology Transfer Conference, Atlantic
City, NJ.
13. Gervais, E. L., G. F. Hayhoe, and N. Garg. (2003)
"towards a Permanent Solution for 6-Wheel Landing Gear Aircraft". Proceedings of the 2003 ASCE
Airfield Specialty Conference, Las Vegas, NV.
14. Chou, C.P., H.J. Cheng, and M.H. Lee, (2007)
"Analysis of Transverse Traffic Distribution of Taxiway", in 86th Annual Meeting of the Transportation
Research Board. 2007: Washington, D. C.
15. Rodney N. Joel, (2008), “Flexible Pavement
FAARFIELD Design Criteria”, FAA Southwest Region Partnership Conference, USA.
Corresponding Author
Ehsan Kashi,
Highway and transportation field
Semnan University,
Semnan,
I. R. of Iran,
E-mail: Eng_eki@yahoo.com
7. Erol Tutumluer & In Tai Kim, (2004). "Permanent
Deformation Behavior of Airport Pavement Base and
Subbase Courses" University of Illinois, UrbanaChampaign November 9, 2004.
8. Chia-pei & Shih-ying Wang. (2005). "The Development and Application of Finite Element Model in the
Chiang-Kai-Shek International Airport". Preceding
the 8th Int’l Conference on Concrete Pavements, August 10-12, 2005. Colorado, USA.
9. Rodney N. Joel, (2006) "FAA Rigid Pavement and
Tools Design Philosophy" Northwest Region Airports
Conference, April 10, 2006.
10. US Army and Air Force (1989), “Flexible pavement
design for airfields. (Elastic Layer Method)”, Technical Manual TM 5-825-2-1/AFM 88.
11. Gomez-Ramirez, F. M., and M. R. Thompson.
(2002). "Characterizing Aircraft Multiple Wheel
Load Interaction for Airport Flexible Pavement
Design". Civil Engineering Studies, COE Report.
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
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Evaluation of sugarbeet technical quality
Jasna Grbic1, Stevan Radivojevic1, Rada Jevtic-Mucibabic1, Vladimir Filipovic2
1
2
University of Novi Sad, Institute of Food Technology in Novi Sad, Novi Sad, The Republic of Serbia,
PDS Institute “Tamiš”, Pancevo, The Republic of Serbia.
Abstract
This paper deals with the evaluation of sugarbeet
technical quality produced in cultivar micro trials.
Cultivars were obtained from domestic and foreign
institutes for plants selection. The sugar in the beet
which can not be crystallised i.e. molasses sugar
was estimated according to different authors. The
corresponding molasses sugar amounts, calculated
by different formulas based on beet components
determined in the routine analysis, were subjected
to statistical analysis. The aim of this study was to
demonstrate the effect of application different formulas to the estimation of molasses sugar.
Key words: sugarbeet, technical quality, molasses sugar
1 Introduction
The performance of a sugarbeet crop is determined by yield and quality parameters. One of the
prerequisites of beet economical processing and
high quality sugar production is the need to know
all the parameters for the determination of sugarbeet
technical quality. In addition to sucrose content, as
the main criterion of sugarbeet quality, the content
of other components, termed jointly “nonsugars”
are also of significant importance. Variability of sugarbeet composition can be really high because of the
numerous factors involved: soil type, cultivar, modern farming methods, climate and the others [1]. A
reliable estimation of the beet yield and quality requires the analyses of a large number of samples [2].
Assessment of beet quality depends essentially
on estimation of the proportion of the sugar in the
beet which would remain uncrystallised in molasses . The most important sugar loss in a factory results from the sugar in molasses which can not be
crystallized. It is due to the fact that the nonsucrose
substances influence on the solubility of sucrose and
thereby reduce the sucrose crystal growth rate [3].
The evaluation of sugarbeet technical quality has
been the subject of much work in the sugar indus820
try. Molasses sugar reported by different authors,
which formulas differ due to the components analyzed and the coefficients as was shown by Mahn
and Hoffmann [4]. In the most of the European
countries the molasses sugar is basically calculated
with a formulas that only include the most important components for beet processing. These are the
molassigenic substances: potassium, sodium and
α-amino-N which represent quality of the delivered
sugarbeet. Due to difficulties in analysis, none of
the other components are taken into quality assessment in the routine of a factory, despite their effect
on sugar production and quality [5].
The aim of this study was to demonstrate the
effect of application different formulas to the estimation of molasses sugar in qualitatively heterogeneous sugarbeet material produced in cultivar
micro trials.
2 Material and methods
2.1 Field trials
The investigations were conducted with sugarbeet produced in cultivar micro trials in the Province of Vojvodina. In 2008. year sugarbeet micro
trials were carried out with 17 cultivars at four
localities. Cultivars were obtained from domestic
and foreign institutes for plants selection. Random
distribution in four replications was applied in all
micro trials. Sugarbeet was harvested in the first
half of October.
2.2 Methods
The sugarbeet processing was carried out in the
beet laboratory of Institute for Food Technology
in Novi Sad. The analyses of beet composition
were performed from fresh beet brei clarified by
lead acetate according to the methods published
in the Handbook [6]. Sucrose content was determined polarimetrically by a digital automatic saccharometer (Saccharomat IV, Schmidt + Haensch,
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Germany). Potassium and sodium contents were
analyzed by atomic absorption spectrophotometry
(Carl Zeiss, Germany). α-amino-N was determined by the Blue number method (spectrophotometer Specord M40, Carl Zeiss, Germany).
2.3 Assessment formulas
The molasses sugar was estimated by formulas
based on the components potassium, sodium and
α-amino-N, which were determined in the routine
analysis of sugarbeet brei. The applying formulas according to various authors are expressed in Table 1.
The statistical analyses were performed using
STATISTICA software version 6.0.
3 Results and discussion
Results of sugarbeet cultivar micro trials obtained in 2008. year with 17 cultivars at four localities in four replications are given in Table 2.
The results show that the values varied widely.
Yield for sugarbeet root ranged from 60.82 to 129.59
t/ha, the content of sucrose in beet from 13.88 to
17.17 °Z and polarisation sugar yield from 9.71 to
21.95 t/ha in dependence on cultivar and locality.
Table 3 presents the values of sugarbeet certain nonsucrose components. The potassium content varied from 2.46 to 4.26 mmol/100 g beet,
the sodium content from 0.27 to 2.79 mmol/100
g beet and α-amino-N content from 1.81 to 4.04
mmol/100 g beet in dependence on cultivar and
locality. There was a sufficiently wide range of
different qualities available for the alkali elements
as well as for the α-amino-N. The α-amino-N represents the harmful nitrogen in sugarbeet.
The potassium/sodium ratio ranged from 1.03
to 12.88 that indicated at very different amount
of alkali ions. The results of statistical analysis
showed that there were significant relationship
between content of alkali ions and α-amino-N
(Figure 1). The tabular value of the correlation co-
Table 1. Assessment formulas of sugar in molasses
Author
Wieninger and Kubadinow [7]
Reinefeld et al. [8]
Devillers [9]
Buchholz et al. [10]
Huijbregts [11]
Bubnik and Kadlec [12]
Formula
SM = 0.349 [K + Na] for AK ≥ 1,8
SM = 0.628 [α-amino-N] for AK < 1,8
AK = [K + Na] / [α-amino-N]
SM = 0.343 [K + Na] + 0.094 [α-amino-N] – 0.31
SM = 0.14 [K + Na] + 0.25 [α-amino-N] + 0.50
SM = 0.12 [K + Na] + 0.24 [α-amino-N] + 0.48
SM = 0.342 [K + Na] for AK’ ≥ 3.5
SM = 0.342 [K + Na] + 0.2 [α-amino-N – (K + Na) + 3.5] for AK’ < 3.5
AK’ = [K + Na] - [α-amino-N]
SM = 0.11 [K + Na] + 0.23 [α-amino-N] + 1.10
Table 2. Results of cultivar micro trials with sugarbeet
Locality
A
B
C
D
Parameter
Root yield (t/ha)
Sucrose content (°Z)
Polarization sugar yield (t/ha)
Root yield (t/ha)
Sucrose content (°Z)
Polarization sugar yield (t/ha)
Root yield (t/ha)
Sucrose content (°Z)
Polarization sugar yield (t/ha)
Root yield (t/ha)
Sucrose content (°Z)
Polarization sugar yield (t/ha)
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Mean
71.44
16.66
11.92
103.40
15.88
16.41
112.98
16.13
18.22
104.70
15.53
16.26
Minimum
60.82
15.05
9.71
90.34
14.81
14.27
99.66
15.36
16.28
90.82
13.88
12.63
Maximum
77.89
17.17
13.24
116.46
16.63
18.73
129.59
17.08
21.95
119.66
16.55
18.45
Standard deviation
4.58
0.53
1.01
8.02
0.55
1.30
9.57
0.49
1.65
8.70
0.76
1.56
CV
6.41
3.17
8.44
7.76
3.47
7.91
8.47
3.05
9.08
8.31
4.92
9.59
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Table 3. Parameters of sugarbeet quality
Locality
A
B
C
D
Parameter (mmol/100 g beet)
Potassium
Sodium
α-amino-N
Potassium
Sodium
α-amino-N
Potassium
Sodium
α-amino-N
Potassium
Sodium
α-amino-N
Mean
3.52
1.08
2.99
3.02
1.49
2.65
2.94
0.86
2.44
3.17
0.66
2.39
Minimum Maximum Standard deviation
3.16
4.26
0.27
0.27
2.24
0.66
1.90
4.04
0.58
2.46
3.60
0.30
0.44
2.60
0.57
1.82
3.80
0.52
2.57
3.59
0.30
0.41
2.79
0.58
1.81
3.04
0.36
2.72
3.62
0.29
0.33
1.27
0.24
1.89
3.25
0.38
CV
7.71
60.59
19.36
10.09
38.30
19.59
10.21
67.61
14.92
9.26
36.92
15.92
efficients has to be 0.239 for 66 (68-2) degree of
freedom and a significance level of 0.05, or for a
significance level of 0.01 it has to be 0.311 [13].
Figure 2. Alkalinity coefficient of cultivars
according to Wieninger and Kubadinow [7]
Figure 1. Dependence between alkali ions content
and α-amino-N content
The alkalinity coefficient according to Wieninger and Kubadinow [7] varied from 0.96 to 2.83.
Only 16 cultivars had the alkalinity coefficient
higher than 1.80 (Figure 2). The alkalinity coefficient according to Huijbregts [11] varied from
-0.18 to 3.66 mmol/100 g beet (Figure 3). The sum
of potassium and sodium minus α-amino-N should
be above 3.5 mmol/100 g beet in the case of sufficient alkalinity reserve. These results indicated at
shortened ion balance of the most sugarbeet cultivars. A sufficient alkalinity reserve is necessary
for thermostability of the intermediate products
in sugarbeet processing. For sugarbeet processing
not only the level, but also the balance of certain
nonsucrose compounds is important [14].
822
Figure 3. Alkalinity coefficient of cultivars
according to Huijbregts [11]
The results of sugar in molasses calculated by
formulas according to different authors are presented in Table 4. For a given chemical composition, one formula could predict much sugar in
molasses as another [4].
By testing the analysis of variance it was demonstrated that differences among values of molasVolume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
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ses sugar calculated according to different formulas were significant at the 0.05 and at the 0.01 significance level. This is presented in Table 5.
Table 6 presents the results of LSD test. It can be
concluded the next: a) the difference between molasses sugar according to Devillers [9] and Wieninger
and Kubadinow [7] were not statistically significant
at the 0.05 and 0.01 significance level, b) the difference between molasses sugar according to Wieninger and Kubadinow [7] and Buchholz et al. [10];
Huijbregts [11] and Devillers [9] were statistically
significant at the 0.05 significance level, c) the other
calculated differences were statistically significant
at the 0.01 significance level. It is evident that the
use of different formulas can result in the same beet
material being assessed very differently. The applicability of formulas is limited by sugarbeet quality.
4. Conclusions
The research work has dealt with estimation of
molasses sugar loss in sugarbeet produced in cultivar micro trials. Molasses sugar was calculated
with a formulas that included: potassium, sodium
Table 4. Sugar contents in molasses calculated according to different authors
Sugar in molasses (g/100 g beet)
Author
Wieninger and Kubadinow [7]
Reinefeld et al. [8]
Devillers [9]
Buchholz et al. [10]
Huijbregts [11]
Bubnik and Kadlec [12]
Mean
1.70
1.37
1.74
1.61
1.82
2.16
Minimum
1.20
0.97
1.46
1.35
1.57
1.91
Maximum
2.54
2.01
2.20
2.03
2.23
2.55
Standard deviation
0.30
0.27
0.19
0.17
0.17
0.16
CV
17.50
19.77
10.91
10.83
9.33
7.60
Table 5. Analysis of variance
Source
Model
Error
Degrees of freedom
5
402
F ratio
F0.05
F0.01
97.11**
2.21
3.02
Table 6. LSD test
Differences between molasses sugar
SM Bubnik and Kadlec - SM Huijbregts
SM Bubnik and Kadlec – SM Devillers
SM Bubnik – SM Wieninger and Kubadinow
SM Bubnik and Kadlec – SM Buchholz et al.
SM Bubnik and Kadlec – SM Reinefeld et al.
SM Huijbregts –SM Devillers
SM Huijbregts – SM Wieninger and Kubadinow
SM Huijbregts – SM Buchholz et al.
SM Huijbregts – SM Reinefeld et al.
SM Devillers – SM Wieninger and Kubadinow
SM Devillers – SM Buchholz et al.
SM Devillers - SM Reinefeld et al.
SM Wieninger and Kubadinow – SM Buchholz et al.
SM Wieninger and Kubadinow – SM Reinefeld et al.
SM Buchholz et al.- SM Reinefeld et al.
*significant difference at 0.05 significance level
** significant difference at 0.01 significance level
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0.34**
0.42**
0.46**
0.55**
0.79**
0.08*
0.12**
0.21**
0.45**
0.04
0.13**
0.37**
0.09*
0.33**
0.24**
t0.05,402
t0.01,402
LSD0.05
LSD0.01
1.960
2.576
0.073
0.096
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and α-amino-N, which were determined in the
routine analysis of sugarbeet brei.
On the basis of the results the following conclusions can be drawn:
–– The composition of sugarbeet material varied
in wide range in dependence on cultivar and
locality. The most of cultivars had insufficiently
alkalinity reserve.
–– For a given chemical composition, one formula
could predict much sugar in molasses as another.
–– The difference between molasses sugar according
to Devillers [9] and Wieninger and Kubadinow
[7] were not statistically significant at the 0.05
and 0.01 significance level. The difference
between molasses sugar according to Wieninger
and Kubadinow [7] and Buchholz et al. [10];
Huijbregts [11] and Devillers [9] were statistically
significant at the 0.05 significance level. The
differences among other values were statistically
significant at the 0.01 significance level.
–– This indicates that there is no evaluation of
the sugarbeet technical quality that gives an
absolute value. Evaluation is important because
of the relative variation in the technical quality
of the beet processing in cultivar micro trials,
research projects and sugar factories.
Symbols
SM
[K]
-
[Na]
-
[α-amino-N]
-
AK
-
AK’
-
CV
-
Sugar in molasses (g/100 g beet)
Content of potassium (mmol/100
g beet)
Content of sodium (mmol/100 g
beet)
Content of α-amino nitrogen
(mmol/100 g beet)
Alkalinity coefficient according to
Wieninger and Kubadinow
Alkalinity coefficient according to
Huijbregts (mmol/100 g beet)
Variation coefficient
References
1. Glattkowski, H., Märländer B.: Zur Frage der
Beeinfluβbarkeit von Ertrag und Qualität beim
Anbau von Zuckerrüben durch pflanzenbauliche
Maβnahmen Teil1: Ertragsparameter und Melassebildner. Zuckerindustrie 119 (1994), 570-575.
2. Burba, M.: Harmful nitrogen as a criterion of beet
quality. Zuckerindustrie 121 (1996), 165-173.
3. Ekelhof, B., Schliephake, D.: Description of the crystal growth rate in pure and impure sucrose solutions
by means of one kinetic equation. Proceedings of
20th General Assembly of Commission Internationale
Technique de Sucrerie, Munich, 1995, pp. 216-235.
4. Mahn, K., Hoffmann, C.: Points relating to the estimation of the sugar in molasses in qualitatively heterogenous sugarbeet material. Zuckerindustrie 126
(2001), 120-128.
5. Mahn, K., Hoffmann, C., Märländer, B.: Distribution of quality components in different morphological
sections of sugar beet (Beta vulgaris L.). European
Journal of Agronomy 17 (2002), 29-39.
6. Milić, M., Karadžić V., Obradović, S. et al.: Metode
za laboratorijsku kontrolu procesa proizvodnje fabrika šećera. Tehnološki fakultet, Zavod za tehnologiju
šećera, Novi Sad 1992.
7. Wieninger, L., Kubadinow, N.: Beziehungen zwischen
Rübenanalysen und technischer Bewertung von
Zuckerrüben. Zucker 24 (1971), 599-604.
8. Reinefeld, E., Emmerich, A., Baumgarten, G., Winner, C., Beiβ, U.: Zur Voraussage des Melassezuckers aus Rübenanalysen. Zucker 27 (1974), 2-12.
9. Devillers, P.: Prévision du sucre mélasse. Sucrerie
Francaise 129 (1988), 190-200.
10. Buchholz, K., Märländer, B., Puke, H., Glattkowski,
H., Thielecke, K.: Neubewertung des technischen
Wertes von Zuckerrüben. Zuckerindustrie 120
(1995), 113-121.
11. Huijbregts, A. W. M.: New Dutch sugar recovery
formula for sugar beet. Zuckerindustrie 124 (1999),
698-701.
12. Bubnik, Z., Kadlec, P.: VyhodnocenÍ kvality cukrovky pomocÍ krystalizačnÍch testů s tĕžkou štávou.
Chemické Listy 96 (2002), 625-630.
13. Hadživuković, S.: Statistički metodi. Poljoprivredni
fakultet, Institut za ekonomiku poljoprivrede i sociologiju sela, Novi Sad 1991, p 213, 534, pp 535-536.
14. Poel, P. W. van der, Schiweck, H., Schwartz, T.:
Sugar Technology-Beet and Cane Sugar Manufacture. Verlag Dr. A. Bartens, Berlin 1998, pp 219223, 486-488.
Acknowledgment
This work was supported by the Ministry of
Science and Technological Development, The Republic of Serbia.
824
Corresponding Author
Jasna Grbic,
University of Novi Sad,
Institute of Food Technology in Novi Sad,
The Republic of Serbia,
E-mail: jasna.grbic@fins.uns.ac.rs
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
technics technologies education management
Dual prices and objective harmonization of
multicriteria programming models
Marija Cileg1, Tibor Kis1, Carisa Besic2
1
2
University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Economics Subotica, Serbia,
University of Bihac, Faculty of Economics, Bihac, Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Abstract
Investigations in this paper are connected to
quantitative determination of additional indices
related to the solution of multi objective programming models that might be useful for practical
implementation. When preparing and making decisions, one can not surpass the idea of multiple
objectives, i.e. very often it is not enough only to
define one specific decision but there is a need for
preparing alternatives along with additional indices, especially in case of coefficients being variable and uncertain. In this paper two techniques of
generating of additional indices of multi objective
programming models are given. First, the intervals
of validity of dual prices considered necessary for
economic analysis are given. Second, the formulation of the system of dual prices is presented. Investigation of system of dual prices and their intervals of validity is required whenever the amount
of a resource is not exactly given or there are alternative resources. These results are of special
interest in case of multi objective programming,
i.e. for a given goal for every interval of validity
of system of dual prices another basis is relevant,
and for every basis dual prices are to be determined for all the other given objective functions.
By investigating and comparing basic solutions, it
is possible to find a solution that would be optimal
for the system of objective functions as a whole.
It is known that solutions of multi objective program contain some degree of subjectivity of decision makers. This can be reduced by formulating a
system of dual prices along with their intervals of
validity, which would be the basis for determining
of the target values for goal programming models.
So, the necessary information feedback between
target values determination and optimal solution
is obtained. Based on methods developed for single criteria models a method of analysis and coordination of coefficients of objective functions
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
of multicriteria models is presented. A proposal is
given in the sense of coordination of values in the
case of models with preferential goals. A modification of input coefficients of higher order objective function is needed to produce alternative solutions while it is important to observe the structure
of those alternatives. With objective functions of
lower order, the appropriate modifications of coefficients of basic variables are needed.
Key words: dual prices, sensitivity analysis,
multiple objectives
1. Introduction
In this paper methods of quantitative determination of additional indices connected to the solution of multicriteria programming models, which
are useful for economic analysis, are given. In every process of preparing and making decision, decision makers are faced with the necessity of multi
objectivity as a given fact; besides that, in most of
the cases it is not enough to only arrange one definite optimal decision but a full information basis
consisting of possible alternatives along with additional information is required for decision making,
especially when the input parameters are uncertain or volatile. Two possibilities of generating additional indices for multicriteria models are shown
in this paper. First, the intervals of validity of dual
variables necessary for economic interpretation
are shown, and then the construction of the system
of dual prices is given. If the system of dual prices
are known for the preferred and other goals, then
one can derive conclusion about the appropriate
capacity modification best adopted to not only one
objective function. Second, a method of sensitivity analysis of multicriteria programming models
is proposed aimed to analyze and harmonize the
coefficients of objective functions; this method
is developed starting form procedures known for
single objective models.
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2. Intervals of validity of dual prices and
system of dual prices
The multicriteria model is given as:
max Cx=z ............................... (1)
s.t. Ax ≤ b .............................. (2)
x ³ 0 . ................................... (3)
where:
x is the (n´1) vector of primal variables
C is the (P´n) matrix of coefficients of n primal variables in P objective functions
z is the (P´1)vector objective function
A is the (m´n) matrix of technical coefficients in m constraints
b is the (m´1) capacity (resource) vector
Let the goals be ranked by importance and
let their order be starting from most important as
p=1,2,...,P.
After transformations of the basis let the optimal solution be determined for the most important
goal so that are
val of validity of their values. Start from the fact
that the usual interpretation of dual price is related
to one unit of changes, but really it is valid for a
range of changes of a capacity (more or less than
one unit) depending on the system of constraints.
The presented method shows the maximum possible increase and/or decrease in capacity while
the value of the given dual variable is still valid.
Here the determination of intervals of validity of
dual prices is performed through the dual price dk1
of the k -th resource and the criterion function of
the first rank z1.
Let the quantitative change in k -th capacity
amounts t k
( )
b t k = b 1,b 2,...,b k +t k,...,b m ... (6)
the vector of basic variables is now
( )
rp that sub-vector of p -th criterion function
which enclose coefficients for basic variables
d ip value of dual prices belonging to i -th resource and p -th goal
The value of dual prices is determined by the
actual inverse basis
T -1
d ip Î rp B ............................. (4)
For the dual variables of the first ordered goal
holds
T -1
d i1 Î r1 B ,
d i1 ³ 0,
∀i ............. (5)
To give more reasonable explanation to the
meaning of dual variables let us examine the inter826
( )
that only gives optimal solution for z1 if
( k )³0 ................................. (8)
yt
-1
B the optimal basis with elements b ik
y the vector of basic variables
-1
y t k = B b t k ........................ (7)
Determine t so that the optimal basis is unchanged, (8) remains valid
( )
y i t k = y i +t k ⋅ b ik ³ 0 i =1,2,...,m ....
,
......................................... (9)
Solution to (9) is
g k1 ≤ t k ≤ g k1 .......................... (10)
where the lower index 1 indicates that the interval is related to the goal of the first rank,
so that
y
g k1 = max - i ,
i
b ik
if b ik > 0,
∀i,
g k1 ≤ 0
........................................(11)
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y
g k1 = min - i ,
i
b ik
if b ik < 0,
∀i,
g k1 ³ 0
capacity be completely used. In this case the appropriate dual price is
....................................... (12)
This means the amount of k-th capacity can
(2)
(2)
(1)
d k1 ≠ 0 and d k1 ≠ d k1 ................... (15)
be decreased for g k1 units at most and every unit
The new dual price has its interval determined
in the similar way
capacity can be increased for g k1 units at most
g k1 ≤ t k ≤ g k1 ......................... (16)
will cause fall in z1 for d k1 ; the amount of k-th
and every unit will cause rise in z1 for d k1 ; these
changes will not cause changes neither in optimal
basis nor in the associated dual solution. So the interval in which the given dual price d k1 is valid is
determined. If the capacity changes within the interval of validity of the dual price, the dual prices
of the model will not change; at the same time primal variables, non used capacities and values of
criterion functions take new values. If the change
in the given capacity totals either the lower bound
g k1 or the upper bound g k1 , the primal problem
becomes degenerated and there is alternative solution to the dual problem. If the change in the given
capacity exceeds lower or upper bound, then the
actual basis does not give feasible primal solution
any more and new optimum is to be determined
with new optimal basis and new primal and dual
solutions.
For further considerations introduce now the
upper index q=1,2,...,Q to indicate steps in
determining successive values of dual prices, so
that for the first step (10) becomes
(2)
(1)
g k1 + e,
e → 0 ........................ (14)
The actual basis does not give feasible primal
solution any more; let us determine the new op(1)
timum. The modified capacity b k + g k1 + e is
either used entirely or in part. Let the modified
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
(2)
and because of (14) it is
(2)
g k1 → 0 ............................... (17)
If the k-th resource is increased further to
(1)
(2)
b k = g k1 + g k1 + e and the new optimum is de-
termined then
(3)
(3)
(2)
(3)
(3)
(3)
(3)
d k1 ≠ 0, d k1 ≠ d k1, g k1 ≤ t k ≤ g k1, g k1 → 0
.
...................................... (18)
In the step q we get
(q)
(q)
(q -1)
(q)
(q)
(q)
(q)
d k1 ≠ 0, d k1 ≠ d k1 , g k1 ≤ t k ≤ g k1, g k1 → 0
....................................... (19)
In finite number of steps Q we get the first part
of the system of dual prices
{üüüü
üüüü
k1
k1
(1)
(1)
(1)
g k1 ≤ t k ≤ g k1 ......................... (13)
Let the increase in k-th capacity extends its upper bound
(2)
k1
} .................... (20)
That means that in step Q+1 either the feasible
set is empty or the dual price becomes equal to 0.
The second part of the system of dual prices
is determined by examination of lower bounds
of validities. Let the resource k be reduced to
(1)
b k - g k1 - e , then
(2')
(2')
(1)
(2')
(2')
d k1 ≠ 0, d k1 ≠ d k1, g k1 ≤ t k
(2')
(2')
≤ g k1 , g k1 → 0
....................................... (21)
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In the step q' we get
(q')
(q')
(q'+1)
d k1 ≠ 0, d k1 ≠ d k1
(q')
(q')
, g k1 ≤ t k
(q')
(q')
≤ g k1 , g k1 → 0
....................................... (22)
After Q' steps the resource becomes
(1)
(2')
(Q')
b k - g k1 - g k1 -...- g k1 - e . ........ (23)
then if the solution is either of no economic
sense or the feasible set is empty, the examination
is finished.
The complete system of dual prices is
{d
vals of validity for criterion functions minimum or
maximum and types of constraints "less or equal
to", "equal to" or "greater or equal to" gave results
presented in Picture 2. As it is indicated in the
Table, values of dual prices belonging to different types of constraints change on different levels,
and these changes may have either increasing or
increasing tendencies; the influence of changes of
the amount of a resource may have similarly either
positive or negative effect on the value of particular criterion function.
}
(Q') (Q'-1)
(2') (1) (2)
(Q)
,d k1 ,...,d k1 ,d k1,d k1,...,d k1
k1
....................................... (24)
and every dual price has its own interval of validity. In Picture 1. the procedure of determining
of the system of dual prices and of intervals of validity.
Picture 2. Changes in dual prices and criterion
function depending on changes in constraints
Picture 1. Determination of system of dual prices
and intervals of validity
Every type of condition in the system of constraints can be transformed into the form (2), also
in the system of criterions (1) maximum and minimum goals could be originally defined; anyhow,
for the sake of economic interpretation it is interesting to observe their original form. Investigations of values of dual variables and their inter828
The derived procedure with its results is of special interest in multicriteria programming. In the
procedure presented above to every interval belongs another basis and for every basis the dual
prices are to be determined for every criterion in
the system. Investigating and comparing basic solutions one can find such one which, with the particular level of resource, is most appropriate from
the standpoint of the total system of goals.
If a goal programming model is given and
the goal values are incorporated into the system
of constraints, then by formulating the system of
dual prices along with their intervals of validity
for every such constraint, a system of information
feedback can be determined between goal values
and optimal solution, which will yield in reducing
subjectivity, which is always present when multi
objectivity matters.
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technics technologies education management
3. Harmonization of goals of multicriteria
programming models
The solved form of a multicriteria programming
model gives data on the optimal values of primal
variables, on the amount of used resources and on
changes in coefficients of each criterion function
needed to achieve such program that is closest to
the set of ideal solutions. By parameterization of
coefficients of criterion functions it is enabled these
coefficients of particular goals to be harmonized.
First, the optimum concerning the goal of first
rank is to be determined, then take into account
the actual elements of the second criterion function in that optimal tableau. If there is not an optimal solution for the second goal then the actual
raw contains at least one positive element belonging to a nonbasic variable (primal or dual). If the
positive element belongs to a primal variable there
are two possibilities.
Let the primal nonbasic variable be x s ; the actual element in the raw of first criterion function is
gram change. If the coefficient c s1 is changed for
'
over the value (26) and now is c s1 + Dc s1 + D c s1
then both the first and the second objective values
are increased.
Let the actual values of basic variables
T
-1
'
'
'
and
y = B b = b 1,b 2,...,b m
the actual column in the optimal tableau
be
T
-1
'
'
'
B a s = a 1s,a 2s,...,a ms , then the gen
'
erating element is a is for
b'
min 'i = ξ ......................... (28)
i a
is
and the new values of criterion functions are
'
T -1
c s1 - r1 B a s . ........................ (25)
where c s1 is the starting coefficient of variable
x s in the first criterion function and a s is the s
-th column of matrix A .
If the coefficient c s1 is increased by
T -1
Dc s1 = c s1 - r1 B a s ................... (26)
then alternative optimum is found for the first
criterion and variable x s can enter the basis.
In the same time actual value in the second criterion raw is
T -1
c s2 - r2 B a s . ........................ (27)
If it is possible to alter the coefficient c s1 ex-
actly for Dc s1 then the value of the first criterion
is unchanged and the second is improved with proVolume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
'
z1 = z1(extr)+ ξ ⋅ D c s1 . ................ (29)
'
(
T -1
)
z2 = z2 + ξ ⋅ c s2 - r2 B a s .............. (30)
This kind of modification of the program seems
to be the most acceptable since both criterion functions are improved due to modifications in one element only. If there is no possibility to modify the
coefficients of the first criterion function, then the
coefficients of the second function are to be tried
for modifications so that it achieves optimum in
the same point as the first criterion. In this case,
starting from economic reasons, it may be reasonable to investigate the possibilities of modifying
the system of coefficients of basic variables. Let
the modified parametric form of the second criterion function be given by introducing the parameter l for the basic variables; first, let the vector
T
c 2 be separated into two blocks of coefficients of
basic and non basic coefficients
T
T
T
c 2 = r2 ,c s2 . ........................ (31)
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The parametric form of the criterion function is
((
T
T
)
T
T
)
c 2 ⋅ x ( l ) = r2 + 1 ⋅l + c s2 ⋅ x . ........ (32)
The appropriate elements in the criterion raw
of actual table are now
T
(
T
(
T
)
T
-1
T
c s2 - r2 + 1 ⋅l ⋅ B A s ≤ 0 ............ (33)
)
- r2 + 1 ⋅l ⋅ B
-1
T
≤ 0 ................... (34)
The solution of the system (33)-(34) gives possible values for l ; if the set of solutions for l
is not empty then changes in coefficients of the
second criterion function are enabled aimed to
achieve optimum by this goal too. The value of
the second criterion function after the made modifications is
'
(
T
)
-1
z2 = r + 1 ⋅l B b .................... (35)
The two principles of harmonization of coefficients of criterion functions can be summarized
as follows:
–– with higher ordered functions alternatives
are desirable, which can be realized by
modifications of input data; economically
it is important not to only observe the
possibilities of any alternative, but to take
into account their structures also
–– with functions of lower ranks the
coefficients of basic variables are to be
changed in positive sense; mathematically
optimum can be reached by making worse
coefficients of non basic variables, but that
is of no economic interest.
The procedure of goal harmonization in the
given manner is shown in Picture 3.
830
Picture 3. Goal harmonization and sensitivity
analysis
4. Conclusion
In the process of investigating the intervals of
validity of dual prices and while adjusting coefficients of particular criterion functions it is necessary to analyze critical and uncertain resources
while the realization of each goal is tracked.
For in every interval of validity of dual prices
another basis is appropriate; by investigating all the
basic solutions a new solution can be find, which
differs from others because of different amounts
of resources but it is better from the standpoint of
all goals.
In the process of harmonization of goals it
seems better to modify coefficients of higher ordered criterion functions to obtain alternatives for
the other functions to be better or optimal, than to
only find extreme values for lower ordered criterions under the conditions of fixed first function. In
the process of harmonization the interdependences
between each goal and their connections with the
system of constraints are to be taken into account.
5. References
1. Cileg, M., Dualitet i analiza osetljivosti u procesu
odlučivanja, doktorska disertacija [Duality and sensitivity analysis in decision making, PhD Dissertation] Ekonomski fakultet, Subotica, 1991.
2. Cileg, M, Kis, T., Problemi formulisanja, rešavanja i
ekonomske sadržine višekriterijumskog modela programiranja [Problems of formulation, solving and
economic content of multicriteria programming models], Proceedings, Naučni skup Transfer tehnologije i
znanja, Ekonomski fakultet, Subotica, 1991.
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technics technologies education management
3. Vincke, Ph., Multicriteria Decision-aid, John Wiley
& Sons, Chichester, 1992.
4. Cileg, M, Kis, T., Analiza osetljivosti ekoloških
efekata u modelima poljoprivredne proizvodnje [Sensitivity analysis of ecological effects in agricultural
programming models], Proceedings, Simpozijum
Menadžment, marketing i informacioni sistemi
u funkciji razvoja poljoprivrede, Poljoprivredni
fakultet, Zemun, 1993.
5. Bonini, Ch. et al., Quantitative Analysis for Management, Irwin McGraw Hill, Boston, Mass., 1997.
6. Cileg, M, Kis, T., Interpretation of the dual model
and dual prices of hyperbolic programming models,
EURO/INFORMS Joint International Meeting, Istanbul, TURKEY, 2003.
7. Cileg, M, Kis, T., Integer programming and intervals
of validity of dual prices, XVII Triennal Conference
of Federation of Operational research Societies (IFORS), Institute for Operations Research and the Menagement Sciences (INFORMS), Honolulu, Hawaii,
SAD, 2005
8. Cileg, M, Kis, T., Sedlak, O., Cost Analysis in Optimization Models, International Conference INFORMS International, Theme: "Globalization of OR/
MS", Session: Optimization – Modeling I, INFORMS
and University of Puerto Rico, Rio Grande, Puerto
Rico, 2007.
Corresponding Author
Marija Cileg,
Faculty of Economics Subotica,
University of Novi Sad,
Serbia,
E-mail: cilegm@ef.uns.ac.rs
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Some considerations on optimization of time
and costs in network diagrams
Aleksandar Dragasevic, Zoran Nesic, Miroslav Radojicic
Technical faculty, University of Kragujevac, Cacak, Serbia
Abstract
The paper presents some considerations about
optimizing time and costs in management of projects, as two most important resources in project
management. The presented paper discusses the
most important elements which are used in formation of network diagrams. The paper is illustrated
with the example of optimizing a network diagram
in the project of introducing a new product. Displayed considerations can have universal application and can represent the starting point for practical application of network diagrams in formation
of projects of new products.
Key words: Network diagrams, resource optimization, project management
1. Introduction
The introduction of new products, in every production company, is the initial and key factor of
the entire planning and implementation of organizational techniques. In this sense, the analysis of
time and costs acts as one of the most important
elements in production planning. The role and
significance of the project and the development
process are gaining importance in Management
systems: „An ever increasing number of standards
concerning the management systems has resulted
in an increasing demand for effective methods of
their integration, as well as for sustaining their
effectiveness in an intensively changing environment.“ [1]
Nowadays, there is a dominant perception that
implementation of process analysis is a strategic
factor for the stability of the company: „Nowadays, a vast number of companies consider strategic planning very significant for their profit and
growth. The direction of a company, as the managers have concluded, can be channelled in a better
way if the missions of the company are precisely
defined. This contributes to better functioning and
832
to being prepared for a more rapid reaction in case
of change of the environment.” [2].
In order to improve project management, many
optimization and decision making techniques are
applied [3,4]. Theoretical bases of cost and time
optimization in project management, including
their methodological aspects, are considered by
many authors. [5].
Cost control is one of the most important factors of project management: „Cost control aspects
of the management will provide the cost advantage in an increasingly competitive market and
will have positive long-term development effects”
[6], which is the reason why this issue is given
a great importance [7,8]. In addition to costs, the
need for minimizing the activity is the second
most important element that must be taken into
account when planning individual activities and
overall project [9-11].
We can say that the formation of a network
diagram represents simulation of future process
activities. A similar analysis refers to analysis of
future time, allowing its optimization, understanding from various aspects and simulation [12].
Directions of development of optimization of
both time and resources in project management
experience a big expansion. Some of different approaches to the improvement can be reflected in
the following:
–– Application of Fuzzy Technology [13]
–– The Automated Network Diagram Design
(ANDD) [14]
–– Use of extended activity-network diagram
[15]
–– Perceptually-Based Representation of
Network Diagrams [16]
–– Network reliability analysis [17]
–– Concurrent Scheduling Method (CSM) [18]
–– PERT optimization by Means of Genetic
Programming [19]
–– Bio-inspired simulation of PERT [20]
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It is undisputed that the optimization of both
time and costs in managing projects has great
practical application in various activities [21-28].
It is necessary to mention the great importance of
information technology in supporting these methods [29-31].
2. Distribution of resources in network
diagrams
The initial stage of preparation of the project
network diagram is characterized by the fact that
we should not simultaneously plan the sequence of
operations execution in the project and the necessary resources. In the initial stage, one should focus
on the logic of the project - sequence of operations.
The issues most often asked during this phase are:
whether and which activities precede given activities, which activities follow these activities, which
activities can be performed simultaneously etc.
After each stage of planning, it is necessary to
ask the question - are there all the resources needed to execute the plan? If so, the plan can be realized. In the planning phase of the research there
might be a need to check whether there are enough
workers for certain jobs. In the phase of control
planning, one should also check that there is all the
necessary equipment.
It can be concluded that the distribution of resources is an essential part of planning. It answers
the question - whether the plan is physically achievable. The plan turns into action only when there are
necessary resources for its implementation.
The best use of existing resources should be
provided. Each operation should be planned so
that project resources are used optimally. This can
be solved by simple variations of allocation of resources, when the operation was started at the earliest or latest start time.[32]
Schedule oriented towards the earliest time
limits of operations beginning require unreasonably large number of workers at the start of project
implementation, which has the negative effects on
the efficiency of resource use. Resources can be
allocated starting with the latest allowable time
limits of operation (LST). In this case, the engagement of resources shall be postponed until the latest possible date of operations start; thus, all operations are becoming critical. Then, it is necessary
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to determine the daily use of resources. Resource
profile depends on use of an early start of operations (EST) or the latest start of operations (LST)
as the date of operation start.[32]
Schedule of resources represents the planning
of works in accordance with available resources
at the time. The gradual method is an implementation of this idea by distributing existing resources
per operations gradually. Parallel method distributes network resources on a daily basis, in all operations to be executed that day. It is also allowed
to transfer the resources (intended for execution
of an operation one day) into the next day for the
execution of other operations [32].
If data are summarized in column resource-day,
the number of man-days required for the project is
received. This sum should be divided by the time of
the project and the result shows the average daily
number of workers engaged in the project execution.
The average number should not be smaller than
the amount of resources required for any operation. Otherwise, such operation cannot be provided with the necessary amount of resources. If the
quotient is obtained by dividing, it is rounded to
the higher whole number [32].
At performing network plan, it is necessary
to follow the time in which waste of resources is
compliant with their planned schedule, since this
is a decisive factor in planning terms of the next
activity. At the same time, it is necessary to keep
records of quantities of free resources, because the
decision to start the operation depends on the existence of necessary resources.
The existence of different rules of benefits allows the modelling of different conditions of the
project. For example, a project manager may be
interested in the completion of those operations
for which it is necessary to engage a material resource. The sooner this resource is available the
less the manager will pay in behalf of its lease.
Therefore, the higher priority is given to those operations that require a leased resource. The similar
procedure is undertaken when a part of the equipment is needed for carrying out another project.
In other circumstances, the project manager may
give priority to the most difficult works. In this case,
preference is given to those works. In this situation,
a manager may give priority to operations that require the least work for their implementation.
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Priorities can also be operations whose completion enables the payment of completed works
of investors. The use of certain resources can facilitate the use of another resource.
Criterion for the distribution of resources can
be uncertainty of time required for the execution
of an operation. New projects have two types of
operations – those for which the exact execution
time can be determined and the operations for
which it is difficult to specify execution time. Instead of reserve of time, or in parallel with it, a
criterion for comparing operations can be considered as the degree of uncertainty of time needed
for their execution. Operations with a high degree
of uncertainty obtain higher priority in allocation
of resources. Operations with accurately defined
execution time can be postponed until the latest
permitted date [32].
Linking operations in a chain means that at the
end of one operation the other one should start
right away. After the first operation has undergone
the procedure of allocation of resources, the operation that follows it in the chain receives the highest priority in allocation of resources.
If the operation requires permanent composition of resources throughout the time of execution,
then we predict changes in some of the needed resources in the specific time. The time of completion of the operation depends on the number of
workers assigned to that particular operation.
Inconsumable resources, such as workers and
equipment, can be reused for the next operation, after realization of the previous one. Other resources,
such as brick, concrete, etc., are being spent irreversibly. That is the reason why different types of
resources are treated differently. Resources are allocated taking into account the cyclical profile.
Procedures for allocation of resources provide
their planned use. In the planning process different
variants of resource use may appear. These variations depend on distribution criteria, such as level
of resources, the shortest time of project realisation or the most effective use of resources. Planned
start and end dates of the project operations, in the
case of the fixed resources level, depend on the
choice of precedence rules.
Theoretically, it is possible to specify the importance coefficient of each criterion and to determine the optimal solution. Since the number of
834
variables in the problem of resource allocation is
large, a strictly mathematical solution is difficult
to obtain, but therefore an approximate solution
can be found [32].
At allocation of resources, labour, equipment,
machines and materials are usually taken into
consideration. Sometimes, the schedule applies to
other factors, such as space. When space is limited, it should be also used economically.
Before using the program for distribution of resources, it is necessary to perform the time analysis of network plan. Subsequently, plan is provided with information about the needs of resources
and their limitations.
Profile of needs in resources - a resource profile, obtained by using the procedures of allocation
of resources, is compared with the profile of available resources. If they match, it can be concluded
that the project is physically achievable. The goal
of any process of setting a resource profile consists of planning all non-critical work; thus the
needs of resources grow to the maximum (when
using a particular resource) and the then the needs
for it gradually decrease to zero (when a certain
operation is over and other resource is used). It is
therefore necessary [32]:
1. to plan the execution of critical works,
2. to start non-critical activities only when there
is a reduction of resources engagement,
3. to have a tendency to increase the labour
engagement until the moment of its maximal
use, and then strive toward a gradual
reduction of engagement.
Adjusting of the schedule is achieved only by
displacement of periods of non-critical operations.
Therefore, total time of execution of the project
does not increase.
First of all, all critical operations are planned.
Other operations which become critical in the
planning process are treated in the same way.
At allocation of resources, it can be noticed that
there is a gradual increase in engagement of resources to the maximum level. A certain number of
workers are needed immediately, starting with the
first working day. If the adjusted resource profile
is needed for this project, it can be obtained by using the parallel method for allocation of resources.
When adjusting the schedule for the resources, it
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is necessary to provide additional limitations. After planning all critical operations, the beginning of
non-critical operations is moved to the latest allowable time, thus turning them into critical operations.
Maximum use of resources is achieved when additional resources are not required for the execution
of the subsequent works - operations. The goal is to
reach the maximum level of engagement of resources and to maintain it for as long as possible, which
is why the beginning of the subsequent non-critical
operations moves to the earliest possible time.[32]
The project pointer will first show the time 0.
Operation that has zero reserve at that moment is
critical. It receives the necessary resource units.
Other critical operations at that moment do not exist and the pointer stops at 1.
For the selection of the most suitable resources
allocation, the sum of squares of resource needs
for every day can be used. This sum is even smaller if the changes in the resource needs for the transition from one working day to the other are minor. The smallest sum of squares corresponds to
the best solution.
3. Time-cost in network diagram
Network plan can be subjected to various organizational changes, even when normal operations
execution time does not change. After checking the
physical reliability, economic feasibility of a network plan should be checked – the cost should be
minimal. As total costs include indirect costs, which
depend on length of time of the project, any delay in
project execution usually leads to increased costs.
By analyzing the profitability of the project,
the costs of each of its components are reduced to
minimum, and the impact of that reduction on total
cost of the project is discussed. These components
in the network map are the operations - activities.
Time and cost of each operation are chosen in such
a way that the total cost is minimal. In the process
of minimization of costs, several variations of the
plan should be made. Each option has a different
time of project execution and the related costs. The
most acceptable solution must be selected [32].
At network planning, normal duration of each
operation (activity) is determined. In addition to
normal duration, corresponding normal costs of
the operation are determined. Forced (constrained)
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time and corresponding costs of the operation are
also determined. Constrained operation costs are
those costs which match constrained time of the
operation execution.
In minimizing the cost of the project, familiar
references and bibliography were used [33]. In this
analysis it is assumed that the amount of time tij of
each activity (i-j) is determined, as well as the earliest and the latest time of occurrence of all events
(TE)i and (TI)j, (j=1, 2, ..., n). It is assumed that we
know the dependence of the direct costs (Cd)ij of
each activity (i-j) as a function of time of its duration tij, which can be represented by the expressions:
(Cd)ij=-aijtij+bij;(aij³0;bij>0) . ................ (1)
(C d ) ij =
aij
tij
; (aij > 0) ..................... (2)
Expression (1) represents linear variation,
while the expression (2) reflects a convex variety.
Coefficient of direction aij in the equation (1) that
passes through A[(tu)ij, (Cu)ij] i B[(tn)ij, (Cn)ij] is calculated using the formula for the average increment of cost [33]:
aij = (DC ) ij =
(Cu ) ij - (C n ) ij
(t n ) ij - (t u ) ij
............... (3)
Free article bij is calculated using the formula:
bij =
(Cu ) ij (t n ) ij - (C n ) ij (tu ) ij
(t n ) ij - (tu ) ij
............... (4)
These expressions can be obtained if one finds
the right equation that passes through points A and
B, from which it is obvious that coefficients aij i bij
depend only on known data, normal and forced duration, and normal and forced costs of activity. (i-j).
Reduction of total cost of the project is possible
if we prolong the duration of all non-critical activities on account of available time reserves. The
problem is following: we should find minimum
cost of the project, using time-critical activity reserves, with unchanged project duration. In this
way, every activity of the project becomes critical,
thus for each event (TE)j = (Tl)j.
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4. Optimization of network diagrams
One practical example of network planning illustrates the optimization of network diagrams. This is
an example of developing a new technological product. Optimization is performed up to forced time of
the project. The initial data are given in the Table 1.
Project activities have the following meanings:
A - formation of constructional documentation,
B - analysis related to collecting offers and
acquisition of materials,
C - technological work,
D - assembling and testing of models,
E - receiving, examination and storage of tools,
F - launching of documentation,
G - ordering of equipment and devices,
H - preparation and launching of production
for a prototypical series,
I - fabrication and testing of the first series.
Table 1. The initial data
Activity
A B C D E F G H
I
Depends on
- - - A B B C D,E F,G
the activity
Duration
5 4 7 8 2 1 2 4
3
shown. The initial network diagram is shown in
Figure 1.
Figure 1. The initial network diagram
Figure 2 shows Gantt chart of the initial network diagram. The Gantt chart is a graphic display
of the project duration and of each activity within
the project. This display represents the duration of
each activity and the relationship between project
activities in a simple way. It also allows visual observation of overlaps in the duration of activity.
Figure 3 shows a histogram of the initial network
diagram. Histogram display represents correlation
between forced and normal project duration.
Table 2 presents the costs of activity, normal
and forced length and average cost growth. The
initial network diagram is shown in Figure 1.
Table 2. Costs of activity, normal and forced length and average cost growth
Activity
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
tn
5
4
7
8
2
1
2
4
3
tu
3
3
4
4
1
1
1
1
2
å
Cn
400
300
300
400
600
500
700
600
300
4100
Cu
600
800
1200
1600
1200
500
1300
2100
700
10000
C
100
500
300
300
600
600
500
400
Figure 2. Gantt chart of initial network diagram
4.1. The initial network diagram
The initial network diagram has a critical path
A-D-H. Project duration has 17 time units, and the
costs amount to 4100 monetary units. For each activity, a normal (minimum) duration of activity is
836
Figure 3. Histogram of the initial network diagram
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4.2. I iteration
In the first iteration, activities on the critical path
were restricted. These are activity A for two time
units, activity D for one time unit and activity H for
two time units. Activity A is shortened to the forced
duration, because it has the lowest average growth
rate of costs, and it is on the critical path. Activities D
and H are also located on the critical path, and they
were shortened in order to obtain the new critical
path. After this iteration, we have two critical paths,
as follows: A-D-H and C-G-I. Costs have increased
in amount of 4100+(2·100+1·300+2·500)=5600
monetary units, while project duration is 12 time
units. Network diagram after this iteration is shown
in Figure 4.
Figure 4. Network diagram after the first iteration
Figure 5 shows a Gantt chart after the first iteration. In Gantt chart, critical activities can be
seen as well as activities which overlap in the performance. Figure 6 presents a histogram after the
first iteration.
Figure 5. Gantt chart after the first iteration
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Figure 6. Histogram after the first iteration
4.3. II iteration
In the second iteration, activities on critical paths
were restricted –activity C for three time units and
activity D for the same three time units. In order to
perform a reduction of project activities, activities in
each critical path must be reduced for the same value. Activities C and D were shortened because they
have the lowest average increment of costs. After this
iteration, there are also two critical paths, as follows:
A-D-H and C-G-I. Costs have increased in amount
of 5600+(3·300+3·300)=7400 monetary units, while
project duration is 9 time units. Network diagram after this iteration is shown in Figure 7. Figure 8 presented a Gantt chart after the second iteration. Gantt
chart provides a clearer picture of the project duration
and simultaneous execution of specific activities.
The possibilities for shortening certain activities can
be perceived easily. Figure 9 presents a histogram after the second iteration. Histogram display enables
the easy presentation of interrelated activities, which
are executed simultaneously. E.g. we observe path
A-D-H and also path C-G-I.
Figure 7. Network diagram after the second iteration
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ration of the whole project; instead, it would increase the costs of the project. Figure 12 presents
is a histogram after the third iteration.
Figure 8. Gantt chart after the second iteration
Figure 10. Network diagram after the third iteration
Figure 9. H istogram after the second iteration
4.4. III iteration
In the third iteration, H activity is shortened for
one unit of time and activity I is also shortened
for one time unit; they are both located on critical
paths. By reducing the duration of H activity up to
the forced duration, we obtained the duration of
all activities, and duration of original critical path.
This means that any other shortening of activities
would not lead to shortening of the duration of the
project. Activity I is shortened on another critical
path, since it has a smaller average increment of
costs compared to the activity G. After this iteration, there are also two critical times, as follows:
A-D-H and C-G-I. Costs have increased in amount
of 7400+(1·500+1·400)=8300 monetary units,
while the duration of the project is 8 time units.
Network diagram after this iteration is shown in
Figure 10. Figure 11 presents a Gantt chart after
the third iteration. From Gantt chart it can be seen
that the three activities can still be reduced (B, E,
G), but their reduction would not reduce the du838
Figure 11. Gantt chart after the third iteration
Figure 12. Histogram after the third iteration
In this way, forced duration of the project is obtained and at the same time amount of costs are 8300
units of currency, when all of activities have forced
duration, and amount of costs is 10 000 monetary
units, so we have a saving of 1700 units of currency.
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technics technologies education management
5. Conclusion
This paper discusses some of the most important elements in optimizing the time and costs in
a network diagram. The presented example represents analysis of these resources in a real project
of introducing a new product. The paper presents
some steps for minimizing the time and costs into
the forced ones. In addition to theoretical analysis
for minimization of costs and time in a network diagram, the authors highlighted the most significant
factors that can be found for this issue in practice.
Displayed consideration and practical model
can be a universal example and starting point in
optimizing the resource of time and costs in forming a project of introducing a new product model.
Acknowledgement
Research presented in this paper was supported
by Ministry of Science, Republic of Serbia, Grant
III-44010, Title: Intelligent Systems for Software
Product Development and Business Support based
on Models.
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Corresponding Author
Zoran Nesic,
Technical faculty,
Cacak,
Serbia,
E-mail: zornes2002@yahoo.com
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
technics technologies education management
Teaching computer design in mechanical
engeenering schools in Serbia
Goran Nestorovic1, Zivoslav Adamovic2, Zeljko Djuric3
1
2
3
Technical school with home students ,,Nikola Tesla” Kostolac, Kostolac, Serbia,
University of Novi Sad, Tehnical Faculty “Mihajlo Pupin” in Zrenjanin, Zrenjanin, Serbia,
Bauxite Corporation Milici, Milići, Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Abstract
The aim of this research was to present the state
of the educational system in vocational schools in
Serbia and prospects for further development of
computer design. The paper analyses comparative
results in our country and the developed countries
in terms of computer implementaition degree as
a teaching tool in education.Based on the results
compared with global trends of development of
education in this area, the research shows deficiencies in our educational system and proposes
certain measures for their overcoming.
Key words: computer design ,educational system, curriculum.
1. Introduction
Information technology has significantly influenced different areas of life of a modern man both
work and education. The educational system referring to technical disciplines, especially mechanical engineering, surely implies intensive usage of
computers as teaching tools. (Anagnostopoulos,
1998; Devedzic, 2005; Hamade et al., 2006; Mc
A doo, 1998).
Computer design in manufacturing processes
represents a turning point in education of teachers of mechanical engineering. The quality of the
teachers’ education reflects the cultural, economic,
social and political circumstances which change
In parity. The globalization process in trading,
as well as in economy and economic sense have
led to the creation of the new concepts in the
area of production process design as well as in
educational system. The modern manufacturing
concepts promote the idea of parallelisam of numerous construction and production activities in
the design process and control of the manufacturing processes. The aim of such relationship is to
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
lessen the time needed for a product to develop
from the idea to realization, achieving the high
reliability and quality. Such concepts are mostly
accepted and implemented more or less for certain number of years in Serbia. Accordingly, the
concepts of education of the stuff ready to respond
to the challenges are based on intensive computer
application in technical disciplines, which implies
a high level of computer literacy and competence
(Anagnostopoulos, 1998; García et al., 2005).
Inconsistant changes to the various approaches
and methodology points to the necessity of reidentification of the key contents of certain disciplines,
their relations and changes of curriculum in order
to ensure the efficient educational process. The aim
of this paper is to analyse the developmental stages
of computer design in Serbia in order to help the
educational process and to point to further improvements. The main reason for this research is the fact
that the results achieved so far are at the level of
European and world’s standards but insufficiently
in accordance with the methodological approaches,
overloading of students, their mental capabilities,
and etc. On one hand, comparing the approaches
and the results in Europe and in the World presented in numerous literature and mass media the
starting points of our educational system gave positive results. On the other hand, the Serbian educational system is fraught with numerous problems
(traditional habits, technological equipment, etc.)
and such represents a good foundation for implementation of the measures to overcome the obvious
shortcomings in order to achieve the high-quality
education. The educational system in vocational
schools (mechanical engineering schools) is a set of
elements linked by correlation. It means that none
of the stages in vocational education of students
should be considered as autonomous. Furthermore,
the presented reflections should be considered in
wide context of technical education beginning from
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technics technologies education management
primary to university levels of education. (Anagnostopoulos, 1998; Devedzic, 2005).
In the next chapter it is given a short account
on development of computer design,for both vocational secondary schools and universities. The
third chapter presents the temporary state of the
educational system relating to this area in secondary mechanical engineering schools in Serbia, as
well as the state on university level. The short account of the state concerning this area in European
and other countries of the world is given in the
fourth chapter. The necessary measures for overcoming the problems by considering the good and
the bad sides of the current approach are presented
in the fifth chapter. The drawn conclusions are focused on overcoming the perceived deficiencies
and improvement of the curriculums within mechanical engineering profession.
2. The developmental stages of computer
aided design in Serbian mechanical engineering schools
Computer design was introduced in the world as
Computer Aided Desing (CAD) in the mid 50s of the
20th century and it permeats all software generations
ever since, which were improved by the development of information technology. Computer design
represents a complex process which consists of interconnected phases. It is not only the process of
monitoring the computer instructions. It is essential
that this process is preceded by a few very significant
phases. The set of design activities which through
phases of defining the elementary style solutions,
calculations, design, simulations of behaviour, reliability of elements, production of the test series and
testing, are all aimed at technical definition of the
product which satisfies the functional, the esthetical
and the standard safety norms (Letic, 2002).
In further text there will not be presented the
exact data but instead there will be stated the intention to point out to the important turning points
starting from the first half of the 90s of the 20th
century till today. The field of computer design
was introduced into the curriculum in 1994 for
the first time in secondary mechanical engineering schools (Educational Gazette no. 1 dated 22nd
January 1994). It was a part of curriculum for mechanical technician and technician for CNC ma842
chines within the subjects: the computer graphics,
modelling of the mechanical elements and design,
and construction. In the year of 1998 there were
significant changes relating to the curriculum of
the above mentioned subjects (The Educational
Gazette no. 6 dated 18th September 1998). Since
then begins a new approach to be applied to 3D
solid modelling of products and processes.
The significant changes in curriculum for technician for CNC machines were made by changing
the name (2003) into technician for computer control when a new subject known as modelling of mechanical elements and design was also introduced.
This subject has replaced the one called mechanical
elements 2, with the elements of computer application and software for 3D design. Through the application of softwares AutoCAD, Pro/ENGINEER,
Pro/Desktop and etc. for surface and spatial design
of drafts and models the subject was providing for
the essentials of computer literacy. To a certain degree the application softwares for solid design of
models has had larger influence on promotion and
development of modern area of 3D design. It is obvious that many activities in this area, as well as
their beginnings, were the consequence of the development of PCs and information technologies.
On the university level especially on the mechanical engineering faculties the computer design has a longer teaching tradition, but it was also
largely conditioned by the situation in the area of
information technology. In the field of researches
our scientists did not fall behind for the world’s
achievements, but the introduction of these disciplines in teaching was hindered due to the bad
financial situation (Devedzic, 2005).
By the end of 80s of the 20th century the systems
for computer drafts within the subject technical
drafting and others,such as construction methods,
mechanical elements, technical systems, technical
methods design and etc. were intensively applied.
It can be noticed that by the mid 90s there were
no subjects which would directly and wholly address the problems of computer design. By the appearance of the 4th generation software systems for
computer design Technical universities introduce
the subjects which under different names and in
different volumes promote computer design CAD,
especially manifested in the Reform of the university education in Serbia in 2005.
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technics technologies education management
3. The present state of educational system
referring to computer design
When the computer design was introduced in
curriculums in mechanical engineering schools
few of them were ready for this kind of project while a large number of vocational schools
couldn’t afford the teaching tools needed for this
kind of concept. A bad financial situation during
the 90s has influenced the educational system a
lot especially the schools which were educating
disciplines which needed technical teaching tools.
Besides, the untrained teaching stuff has caused
huge difficulties since they couldn’t be trained for
the realization of the new teaching program.
The problem that has arose was to be solved
in the first years of 21st century when the financial
situation was significantly improving. Thanks to
the seminars for specialized training of the teaching stuff organized by The Institute for The Advancement of Education, it was made possible for
teaching stuff to be trained for this area. However,
eventhough this was considered to be a positive
move which gave good results, these seminars did
have certain shortcomings. Firstly, these seminars
were training teachers how to use application softwares for computer design and not how to spread
the knowledge to students. Secondly, the existing
software tools for computer design were such that
neither teachers nor students in a huge number of
schools had conditions for their usage because of
the shortcomings of the technical possibilities, that
is the lack of computers to support such softwares.
Thirdly, the differences in choosing the softwares
used for teaching have led to certain misunderstandings concerning the usage of the books, the
manuals, the contests and etc.
Today the situation is a bit better. When it
comes to teaching tools for subjects such as
computer design, a small number of vocational
schools (mechanical engineering) can not perform the teaching of this kind. The teaching stuff
has changed both with education and the change
of generations. However the software’s trial
continues. At least ten different software programmes are used currently in mechanical engineering schools in Serbia within the subject the
computer design. If we compare it with the countries I European Union e.g. France and England,
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we will notice that in their educational system
of vocational schools (mechanical engineering)
one or two application softwares are used recommended by The Ministary of Education, but
in other countries of EU the situation is pretty
much the same (Anagnostopoulos, 1998; Mishra
& Hershey, 2004; Walpole, 2003). Students in
Serbian Universities study two or three of the
world’s leading softwares, but in researches and
in additional works more different softwares
are being studied. In addition to that, this state
of students’ education in mechanical engineering schools shows that the students who enroll
the technical universities (especially mechanical
engineering university) come with certain essentials concerning the computer design.
If we consider the 4th grade mechanical technician for computer design (who in its curriculum has the most of the application of computer
in teaching design of mechanical calculations
and models), there is 90% of schools that educate this profile in Serbia. The subject the modelling of mechanical elements and construction,
that is the most predominant subject in the 3rd and
the 4th grade which is according to its curriculum taught through exercises is done exclusively
on the computer. According to the data from the
school’s contests in the past ten years only within
this subject seven different application softwares
are used for 3D design. On the figure 1 it is given
a chart representing the level of usage of the application softwares for 3D design of mechanical
elements and construction in mechanical engineering schools in Serbia.
Figure 1. The chart representing the usage of application softwares for 3D computer design
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technics technologies education management
4. The present state of education in the
field of computer design in european
countries and worldwide
Computer Aided Design (CAD) represents significant field present in the educational systems of the
european countries and worldwide. The curriculums,
as well as application softwares in this field differ
more or less, while the starting pointa are the same. It
should be like that, since the curriculums must adjust
to the needs of the global market economy.
The following examples can be taken as characteristic in the world. In the University in Alberta (USA) was created a concept of programme of
obligatory course for computer design ,,MecE 265”
for mechanical engineering students. This concept
iniciated the emergence of the programme version
Pro/ENGINEER Student Edition for 3D design by
the American company Parametric Technology
Corporation (PTC) (Toogood, 2008). In order to
expedite the progress of education in this field,this
company has developed a software Pro/DESKTOP
(for 3D design) which was intended for teaching
in secondary vocational schools. Pro/Desktop was
given at no cost to over 14.000 secondary schools
worldwide, and it is used by nearly four million students every school year. At first its main rival was
the software AutoCAD, which was widely used in
teaching in secondary vocational schools for 2D design and slightly worse 3D conversion compared to
Pro/Desktop. Pro/Desktop was replaced by a free
software version known as Pro/ENGINEER Schools Edition by the same company for the secondary
vocational schools in the last few years.
The second example from America concerning
the field of vocational education, technics, technology and engineering was the establishment of the
specalised body Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET). Apparently this body
is concerned more with the university level of education and professional training, but it has a great
part in giving references for secondary schools’
educational programmes. Its main motto in accreditation of the educational programs is that ,,it’s more
important what is learned then what is taught” (Hamade, 2006; Kariya, 2003; Kushner, 2004). That is
why in programme K-12 as well as in references of
ABET is largely forced the idea that the good curriculum provides the possibility for students and gra844
duates to create models and make prototypes, carry
out the experiments, i.e. to actively participate in
teaching and learning processes and personal training, and not only to be passive observers in a
teaching process (www.K12.com; McAdoo,1998).
The important aspect of such education represents
the constant cooperation with economy and the industry, which additionally leads to the assimilation
of practical knowledge and skills. It goes without
saying that the intensive application of information
technology is absolutely necessary.
In Australia, for example, a new curriculum for
new technologies was created for secondary vocational schools. For example, The Queensland
Studies Authority is statutory specialized body responsible for the educational system development,
the testing, the evaluation, the streamlining and the
accreditation. Especially important aspect refer to
the comprehensive education related to the application of the information and communication technologies (ICT) (University of Warwick, 2006).
Similarly in Europe, for example in England for
more than 10 years Technology Enhancement Programme (TEP) for the technology improvement is
used and is aimed at the support and the improvement of teaching and education in the technology
field. More than 1.800 schools are included in the
programme, which makes up the third of the British secondary schools (Mashra, 2004; The Nuffield Foundation, 2006). Except for the technology for computer aided design and manufacturing
CAD/CAM, new modern technologies like robots,
intelligent control, ,,smart materials”, internet and
etc. are also introduced. In this way not only that
the curriculum is modernized but it is also emphasized the importance of knowing and applying the
new technologies, concerning the usage of consumer products as well as joining the modern market
courses and general development.
So, from the afore said it can be concluded that
the aim is to use the good sides of the traditional
way of education which should be strengthened
by the application of the information technologies
(computers) which give significant advantages in
achieving the quality education. In this way it encourages the students’ creativity and motivation
which can help them to assimilate knowledge and
acquire skills through researches aided by teachers’ monitoring and experience.
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technics technologies education management
If we start from the fact that the highschool
students are naturally curious and sensitive. If we
show them intresting and practical tasks which
encourage them to think, and at the same time
we give them the necessary help, we will provide
for them a wealty and stimulating background in
which they would feel the cognitive satisfaction.
The application of such concepts has been always
giving great results.
With the aim of learning the new methods and
technics, it is necessary and important to compare
our educational system with the other systems. It
proves the necessity of the research in the broader
sense than it is presented in this paper.
There certainly are potencials in this area in our
country. As implicit indicators could be used practical works of students from contests in computer
design in mechanical engineering. For example,
on regional and republic contest for the 4th grade
educational profile technician of mechanical
engineering for computer design ( schoolyear
2009/2010) the highschool students had the task
to do a practical work on a computer for 3D model
machine with accompanying technical documentation. The works were the squeezing machine (figure 2) on regional contests and power saw (figure
3) on republic contests (www.masinskans.edu.rs/
zajednica;www.tehnicka.rs).
According to the Anex of the regulations referring to the contests of the students of vocational
secondary schools of Republic Serbia concerning
the mechanical engineering and the metal working
of the educational profile – mechanical engineering technician for computer design in accordance
with Article 23, the given time is 180 minutes.
It means that students had three hours to make
models of machines which consisted of 13 and
10 components. Each component had its specific
complexity of production and their assembling
into machine. The overall results from these contests have shown that students have successfully
solved their tasks in the given time shown by the
number of points they got in practical part of the
context. When we compare it (using the available
internet websites) with the contests in the countries of EU, it can be seen that our system of contests does not differ much as far as the difficulties
of the tasks the students are taclkling with. But we
should not forget, however, that these students are
among the best in this area.
From the given example that can be easily
tested it is clear that the concept of the modern
mechanical profession which is present in Serbia
gives good results. The only problem is the level
of application with highschool students and university students, considering the state of the mechanical industry in Serbia. If we look up to the
developed countries of the world, we should in the
next few years found the specialized body whose
task would be the overall activitt aimed at continuous enhancement, changes and improvements of
the educational progarmmes based on the application of the new technologies.
The task of the specialized body for technological improvement in education should be to connect
more firmly the curriculums of primary – secondary – university education. The creation of the standards and methodologies represents the important
aspect of this activity which would provide the feasibility of the pains taken. Reaching the high quality would be sped up, and the realization of the set
goals in this way consistently controlled.
Figure 2. A squeezing machine – a practical
work of students on regional contest of the
mechanical engineering schools 2009/2010.
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technics technologies education management
Figure 3. Power saw – a practical work of students from republic contest of the mechanical engineering schools 2009/2010
5. Deduced considerations and conclusions
Realising the state of the educational system in
Serbia in the past ten years certain acquired experiences are perceived which could be used for
effecting the necessary changes. Such experiences
show that the former efforts to introduce the new
technologies into curriculums of mechanical engineering schools in Serbia give the satisfactory
results. In the world’s developed countries a period of five years represents a sort of practice
which introduces certain changes in curriculums.
By these deductions we want to forsee the existing imperfections which can be identified in the
former works,with the aim of including a larger
number of professionals in detecting the problem
and proposing the measures for its solving.
Let’s start from the application of the softwares
in teaching. There are two fundamental landmarks
that mostly influence the choice of the software.
The first one is the level of training of the teachers
846
for computer design for the application of certain
software tool. The second is recognizing the needs
of the local industry. Such approaches have had
their good and bad sides. The good side is that the
students would have a quality teaching on certain
subjects applied in practice. The bad side is that the
examples which show that the choice of a software
for one subject did not satisfy the demands of other
subjects related to this area. In such situation different application softwares are introduced which
produce confusion among the students because of
their uncoordination. The solution to this problem
is the unification,i.e. the usage of one unique software or a set of softwares with resiprocal associations. These softwares that provide a unique platform are the worl’s leading softwares. The modern
CAD/CAM software generations are suitable for
teaching. However, there seems to be a problem
here as well. All these softwares used in schools
are not translated into Serbian language. Therefore
this language barrier can present a serious problem
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technics technologies education management
both for the students and the teachers. Nowadays
the so called educational software agents are more
and more frequently used in the world’s educational
programmes ,for example in America. Although the
visualization of CAD/CAM softwares significantly
facilitates the communication and resolves the problems, a high-level training and knowledge of the
foreign language are absolutely necessary. It should be mentioned that the constant education of the
experts is therefore implied (CAD/CAM in Schools,
2011; Devedzic, 2004; Mishra & Hershey, 2004;
Garcia et al., 2005).
Furthermore, the available literature also represents a serious problem. The fact is that the Ministary of Education of Republic Serbia recommends
the usage of the literature issued by The Institution
for books and teaching tools for teaching In primary and secondary schools. Nowadays the situation, at least as far as the computer design teaching
is concerned, is such that we have a wide range
of books intended for this purpose but whose first
editions appeared five years ago. We all know that
this is a long period when it comes to software
redesign and the development of new versions
which are in accordance with the new generation
of computers for which a period of five years represents the whole working life. However, the
problems are numerous. In this area the changes
happen frequently, for example in mechanical engineering the JUS standard was changed into SRPS
standard. The methodology of computer design
has significantly improved in the recent few years,
so certain modifications should be done aiming at
facilitation of the education outcome. The curriculums of these subjects do not aim at the usage of
the particular softwares in teaching which would
be used as a basis for literature to be published.
In a number of existing literature certain pedagogical, psychological and cognitive aspects of the
adolescents are not taken into account. Such literature looks more like reference books of software
tools than the teaching books. The solution for this
problem may be the creation of specialized body
comprised from pedagogical experts and teachers
who use different softwares for computer design.
Such body should iniciate frequent changes and
extensions in literature as well as its enlargement
depending on the type of the software tools used
in teaching process.
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
The curriculum of these subjects can be a stumbling block even though we fulfilled the former
demands. The current curriculum of the subject of
computer design, except for its good sides shows
certain disadvantages. The lessons taught during
the course of study are unnecessary. The number
of classes for practical exercises are insufficient. It
all significantly shortens the time needed to add on
the acquired knowledge and skills, as well as for
realization of certain number of lessons. In curriculums of the vocational subjects such as technical drafting, technology of processing, mechanical
elements, technological methods, the basics of the
design and etc. within certain teaching units the
usage of computer Is recommended, but the plan
is often not realized due to the untrained teachers.
This state and the behaviour of the doers leads
to the minimal curriculum realization due to the
afore mentioned shortcomings which pose serious
problems to students in further education.
Prompted by such situation it is very important
to activate a team of experts on pedagogy, psychology and technical science which would create a
concept aimed to help teachers and the creators of
curriculums. This concept should be focused on
creation of modern approaches to teaching, and at
the same time to facilitate the adoption of technological changes which represent a barrier which
teachers often encounter.
The former researches related to education of
teachers for vocational subjects gave positive results, but were not efficient enough when it comes
to teaching methodology. The introduction of
computers in teaching caused serious problem to
teachers who themselves did not have computers
during their course of studies. The seminars were
therefore the only solution. But on these seminars
they were only learning how to use the software,
and their teaching experience has partially helped
them too spread the acquired knowledge. On the
other hand, we do have a younger generation of
teachers who possess a significant computer literacy but do not have the experience in teaching
students of different age. Certain questions are
being posed: Why there were no seminars to help
teachers in teaching subjects related to this area?
Why there were no seminars where both catagories of teachers should take participation and
exchange the opinions and draw certain conclu847
technics technologies education management
sions? The seminars referring to computer design
should offer teachers with software solutions of
the producers who offer the educational versions
which are often free of charge. The educational software versions are mostly products of the
companies which have a wide application in the
world’s industry. Our educational system would in
this way succeed in solving the problems which
were caused by the financial crisis in the previous
period which would bring us closer to the world’s
developed countries.
The new concept of curriculum should harmonize the application of computers with the professional knowledge. Such concept should reject the
application of unefficient softwares whose usage
amounts to the teaching exercises of one subject
only. It means that the theoretical knowledge acquired from vocational subjects could reflect on
softwares for solving particular tasks and calculations. That correlation is achieved by most CAD/
CAM softwares offerring their users the possibility
to use the acquired knowledge, to develop creativity, the apstraction of perceiving, the research of the
path that itself leads to the solution of the problem.
With this research one can deduce that the necessity for professional training through specialized seminars is of utmost importance, since a
man is considered to be the driving force of every
reform. The changes in curriculum related to computer design In terms of changes and extensions
should be done every fifth year so as the teaching should follow the technological development.
The curriculums should more directly coordinate
with the age of the students and the developmental characteristics of the students, but also with requirements that arise from vocational and social
partnership of education with the local community, industry, professional associations, financial
institutions and etc. Under the circumstances,
the framework of the changes in curriculums of
computer design should be supported by the introduction of the education quality standards.
These standards should ensure the fundamentals
for introducing these subjects in primary schools
(for example technical education). It can be done
by special teaching units or workshops, but it certainly represents one step forward in achieving the
standards and practice in the developed countries
of the world.
848
Therefore, the motive of reprogramming the
educational system in mechanical engineering
schools in Serbia in the area that is often subjected to changes would generally be the concept of
constant professional training and control which
we must all take participation in.
References
1. Anagnostopoulos C.N., Williams L.A. (1998), Few
Gold Stars for Precollege Education, IEEE Spectrum, April, pp. 18-26.
2. CAD/CAM in Schools (2011), from the World Wide
Web: http:www.cadinschools.org
3. Devedžić G. (2004), Softverska rešenja CAD/CAM
sistema, Kragujevac: Mašinski fakultet.
4. García R.R., Santos R.G., Quirós J.S., Penín P.I.A.
(2005), Present State of CAD Teaching in Spanish
Universities, Computers & Education, Vol.44,
pp.201-215.
5. Hamade R.F., Artail H.A., Jaber M.Y. (2006), Evaluating the Learning Process of Mechanical CAD
Students, Computers & Education, (article in press).
6. Letić, D, i sar. (2002), Grafičke komunikacije u
inženjerskom projektovanju, Zrenjanin:Tehnički
fakultet ,,Mihajlo Pupin“.
7. Kariya S. (2003), Online Education Expands and
Evolves, IEEE Spectrum, May, pp. 49-51.
8. Kushner D. (2004), Let Us Entertain You, IEEE
Spectrum, February, pp.52-53.
9. McAdoo M. (1998), Companies Steer New K-12
Courses, IEEE Spectrum, April, pp.27-33.
10. Mishra P., Hershey K.A. (2004), Etiquete and the
Design of Educational Technology, Communications of the ACM, Vol.47, No.4, pp.45-49.
11. The Technology Enhancement Programme, University of Warwick, UK, (2010), from the World Wide
Web: http://www.tep.org.uk
12. Toogood, R. (2008), ProENGINEER WILDFIRE
4.0. Belgrade: Computer library.
13. http://www.ptc.com, http://www.3ds.com, http://
www.topsolid.com, http://www.solidedge.com,
http://www.autodesk.com, http://www.ugs.com
14. ABET Inc. from the World Wide Web: http://www.
abet.org/
15. K-12 Program (2010): from the World Wide Web:
http://www.k12.com/
Corresponding Author
Goran Nestorovic,
Technical School with home students ,,Nikola Tesla”
Kostolac,
Serbia,
E-mail: gnestorovic@gmail.com
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
technics technologies education management
Role of management in the process of
managing human resources in electronic media
Almira Huseinovic,
Foreign Trade Chamber of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bosnia and Herzegovina,
Head of the Institute for Education “ECOS”, Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Abstract
This paper will include a presentation and
elaboration of the main links and ties between
media and management, two very significant
and socially required activities in today’s world.
There is hardly a single social sphere which is not
linked to management as one of the vital determinants in the overall activities and functioning
of the modern fast and turbulent times. Through
its function, management is becoming a necessary
theoretical and empirical fact of each and every
organizational unit including the electronic media.
In view of the ever increasing importance in the
role of the electronic media in today’s world there
is a rising need to organize its operations along the
management principles. The aim of this paper is
to explain how, in what way and which concepts
does the management affect managing human resources in electronic media and how the homogeneity of management and media affects the overall
results achieved by the media. A specific overview
is given of the current state of media in Bosnia
and Herzegovina. In order to argument the role of
management in the process of managing human
resources in electronic media a content analysis
method of the previous, not widely present theoretical and empirical researches in the field was
used. The general conclusion is that the electronic
media are the best indicators of the fact that intellectual capital (the know-how present within
the human resources) stands for the key share of
capital and it is this knowledge which allows for
the expansion of the media content spectrum by
introducing new media products and services, the
transferring of know-how and overcoming numerous limitations which electronic media in Bosnia
and Herzegovina is notably exposed to.
Key words: management, electronic media,
human resources, technology, knowledge
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
1. Introduction
The media plays a significant social role and
stands for an important social impact factor. It represents a concourse of powerful contents, knowledge, information and new technologies. The fundamental precondition for an efficient functioning
and continuous development of media in parallel
with the intensive changes in the environment is
the permanent development of the culture of management within media houses.
In today’s world, the media play “an exceptional role in creating the public opinion in the world
together with shaping of the most important political decisions in the global context.”1
The introduction and maintenance of new
technologies in the communication sector often
requires changes in behaviour of all participants
involved in this process. It is necessary to relinquish the existing rules of the game including familiarity and security. For this reason, the behavioural change requirement must be exceptionally
motivating. Namely, changes are often followed
by tensions and insecurity and may result in a
strong resistance and encumbrance. The surging
development of media in the last several decades
was not achieved solely as a result of technological advances but also with the implementation of
the contemporary management practice notably in
the sphere of human resource management.
2. New Technology in Media and Management
The current level of technological and economic development, the introduction and application of modern technologies in every segment of
1 Vočkić-Avdagić, Jelenka, (2005). “Mediji i obrazovanje:
Medijski komercijalizam i novi trendovi profesionalizma“
(Media and Education: Media Commercialism and the
New Trends of Professionalism), “Obrazovanje odraslih“
(Education of Adults), no 3/2005 ,p. 111.
849
technics technologies education management
the work process represents one of the dominant
factors of development of every company. Organizations which strive to maintain or enhance their
competitiveness on the market need to monitor
and implement systematically and continuously
the new technological advances in line with their
capacities and requirements of the environment.
In view of the fact that the new technologies
cause and enable important strategic changes, a
strategic approach is thus essential. This notably
refers to the electronic media market. Its main features include the appearance of new technological
solutions, continuous increase in the emergence
of new market players, continuous introduction
of new services, constant development of new
business models and an implied tendency towards
vertical and horizontal integrations among companies. In this sense, the effect of new technologies
on the management is indisputable notably in the
segment of human resource management in media
from the standpoint of business development.
Almost all media companies are facing key
challenges: continuous development of new content offers, handling volatility, cooperation with
numerous local rather than actual international
markets and balancing between economic and
various social goals. Primarily, the essence of every media business is the temporary goods: the
content. Whether this be the news or the entertainment, reports or stories, facts or fiction, the content is intangible in its substance and depends on
the current fashion, trends and inspiration.
The content must be produced on daily basis
and is often very short-lived. Live sports events or
news broadcasts represent extreme cases. In general, with the exception of cultural programs, the
content broadcasted by a certain TV station is very
short-lived.
The last twenty years have seen an incredible
boost in the development of the electronic media system. The first communication satellite was
launched 40 years ago and now, more than 400
satellites, each sending an enormous amount of information are orbiting around the Earth. Real time
communication on locations all over the world is
now made possible for the first time. Other forms of
electronic communication also integrated with the
satellite transmission has also gained momentum.
No Trans-Atlantic or Trans-Pacific communication
850
cable existed before the 1950’s. The first such cable
transmitted less than 100 lines for voice communication while the modern ones now transmit more
than a million lines. The early 1980’s saw the rise
of the era of global media giants. Under the pressure of the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the
World Bank (WB) and the US Government to commercialize the press and all other standard broadcasters, which was followed simultaneously by the
development of the satellite and digital technology,
the global media era begins.
„Apart from being a competition to each other,
some of the greatest media giants: Time Warner,
Disney, Bertelsmann, Viacom, News Corporation,
Universal and NBC have their shares in numerous other industries such as the film industry, publishing, TV programs and networks, own amusement parks, museums, different press editions...
etc. Namely, only the film by itself can generate
music editions, CD-ROMs, DVDs, possible TV
shows, video games...etc. The Time Warner and
Disney were gathered around the TCI – the largest
cable operator in the USA which also holds shares
in the global media. The overall shares of the media shareholding companies generate a great profit
and owing to their specialization in certain media
fields, they are undoubtedly media distribution
and production leaders in the global market.
The main paradox in the latest media development is the fact that the choice of what, how and
where we consume media products is ever increasing while the ownership over the media, the profitability and information control is concentrated
within a small circle of the elite.”2.
The next line of companies in the media market
are those operating on the local or regional level or
companies specializing for specific markets on the
global level. More than half of these have emerged
in North America (Westinghouse-CBS, New York
Times Co., Hearst, and Comcast & Gannet). We
can say in brief that the majority of the film and
television production, book and newspaper publishing, the satellite systems, the musical production and every other media related aspect is
in the hand of some 50 companied headed by 9
media moguls with seats in Europe and the North
2 McQueen, David (2000). Televizija. (Television)
Beograd: CLIO, p. 284.
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
technics technologies education management
America. The concentration of the media capital
in the world of global economy is strictly rooted in
Western, capitalist countries. All these companies
are strongly interconnected due to the rules of a
safe game with the competition, where each of the
top ten companies holds shares in the competitors’
companies.
The media companies notably compete in three
fields: the overwhelming content (the author’s market), media attention of the end users and consumption (consumer’s market) and the corporative marketing budget (marketing and sponsor’s market).
The new broadcasting and media technology is
bringing fast and dynamic changes within the media
sector operations. The digital television, Internet,
mobile media, IPods...etc. are all becoming parts of
our daily lives and are fundamentally changing the
way we experience media as well as our individual
relationship towards the media content. The new
media are influencing the economic, social, cultural
and every other media industry policy.
On the global level there is a presence of:
–– a growing value of the media and
telecommunication market, merging and
media concentration and an ever increasing
influence of the economic factors on the
program contents;
–– fragmentation of the audience and a loss
of the common information basis while
the audience now has more freedom in
accessing information;
–– the legitimacy of the public services is
brought in question and this form of media
is slowly losing its audience;
–– the traditional regulations are becoming
inadequate and new, innovative solutions
are being sought.
The new technologies include: digital broadcasting, broadcasting based on the Internet protocol (IPTV)...etc.
The information system enables the company
management to have accurate and reliable information on all business processes conducted on
all company levels. The management is then able
to make timely and optimum business decisions
based on the analysis of the previous events, statistical data, trends and the current conditions.
The main aim is managing the company so as to
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
enable it to achieve the defined economic, social,
financial and other business indicators within the
set time period.
The erratic and quick changes in the society,
the constant technological development and the
related innovations together with the uncertainty
of a business success imposes the need for using
management in media organizations. In order for
the media to function efficiently and to develop
further on, it is important for the management
culture within the media houses to develop continuously in parallel with the changes in the environment. The media in Bosnia and Herzegovina
is faced with numerous challenges. The generally poor economic state of the country, the relatively low value of marketing and advertising in
the country’s electronic media, the high expenses
of introducing new technology, the high costs of
training the staff to use the new technology are
just to name a few.
Thus, the research on the effects of applying new
technology in the electronic media sector on the
formulation of the business strategy and management styles may stand as a useful contribution to
the theoretical and practical aspects of developing
the electronic media in Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Therefore, the management incorporates several functions such as the planning, organization,
leadership and relevant monitoring all aimed at establishing effective and reliable processes.
Planning means defining goals and standards
of results. After analysing the actual state within
all framework conditions, the planning provisions
are established. This includes both long-term, strategic and operational, measurable goals.
Organization includes defining of duties and
responsibilities. This segment imposes the need to
establish who does what in the set out timeframe.
Moreover, there might be a need to define the profile of the function and the competencies, appoint
partners and introduce them into the activities and
provide instructions for the competencies. It is
important to plan the human resources which includes the establishment of required qualifications
and the resulting need for education.
Management requires adequate instruments
and management styles. The responsibility of the
company’s management board plays a vital role
in this segment. Which management style is prac851
technics technologies education management
ticed in the company? Is it appropriate for the
company’s culture? Can the employees be motivated enough? How is the communication within
the company conducted?
With the help of different control mechanisms,
a comparison between the desired aims and the
achieved results is conducted. The level of the
achieved aim is established in order to make the
discrepancies transparent, to make improvements
and establish new aims.
The fundamental aim of management is to
achieve the level where a set of generic characteristics meets the requirements. In principle, this
is the case of meeting the requests of the product
consumers and service beneficiary, i.e. the clients.
This might mean meeting the concrete requests of
the service beneficiary, the consumer or the client which were explicitly formulated in writing
in the form of a contract. However, a consumer
may have other requests which he deems to be implicit are thus not formulated. The company undertakes the necessary measures to research such
requests in order to achieve the highest level of
client, product or service beneficiary satisfaction.
The decision on the satisfaction of requirements
is solely and exclusively passed by the consumer
or the beneficiary when he makes the final decision on purchasing the specific product or using
the concrete service.
3. The Electronic Media Structure in Bosnia and Herzegovina
The radio and television broadcasting market in
Bosnia and Herzegovina is characterised by a great
number of market participants. There is a high level
of media pluralism. As of August 31, 2010, 199 entities have received a licence for terrestrial broadcasting. The general licence for terrestrial broadcasting
is a licence to broadcast radio or television program
which is defined as a set of rights and obligations of
radio and television stations included in the general
and specific licence provisions and awarded by the
relevant state institution. Pursuant to the Law on
Communication of Bosnia and Herzegovina3 “the
broadcasters are obliged to ensure implementation
3 Law on Communication of Bosnia and Herzegovina,
Official Gazette of BiH, no. 31/03 and 75/06.
852
of professional standards within the program content, the technical operations and the financial costeffectiveness“.
There are “three radio and television broadcasters within the Public Broadcasting Service broadcasting three television and three radio programs.
Those include: Television of Bosnia and Herzegovina (BHT 1), Radio of Bosnia and Herzegovina (BH Radio), Television of the Federation
of Bosnia and Herzegovina (FTV), Radio of the
Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (RFBiH),
Television of Republika Srpska (TRS), Radio of
Republika Srpska (RRS). The signal of the Television of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Radio of
Bosnia and Herzegovina covers the whole territory of the country while the signal of the entity
broadcasters (FTV, RFBiH, RTRS, PPC) covers
the entity territory.”4
The ratings of the Public Broadcasting System
in Bosnia and Herzegovina are very important.
The public broadcasters are mainly financed from
the tax paid by the viewers/listeners while one
small share of funds comes from advertising. 44
television stations have the possibility to provide
television services in Bosnia and Herzegovina.
They are differentiated by the ownership structure
and the means of financing into public and private
TV stations. The public stations may be regional
or local depending on the coverage area. These
stations are partially or completely financed by
public funds of the citizens, namely the cantonal
or municipal budget. Part of their financing may
also come from advertising. The public TV stations are obliged to devote a part of their program
to local and service information which includes
informative, educational, cultural or other content
stemming from the viewers’ region.
30 private television stations also provide television program services in Bosnia and Herzegovina.
They are differentiated by the signal coverage area,
program ratings, financial power, technical capacities, the number of employees...etc. The following
private TV stations have the highest ratings: PINKBH, NTV HAYAT, OBN, TV BN, ATV...etc.
4 Overview of the communication sector in Bosnia and
Herzegovina – harmonization with the EU standards
and the role of the Communications Regulatory Agency
(2007) Sarajevo: RAK BiH, p. 59
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
technics technologies education management
When it comes to radio stations, there is a total of 144 entities of which 64 are public and 80
in private ownership. The majority of these are of
local character. Numerous researches have shown
that the radio stations with the top ratings are: Radio BN, Radio Stari Grad, Radio Kameleon, Radio
NES, Radio Kalman, Radio M, Radio Valentino...
etc. In addition to the terrestrial broadcasting, radio and television programs may be broadcasted
through cable operators in Bosnia and Herzegovina. As of August 31, 2010, the relevant state institution had issued 27 licences for cable distribution
of radio and television program. Three distributors
provide their radio and television distribution services through IPTV (Internet Protocol Television).
Those include Moja TV (BH Telekom), Super TV
(Logosoft) and Open IPTV (m:tel). Moja TV offers 84 radio and TV channels and has more than
10,000 subscribers. Open IPTV’s package offers
37 radio and television programs and has almost
10,000 subscribers. Super TV offers 146 channels
and has also almost 10,000 subscribers. One additional entity distributes the program via satellite
technology (DTH-Digital to Home)5.
Television stations which want to broadcast
their program on the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina but which do not hold a licence for terrestrial broadcasting may achieve this by obtaining the “Licence for the provision of Audio Visual
Media Services.”6 The licensee acquires the right
to establish and provide radio and television services through electronic communication networks
regardless of the technology with the exemption
of terrestrial broadcasting. The licence is awarded
on a non-exclusive basis i.e. to all interested legal entities seated in Bosnia and Herzegovina and
registered for the provision of radio and television
services which meet the conditions stipulated under the below mentioned Rule. Based upon this, “a
total of 30 licences for the provision of audio-visual media services have been issued. Of this, 26 TV
stations have concluded contracts with cable oper5 Overview of the communication sector in Bosnia and
Herzegovina – harmonization with the EU standards
and the role of the Communications Regulatory Agency
(2007) Sarajevo: RAK BiH, p. 59
6 Rule on the means of awarding and the licencing
conditions for the provision of audio-visual media
services Official Gazette of BiH, no. 20/08.
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
ators while 4 TV stations broadcast their program
via satellite – Radio Television Mostar – TV1, BN
Television, BN Music and NTV HAYAT”7.
In view of the aforementioned, we can conclude that the structure of electronic media in Bosnia and Herzegovina is heterogeneous and that the
new broadcasting technologies can quickly and
easily find their place in the country’s media space.
4. Human Resource Management in
Electronic Media
The most comprehensive definition that can
be accepted and that will be used as grounds for
further research is the definition offered by Aziz
Šunje. He defines the term management as “(1)
all business activities (managerial functions) (2)
performed by managers, (3) within the appropriate business-organizational structure (organization), (4) by engaging necessary resources (resources), (5) striving to ensure an adequate balance between effectiveness and (5.2.) efficiency
within (5.3.) a short and (5.4.) long -term“8.
We can rightly conclude that the managers
are the main holders of the management process.
They are responsible for the work of the staff and
they channel their work operations. Managers are
the people with the necessary power and reputation with regard to the target group of people that
they manage.
The reason why management is so important in
today’s time of fast social and market changes and
trends is that management deals with people. Its
task is to train the people to work in a team. Moreover, management stimulates and promotes personal strengths and eliminates personal weaknesses.
The modern technique and technology, their
constant and accelerated development and progress demand permanent specialization and training of people involved in the process all with an
aim to create more effective and efficient organizations and institutions. Changes imposed by
the technological development demand a quick
response. Thus, the management, as the driving
7 http://www.rak.ba
8 Šunje, Aziz 2002, “Menadžment u obrazovanju“
(Management in Education), “Obrazovanje odraslih“
(Education of Adults), no 1/2002, p. 70.
853
technics technologies education management
force and the foundation of an organization or a
company, is required to adapt to such changes in
due time. This task also refers to the management
in the electronic media as they are under the direct
influence of the intensive technological development requiring adaptation and harmonization.
Media companies have their own management
and organizational structures with various managers (directors, editors) on different levels.”9. Thus,
it is important for the media companies to have
qualified and skilled managers whereas the management needs to create an organized and stimulating environment within the company.
In today’s world, there is no successful media
without the application of good-quality management principles. For media has become “the omnipotent, omnipresent local and global social influence factor, a set of powerful contents, knowledge,
information and technology and undoubtedly the
synergy of the management’s know-how and the
technique of its application in the media industry.”10.
Should certain media wish to have the characteristics of a quality and competitive media, it needs
to continuously, effectively and efficiently function
and develop its operations. Only in this way can it
prevail on the dynamic and volatile market while
the feedback from such an environment will depend on the managerial factors as well.
Knowledge, skills and social competencies of
the employees are important factors leading to the
surge in quality of each organizational system (the
company). The key resource of each organization
is its personnel (the human resources) who possess a wide spectrum of knowledge, capacities
and skills for the execution of their work tasks.
The fundamental challenge of the modern era is
“defining, managing, measuring, developing and
assessing knowledge and its relative form – the intellectual capital “11.
9 Drašković, Mimo 2008, “Prikaz knjige: Menadžment u
kulturi medija”(„Book Review: Management in Media
Culture“, in “Medijski dijalozi” (Media Dialogues),
VOL. 1, no 1, p. 148.
10 Drašković, Veselin 2008, “Menadžment i mediji”,
(Management and Media) in “Medijski dijalozi”,
(Media Dialogues), VOL. 1, no 1, p. 58.
11 Hatunić, Emin (2006). Telekomunikacije i biznis.
(Telecommunications and Business) Tuzla: OFF-SET i
Homing MB, p. 154.
854
The technology plays a very important role in
the dissemination and sharing of knowledge, its
development and learning as well as the organization and acquisition of new skills. This situation is
also relevant to the electronic media which accept
the modern technology as a necessary paradigm in
order to prevail and boost the quality of its work
and operations. This by all means refers to the
electronic media in Bosnia and Herzegovina. By
adopting new technologies, the electronic media
will alter their standing operational methods and
their relationship towards the staff potentials gradually accepting the fact that its is their human resources which represent a crucial factor in gaining
advantage over their competitors. If there were no
effects of the new technology, they would never
acknowledge the aforementioned facts and would
not be ready to devote special attention to this aspect of activities i.e. they would not be aware of
the fact that it is their employees (their know-how,
capacities and skills) which represent the grounds
for their subsistence and future development.
The importance and the efficiency of technology is notably portrayed through the analysis of
the basic elements of the knowledge management
as an important segment of the overall management process. According to Jelena ĐorđevićBoljanović12, the knowledge management is a
concept which implies to “the process of adopting
and using group experience within an organization
in any segment of the work process – on paper, in
the documents, databases (explicit knowledge ) or
within the employees’ minds (the so-called tacit
knowledge – implicit, invisible knowledge)“.
The role of the information technology in the
knowledge management program of electronic
media in Bosnia and Herzegovina is exceptionally
important and deserves special attention only if it
is viewed in the context of the other two remaining
elements – the people and the process. That means
that “the technology as the means used for facilitating the knowledge management has its place in
the knowledge management only if we take into
consideration the capacities of the human being to
create and share the knowledge and to create an
12 Đorđević-Boljanović, Jelena (2009). Menadžment
znanja. (Knowledge Management) Beograd: Datastatus,
p. 23.
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
technics technologies education management
additional value for the organization by means of
the aforementioned processes.”13.
Under the influence of the modern technology
incorporated in their operations, the electronic
media need to put in great efforts in raising the
level of knowledge and skills of their staff as a
pre-requirement for subsistence on the dynamic
and strong media market in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Special attention must be devoted to the employees working directly on modern technological
devices which are facilitating their work, speeding
up the process, improving quality of work and the
quality of the end result (the program content being broadcasted and distributed to the audience).
The knowledge and skills for managing new
technological devices in the field of production,
distribution and reception of the program content
are crucial factors in the attainment of the overall
quality of both the program content and the overall
quality of work within an electronic media. Thus,
the media in Bosnia and Herzegovina is beginning
to pay special attention to the development of human resources, their knowledge, capacities and
skills in order to achieve overall quality.
Under the influence of the modern media technology, the electronic media managers are beginning to realise that the efficiency received solely
by means of technology is not sufficient enough..
In this case, the new technological solutions
would serve their own purpose. The real value of
the electronic media in Bosnia and Herzegovina
is generated solely by creating the environment
where the people may generate and share knowledge which is crucial in managing new technological solutions and whose fundamental aim is to
achieve higher quality of work both at the present
time and in the future.
The quality of work in the electronic media cannot be achieved without competent employees who
are skilled in handling modern technological devices used in media production. Thus, there is an ever-increasing trend of staff training, education and
qualification as the basis for gaining competitive
advantage - a fact which could not take place without a strong influence of modern media technology.
13 Đorđević-Boljanović, Jelena (2009). Menadžment
znanja. (Knowledge Management) Beograd: Datastatus,
p. 162.
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
With the intent to boost quality by adopting technological solutions, it is without doubt that the future
of the electronic media will witness an ever-growing
direction of attention to the available intellectual
capital (human resources) and management of their
knowledge as an important factor of successful business operations and prosperity. The intellectual capital is “the invisible generator of wealth which includes both the human and structural capital”14, and
the radical innovations in the field of media technology has created a possibility to offer program contents and news which were earlier inconceivable.
Furthermore, the new technology influences
the system of motivation within the electronic media. They have a strong effect on the motivation
of employees all with the aim of boosting their individual performances which eventually leads to
an overall success of the organizational structure –
with the electronic media being the organizational
structure in this case.
The term motivation is defined as a “common
term for all internal factors that consolidate the
intellectual and physical energy, initiate and organize individual activities, steer the behaviour and
define its direction, intensity and duration.”15.
The motivation is in the centre of human resource management and goes much further and
stronger than the sole praise for a job well done. In
view of this, there are several models of motivation
defined within the management theory. The motivation is a “management function stemming from
a human need and which has been affirmed as an
important component used by the manager to fulfil
its role in implementing the company’s mission.“16.
5. Conclusion
In the today’s world, the value of the electronic
media is not viewed through the basic assets (inventory) which it possesses – the observable value
14 Hatunić, Emin (2006). Telekomunikacije i biznis.
(Telecommunications and Business) Tuzla: OFF-SET i
Homing MB,p. 154.
15 Bahtijarević-Šiber, Fikreta (1999). Menadžment ljudskih
potencijala. (Management of Human potentials) Zagreb:
Golden marketing, p. 557.
16 Hatunić, Emin (2006). Telekomunikacije i biznis.
(Telecommunications and Business) Tuzla: OFF-SET i
Homing MB, p. 224.
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technics technologies education management
but rather in their means of functioning and the
staff – the non-observable values (the people and
their qualifications, the work processes, customer/audience loyalty, reputation…etc). One of the
measures influencing the overall boost in the work
activities and business success is investment in
human resources and management of this sector
within an organizational structure. The optimization of managing human resources in the electronic media is thus an important segment and one
of the crucial factors of subsistence of each individual electronic media on the market. The bigger
the media the needs for the optimization of human
resource management in electronic media is higher and vice versa. “The bigger the organization,
theoretically there is a higher need for employing people specialized in certain areas of human
resource management. Apart from experts in the
field, there are a number of employees with general knowledge. In smaller organizations, these
people work individually or in small teams, they
perform activities in the field of human resources
and strain to achieve the organizational aims.”
In introducing the technological innovations in
the electronic media, the management of the media
needs to know that the human (intellectual) capital is one of the main factors and a bottleneck for
an efficient use of the information and communication technology. The human resources and their
knowledge stand for the biggest resource within the
electronic media in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Thus,
investments into their education and training is crucial in the process of raising competitive advantage
on the media market. There is an ever-increasing
need for “informational education which is becoming a significant item in the budget of a company
which strives to establish its personnel structure capable to develop and implement the business strategy of a company in the upcoming period.
In the search for the expansion of the media market and media power, the electronic media will enhance the use of the knowledge management concept as a strategic resource in achieving competitive
advantage and important market position. The information and communication technology has enabled
the development of the knowledge-based economy which has influenced a different evaluation of
knowledge as a resource in its general context and
an integrated specific knowledge management.
856
The media represent a classical example of the
claim that the intellectual capital stands for the key
capital share. The knowledge of the managers on
all levels of the media sector is a precondition for
their success. Through the managers’ knowledge
it is possible to expand the range of media content
with new media products and services and thus
transfer knowledge and overcome numerous limitations faced notably by the electronic media in
Bosnia and Herzegovina.
One of the vital features of the media management in Bosnia and Herzegovina is that the business success together with the journalist’s success
in an electronic media is at the same time a responsibility of every employee in each individual
electronic media – not just the editor’s or the manager’s. In order to work within an integrated press
editorial board, the journalists in an electronic media need to hold new knowledge, need to know
how to prepare reports for different media and not
be specialized for only a certain media. In view of
this, the journalists need to undergo special training for different work situations before they actually occur in practice.
Managing people – who need to be educated,
qualified, competent, accurate, motivated and
stimulated for boosting quality – is under a strong
influence of the modern technology. The employees whose activities have been facilitated by the
use of modern technological solutions will be satisfied. This is important for the electronic media
which is constantly implementing modern technology and which would not be able to follow the
modern working trends and achieve successful
results without it.
The electronic media need educated and professionally trained human resources who are qualified
and skilled to manage the modern product and content production technologies. The media in Bosnia
and Herzegovina should seek managers with management knowledge and skills to finds competent
experts qualified to handle new technologies.
The management of the electronic media in Bosnia and Herzegovina needs to put in great efforts in
raising the level of knowledge and skills of its staff,
the direct handlers of new technological devices
which facilitate the work, accelerate the process
and boost the quality of work and the end results.
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
technics technologies education management
References
1. Bahtijarević – Šiber, Fikreta (1999). Manadžment
ljudskih potencijala. (Management of Human Potentials) Zagreb: Golden marketing.
2. Drašković, Mimo 2008, “Prikaz knjige: Menadžment
u kulturi medija”, (Boor Review: Management in
Media Culture) “Medijski dijalozi”, (Media Dialogues) VOL. 1, br 1.
3. Drašković, Veselin 2008, “Menadžment i
mediji”,(Management and Media) u “Medijski dijalozi”, (Media Dialogues) VOL.1, br 1.
13. Zakon o komunikacijama Bosne i Hercegovine,
Službeni glasnik BiH, broj 31/03 i 75/06; (Law on
Communications of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Official Gazette of BiH, no. 31/03 and 75/06);
Corresponding Author
Almira Huseinovic,
Foreign Trade Chamber of Bosnia and Herzegovina,
Bosnia and Herzegovina,
E-mails: almira.huseinovic@komorabih.ba,
almira.huseinovic@ecos.ba
4. Đorđević-Boljanović, Jelena (2009): Menadžment
znanja. (Knowledge Management) Beograd: Datastatus.
5. Hatunić, Emin (2006). Telekomunikacije i biznis.
(Telecommunications and Business) Tuzla: OFF-SET
an Homing MB.
6. Huseinovic, Almira (2011) “Utjecaj novih tehnologija na menadžment elektronskih medija u Bosni i
Hercegovini“, (The Effect of New Technology on the
Electronic Media Management in Bosnia and Herzegovina) Master Degree Thesis – Faculty of Economics, Sarajevo.
7. McQueen, David (2002). Televizija. (Television) Beograd. CLIO.
8. Šunje, Aziz 2002, “Menadžment u obrazovanju“
(Management in Education), “Obrazovanje odraslih“, (Education of Adults) no. 1/2002.
9. Vočkić-Avdagić, Jelenka, (2005). “Mediji i obrazovanje: Medijski komercijalizam i novi trendovi profesionalizma“, (Media and Education: Media Commercialism and New Trends in Professionalism) “Obrazovanje odraslih“, (Education of Adults) no 3/2005
10. http://www.rak.ba
11. Pravilnik o načinu dodjele i uslovima dozvole za
pružanje AVM, Službeni glasnik BiH, broj 20/08;
(Rule on the means and conditions of awarding audio-visual media service licences, Official Gazette
of BiH, no. 20/08)
12. Pregled sektora komunikacija u Bosni i
Herc;egovini – harmonizacija sa EU standardima
i uloga Regulatorne agencije za komunikacije
(2007). Sarajevo: RAK BiH; (Overview of the Communications Sector in Bosnia and Herzegovina –
Harmonization with the EU standards and the role
of the Communications Regulatory Agency in Bosnia and Herzegovina (2007), Sarajevo, RAK BiH);
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
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technics technologies education management
An Alternative Method for the Quantitative
Assessment of the Production Function
Aleksandar Pesic1, Dragan Radovic1, Branislav Djordjevic² Duska Pesic³, Branka Radovic4, Jugoslav Anicic5
Alfa University Belgrade, Faculty of Management, Novi Sad, Serbia,
² University Union Nikola Tesla, Belgrade, Faculty of Real Estate Belgrade, Serbia,
³ Information Tehnology School, Belgrade, Serbia,
4
National employment service, Belgrade, Serbia,
5
University Union Nikola Tesla, Belgrade, Faculty of entrepreneurial business, Belgrade, Serbia.
1
Abstract
The aim of this article is to introduce an innovative quantitative approach to the assessment of the
production factors that enables a comprehensive
and systematic diagnosis of the production function. Although, many strategic management tools
and methods are available to assist managers,
problems and difficulties connected with appraisal
of the relevant production factors still persist. This
paper proposes an interval assessment, based on
the fuzzy logic, as very useful quantitative method
for solving existing problems such as lack of prioritization of the factors and lack of considering
uncertainty by applying fuzzy triangular numbers
and diagrams.
Key words: Fuzzy number, diagrams, interval
assessment, production factors.
Introduction
Production can be viewed as a process of making the product or service. In that sense, process
of production exists in the manufacturing organizations and in the organizations that provides
services. In both cases, process of production requires analysis during the functional appraisal of
the organization.
First phase of this process is to define the critical production factors which are derived from the
critical success factors for the business as a whole.
The critical factors provide one standard against
which actual performance can be compared, and
are a useful starting point. As Jenster and Hussey
have pointed out, some factors are common to
many businesses, but others are more specific to
the particular business. [6] Therefore, managers
should consider a number of different factors in
858
order to determine which of those factors are critical to organizational strategy, and then, to rank
them in order of importance.
Considering the fact that qualitative assessment
of production factors can not give the satisfactory
degree of precision, a special attention should be
given to the methods that provide a comparative,
quantitative measurement. A relevant analysis in
this context should be the one in which different
production factors are not considered as isolated,
but functionally linked and integrated within a dynamical system of the production function.
To achieve such a task, the logical first step is
selection of optimal quantitative appraisal method. Since many classical mathematical methods
which are based on two valued logic considers no
priority for different factors and does not assume
the vagueness of the factors, the implementation
of fuzzy logic into the process of appraisal is recommended.
Fuzzy logic, as relatively new mathematical
paradigm, was developed by Lofti Zadeh in order
to formulize human activities in the realms of mathematics and to deal with complex systems. [1]
Generally, fuzzy logic stems from the inability
of classical modeling techniques to capture the nature of complex systems, especially when humans
are involved.
Fuzzy theory use the set and membership degree to describe the fuzzy concept that cannot be
defined, and solve real-world environment of uncertainty factors by the problems. [9]
In the absence of complete and precise information, models based on fuzzy logic provides effective tool for modeling. Fuzzy models successfully
formulate linguistic attributes like ‘’high’’, ‘’good’’,
‘’acceptable’’ etc., because fuzzy logic assume that
all things belong to a set at a certain degree.
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When we, for example, analyse production factor ‘’Process integrity’’, it belong to both, the set
of high process integrity and the set of low process
integrity. It stems that the sentence ‘’Process integrity is high’’ is always true at a certain degree
just like the sentence ‘’Process integrity is low’’ is
always true at a certain degree.
Such uncertainty in the assessment process implies that precise evaluation of the inputs or production factors is still a problematic issue. This
problem could be adequately treated by introducing fuzzy logic for quantitative describing the imprecise variables of the production function.
The advantage of a fuzzy assessment model is
the overlap berween the fuzzy values, which means
that a single factor at the same time can be a member
of both of the overlapping sets. On the other side, in
traditional set theory based on two valued logic, an
object is either a member of a set or not, and that implies a crisp boundary between sets. ‘’In fuzzy logic,
the boundaries between sets are blurred. In the overlap region, an object can be a partial member of each
of the overlapping sets. The blurred set boundaries
give fuzzy logic its name. By admitting multiple
possibilities in the model, the linguistic imprecission
is taken into account’’.[4] Proposed paper illustrates
some of the possibilities of fuzzy logic through an
easy understandable model that does not require advanced mathematical knowledge.
Cost category includes factors such as: design
and engineering, conversion, quality assurance, distribution, administration, inventory and materials.
In the last category denotes as Cycle time, factors are: time to market (concept to delivery, order
entry to delivery), response to market forces, lead
time (design, engineering, conversion, and delivery), materials and inventory.
It is important to notice that relevancy of the
factors that are part of four categories can immensely vary between different types of organization, and different sizes of organizations, so it is
recommended that management of the organization adjust the proposed list to fit their business.
Although in this phase, experiences and competencies of managers are vital for selection of
the factors, it is valuable to repeat that “subjective
judgment of experts who have used fuzzy logic
techniques produces better results than the objective manipulation of inexact data”.
Fuzzy evaluation of the production factors
Linguistic variable Competitiveness of the factors is defined by four sets:
In determining critical production factors, it is
helpful to use a list based on the Customer value criteria. Johansson et al offers a number of important
factors positioned in the following categories: [7]
–– Quality
–– Service
–– Cost
–– Cycle time
Quality category involves factors like: meeting
customer requirements, fitness for use, process integrity, minimum variances, elimination of waste
and continuous improvement.
In the Service category, factors are: customer
support, product service, producer support, flexibility to meet customer demands and flexibility to
meet market changes.
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Let Fj , j = 1,..., n be factors that are determined as relevant factors for an organization.
Their estimated value is v j , j = 1,..., n . This value belongs to interval [0,5]. (Figure 1)
Figure 1. Interval of assessment
MJW – „Major weakness“,
MNW – „Minor weakness“,
MNS – „Minor strength“ or
MJS – „Major strength“.
Depending on the values of factors, the degree
of membership of every factor to each of the four
fuzzy sets is calculated.
Graphic presentations of the defined linguistic
variable are given in Figure 1. As in the standard
method, we can notice the fact that a factor may be
at the same time a factor of minor weakness and
a factor of minor strength (in different degrees).
Factor Fj Fi Fi in Fig. 2 belongs to the set MNW
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technics technologies education management
with the degree of membership µ2 j = 0.24 , while
it belongs to set MNS with the degree µ3 j = 0.76 .
Table 2. Membership of factors (crisp sets)
Product factor
MJW
MNV
MNS
MJS
F1
k11
k21
k31
k41
F2
k12
k22
k32
k42
F3
k13
k23
k33
k43
k1n
k2n
k3n
k4n
…
Fn
Figure 2. Linguistic variable - competitiveness of
the factors
If we analyze all strategic business units in the
organization, then for the each of the four obtain
sets we can form tables. If the factor belongs to a
set, then we enter the number 1.into the table. On
the other side, if the factor does not belong to a set,
we enter 0.into the table.
Table 3. An example of the set MJW
MJW
SBU2
…
The same procedure is applied to all the rel-
SBU1
SBUm
F1
1
0
…
1
evant factors Fj , j = 1,..., n . Each of the factors
belongs with a certain degree of membership to
MJW , MNW , MNS and MJS (Table 1.)
The sum of all the obtained degrees of membership for every factor must be equal to 1:
F2
0
1
…
0
F3
1
1
…
1
…
Fn
…
…
…
…
1
0
…
1
All possible combinations for m Strategic Business Units (SBU) contains following set with 2m
elements:
4
å µij = 1 .
i =1
Table 1. Degrees of membership of factors (fuzzy
sets)
Product factor
F3
MJW
µ11
µ12
µ13
MNW
µ21
µ22
µ23
MNS
µ31
µ32
µ33
MJS
µ41
µ42
µ43
…
…
…
…
…
Fn
µ1n
µ2n
µ3n
µ4n
F1
F2
Based on the obtained data and by using a set of
level a , we can allocate factors which belong, to a
certain extent (which is greater than a , or equal to
a ), to the given fuzzy sets.
In this way, we get four ordinary (crisp) sets
whose characteristic functions are:
0 if µij < a
kij =
, i = 1,.., 4, j = 1,..., n .
1 if µij ³ a
860
∅,
SBU , SBU ,..., SBU ,
1
2
m
SBU1SBU 2 , SBU1SBU 3 ,..., SBU m -1SBU m ,
P (O) =
SBU1SBU 2 SBU 3 ,..., SBU m - 2 SBU m -1SBU m ,
...
SBU1SBU 2 SBU 3 ...SBU m
Connecting all combinations of the SBU’s with
their mutual product factors and all combinations
of the factors with their mutual SBU’s, we can create diagrams that clearly indicate the state of the
production factors in organization.
Case illustration
Based on Johanson’s list of important factors of
the production function, management of the organization O identified the following 10 relevant factors.
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technics technologies education management
F1 - Process integrity
SBU3 Estimated
Product value of the MJW MNW MNS MJS
factor
factor
F1
3.8
0.2
0.8
F2 - Elimination of waste
F3 - Continuous improvement
F4 - Product service
F5 - Flexibility to meet customer demands
F6 - Design and engineering
F7 - Quality assurance
F8 - Distribution
F9 - Inventory
F10 - Response to market forces
Each of the 10 relevant factors is estimated by
the questionnaire at the interval from 0 to 5. Then,
in the manner described in the section 2, we calculated the degrees of membership of the factors.
SBU1 Estimated
Product value of the MJW MNW MNS MJS
factor
factor
F1
2.9
0.1
0.9
F10
2.0
0.9
1
SBU2 Estimated
Product value of the MJW MNW MNS MJS
factor
factor
F1
3.5
0.5
0.5
0.7
F10
1.6
0.4
0.6
SBU4 Estimated
Product value of the MJW MNW MNS MJS
factor
factor
F1
4.0
1
1
0.2
0.8
1
0.2
0.8
0.5
0.5
1
0.8
0.2
By introducing a -cut, where a in this case
takes the value 0,3, the following sets are obtained:
MJW
Product factor
F1
SBU1
SBU2
SBU3
SBU4
0
0
0
0
1
F2
0
0
0
0
0.8
0.2
F3
0
0
0
0
0.3
0.7
F4
0
0
0
0
F5
0
0
0
0
0.3
F6
0
0
0
0
1
F7
0
0
0
0
F8
1
1
1
1
F9
1
0
1
0
F10
0
0
1
0
0.4
0.7
1
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
0.3
0.2
0.8
0.7
0.9
1.7
0.8
0.3
2.1
F9
2.2
1.7
F10
1
F10
F9
1
0.8
0.2
1
2.0
F8
1
0.8
0.9
F9
4.5
2.2
F8
1.0
F7
F9
0.1
F8
0.3
1.2
3.9
4.0
0.7
F8
F7
F7
3.3
4.5
1
3.3
F6
1
F7
3.0
F6
2.0
0.5
F6
0.6
F5
3.5
2.5
2.4
0.6
F6
F5
F5
0.4
2.8
0.8
0.2
3.7
3.6
F5
3.8
F4
F4
4.0
F4
3.2
0.5
F4
2.8
F3
0.5
3.8
F3
4.6
3.5
F3
1
F2
F3
1
4.9
4.3
0.5
4.5
F2
F2
0.2
F2
0.1
861
technics technologies education management
MNW
Product factor
SBU1
SBU2
SBU3
SBU4
F1
0
0
0
0
F2
0
0
0
0
F3
0
0
0
0
F4
0
0
0
0
F5
1
1
1
0
F6
0
0
0
0
F7
0
0
0
0
F8
0
0
0
0
F9
1
1
1
1
F10
1
1
1
1
MNS
Product factor
SBU1
SBU2
SBU3
SBU4
F1
1
1
0
0
F2
0
0
0
0
F3
1
1
1
0
F4
0
1
1
0
F5
1
1
0
1
F6
1
1
1
1
F7
0
0
0
0
F8
0
0
0
0
F9
0
0
0
0
F10
0
0
0
0
MJS
Product factor
SBU1
SBU2
SBU3
SBU4
F1
0
1
1
1
F2
1
1
1
1
F3
0
0
1
1
F4
1
1
1
1
F5
0
0
0
0
F6
0
1
1
1
F7
1
1
1
1
F8
0
0
0
0
F9
0
0
0
0
F10
0
0
0
0
Diagrams obtained by the procedure described
above are shown in next four figures.
862
Figure 3. Diagram of the set MJW
Figure 4. Diagram of the set MNW
Figure 5. Diagram of the set MNS
Figure 6. Diagram of the set MJS
Presented diagrams clearly shows that number of Strategic business units increases when the
point is closer to the top while the situation with
the factors is quite opposite. Factor at the top of
the diagram is singled out as factor of the strength
(or weakness) in most of the SBU’s.
In this case, it is shown that factor F8 represents
factor of major weakness in all SBU’s, while factors
F9 and F10 are factors of minor weakness. From
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technics technologies education management
the presented diagrams we can also see that factor
F6 is factor of minor strength, while factors F2, F4
and F7 are factors of major strength in all SBU’s.
Conclusion
Any effective appraisal of the overall production performance involves detailed assessment of
the key production factors. The outcome of such
assessment should highlight the strengths and
weaknesses of the production function and suggest recommendations for improvement.
As a formal quantitative approach well suited
for the appraisal of complex and non-linear systems, fuzzy logic has been successfully used to
solve specific problems in the areas of economy
and management. This is provided by Zadeh’s
‘’Principle of Incompability’’ in which he argues
that ‘’As the complexity of a system increases,
our ability to make precise and yet significant
statements about its behaviour diminishes until a
threshold is reached beyond which precision and
significance (or relevance) become almost mutually exclusive characteristics.’’ [4]
In this paper we emphasize that Theory of
fuzzy sets and Fuzzy logic applications provide
realistic description of ambiguity and vagueness
of the production factors and enable an effective
evaluation of the production function.
Interval model based on fuzzy logic does not
implies simplistic assumptions and descriptions of
the factors that affect production function., but allows innovative quantification of the key production factors by using fuzzy triangular numbers and
scales that are not graduated as are the scales in
traditional quantitative methods.
Proposed fuzzy model is very flexible and it is
not restricted to a small numbers of variables. In
other words, it is very useful when dealing with
complex situations in the field of production where
a great number of factors with their interrelations
must be taken into account.
Another advantage is that proposed model is
comprehensive and simple to implement. Furthermore, it is attuned to the needs of modern information system and therefore it could be easily used
to assist production managers in reaching a better
understanding of the overall competitiveness of
the production function.
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
References
1. Bojadziev, G., Bojadziev, M. (2007), Fuzzy Logic
for Business, Finance and Management,, Advences
in Fuzzy Systems – Applications and Theory, Vol. 23,
World Scientific Publishing Co., Singapore.
2. Chiesa, V., Frattini, F. (2009), Evaluation and Performance Measurement of Research and Development: Techniques and Perspectives for Multi-Level
Analysis, Edward Elgar Publishing, Inc.
3. Gil-Aluja, J. (2004), Fuzzy Sets in the Management
of Uncertainty, Springer-Verlag, Heidelberg.
4. Hayward, G., Davidson, V. (2003), Fuzzy logic applications, Analyst, 128, 1304-1306.
5. Hoffmann, F., Koppen, M., Klawonn, F., Rajkumar,
R.. (2005), Soft Computing: Methodologies and Applications, Springer-Verlag.
6. Jenster, P.V., Hussey, D.E. (2001), Company Analysis:
Determining Strategic Capability, Wiley, New York.
7. Johansson, H.J., McHugh, P., Pendlebury, A.J.,
Wheeler, W.A. (1993), Business Process Reengineering, Wiley, Chichester.
8. Kahraman, C. (2008), Fuzzy Engineering Economics with Applications, Springer-Verlag, Heidelberg,
9. Liu, X., Wang, Z., Yin, H. (2012), Model and Algorithm
for Minimization Project Compression Cost under
Fuzzy Environments, TTEM, Vol. 7, No.1, 57-67.
10. Tepavčevic, A., Pešic, A. (2005), Special Lattice Intuitionistic Fuzzy Sets and Applications in Management in Non-profit Organization , Fuzzy Economic
Review, Volume X, Number 1., 63-70.
Corresponding Author
Aleksandar Pesic,
Faculty of Management,
Alfa University Belgrade,
Serbia,
E-mail: andpesic@gmail.com
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Expert Based Learning (EXBL) Methodology
for Developing Mobile Expert Learning
Knowledge Management Software System
Mirlinda Ebibi, Bekim Fetaji, Majlinda Fetaji
South East European University, CST Faculty, Tetovo, Macedonia
Abstract
The focus of this research is applying knowledge management into mobile learning and combines it with current research on personalization
and adaptive learning and develops a methodology oriented in learning from experts and also integrates classical academic learning interchangeably. In order to test the developed methodology
several software solutions have been developed
and analyzed. Several software solutions are created and tested the efficiency of the developed solution, and focused on accessibility of the developed solutions to be accessible from all platforms
and especially made for mobile device platforms
using adaptable interfaces. The contribution of
the research study is based upon multicollinearity
analyses of m-learning and e-learning and based
on the analyzed factors known as m-learning indicators that influence m-learning and insights from
the realized analyses and review of knowledge
management and adaptive learning theories and
realized 4 (four) experiments the study proposes
Expert Based Learning (EXBL) methodology to
be used for developing m-learning applications.
Also contribution of the study is the PMQ (Performance Measurement Questionnaire) that is used
for evaluating not only learning but also for developing performance measures.
Key words: Development of mobile applications, knowledge management, usability
1. Introduction
The focus of this research is applying knowledge management into mobile learning and combines it with current research on personalization
and adaptive learning theories and develops a
methodology oriented in learning from experts
and integrating it with academic learning, at the
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same time incorporating the aspects of “social
learning” and social communication media into
the developed “expert learning” concept.
What if apply knowledge management into
mobile learning and educational aspects in general and all that we combine with adaptive learning theories and develop expert learning as social
learning concept. Integrating knowledge management into practical educational activities and especially combined with adaptive learning applied in
mobile learning using the proposed Expert based
learning (EXBL) methodology as approach according to user feedback and Performance Measurement Questionnaire (PMQ) has shown effective solution that can improve the knowledge
transfer substantially.
Expert based learning is something that is not
researched and represents a very interesting opportunity of enhancing mobile learner’s knowledge management and problem based skills.
Research into mobile applications to be used
in learning known as m-learning intersected with
best insights and state of the art achievements
from knowledge management and adaptive learning theories can place Universities and other institutions at the forefront of pedagogical excellence
of learning practice, answering learners requirements for flexibility and ubiquity: ‘anywhere, anytime, and any device’ access to information.
The technology oriented economy of the 21st
century focuses on sharing, organizing, managing
and creating information [7]. This indicates that
competition is driven by knowledge revolution in
the future.
Previous knowledge management approaches
focus on business aspects rather than education [7].
Many authors view m-learning as advanced development of e-learning [4], [8] or even more it is often
considered as a sub-set of e-learning [2] or a subVolume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
technics technologies education management
set of distance education [2]. Quite often definitions
of m-learning are technology oriented like “learning that takes place with help of mobile devices”. A
number of sources define m-learning in intersection
of e-learning and mobile computing [3].
2. Research Design and Methodology
The research method used was qualitative research and comparative analyses of factors influencing m-learning compared with multicolinearity
of e-learning factors as well as in depth literature
review of mobile learning, technologies, projects
and trends in general among others.
The secondary research consisted of review
of m-learning technologies and knowledge management, learning theories and adaptive learning
theories and environments, social networking
services, expert learning, multicollinearity analyses of m-learning with e-learning by devising mlearning indicators and expert learning concept
and their evaluation. M-learning differentiates
from e-learning, as being ubiquity, convenience,
location awareness and personalization [5]. The
main differences based on the research study are
categorized as m-learning indicators and they are:
1) the mobile device itself, 2) network accessibility, 3) the end-user education level and experience
with technology, 4) context of usage, 5) usability.
Then grounded theory research was realized
through exploratory research to determine the best
research design and then constructive research
was undertaken to build 1 (one) theoretical and 3
(three) case studies as experimental software solutions followed by empirical research to describe
accurately the interaction between the learners
and the system being observed. The data for this
research was gathered from research interviews
with m-learning specialists and participants, focus
group and a web based survey as well as printed
hard copy survey of academic staff and students.
- The data collection is realized through surveys focus groups and feasibility study of the realized needs analyses, and then through using the
developed software life cycle model.
The research study included analyses and review of the following concepts and their interaction and intersection:
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Analyze Knowledge Management
Analyze Adaptive Learning Environments
Analyze Mobile Learning
Analyze Expert Based Learning
Analyze Academic Learning theories
Analyze Intersection and combination of all
concepts
7. Develop Mobile Learning Knowledge
Management System that will combine all
the previous concepts
8. Implement, Test and evaluate the developed
mobile software solution
9. Evaluate the mobile software solution
The research design consisted of three phases.
The first phase is explorative and consisted of a
background research of knowledge management,
mobile learning and adaptive learning current
state of the art. Also multicollinearity analyses of
m-learning with e-learning by devising m-learning indicators as factors influencing m-learning
have been realized.
In the second phase these findings have been integrated to propose m-learning indicators and also
propose Expert Based Learning (EXBL) methodology to be used for developing m-learning applications. Then based on our model we have developed and conducted 3 (three) experimental case
studies.
In the third phase, the focus has been set on
several testing procedures, among others usability
testing and developed the technique PMQ (Performance Measurement Questionnaire) that is used
for evaluating not only learning but also for developing performance measures.
The data collection is realized through surveys
focus groups and feasibility study discussed in
more details in [2].
From the results of the secondary research
based on literature review a grounded theory is
developed as a systematic methodology to formulate a theory, as substantive and formal, about
improving and enhancing e-learning by addressing the deficiencies from the findings and in this
manner to contribute in enhancing m-learning effectiveness.
The research study was foreseen to be developed in five main phases with these specific research activities and time frames:
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I. Feasibility Study and Background Research
Investigation
Investigation and Feasibility Study of the specifics and background research review of key
authoritative published research literature on mlearning trends, m-learning projects, technologies, knowledge management, learning theories
and adaptive learning theories and environments,
social networking services, expert learning and
evaluation of m-learning effectiveness in order to
achieve a thorough understanding of m-learning
in general and associated knowledge dissemination, discuss the advantages and disadvantages
of different approaches to m-learning solutions,
analyses different m-learning environments and
solutions.
II. Conceptual Design
Based on the results and findings from the previous investigation and multicollinearity analyses of m-learning with e-learning by devising mlearning indicators and expert learning concept,
then asses, measure and evaluate concepts and
factors influencing m-learning defined as m-learning indicators and afterwards started designing
the experimental software solution taking under
consideration previously defined concepts. Defining and planning the software life cycle model has
been initiated.
III. Experiments and Software Development
Developing the 3 (three) different software
solutions. In order to implement the previously
defined requirements developed a mobile and
web software solutions for IOS platform and web
based solutions with primarily aim of usability in
smart phones and Tablets. It take under consideration the previous research insights and findings.
Based on the investigation and previous preparations evaluated and tested the developed software
solutions as well as tested the intercorelation and
intersections with the concepts reviewed and analyzed previously.
IV. Testing, Evaluation, Re-Development,
Deployment
Testing, evaluating the software solution, applying insights from the evaluation and deploy
the application at the end. Based on the evaluation
feedback from experts and users re-developed certain aspects of the solutions and incorporated the
new insights.
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V. Research Dissemination and Report
Preparation
This phase included the necessary preparations
for disseminating and presenting the research
study results and outcomes to scientific conference, publishing the results and presentations in
conferences, journals and university/faculty audience and review from experts from the field.
The data for this research was gathered from research interviews with m-learning specialists and
participants, focus group and a web based survey
as well as printed hard copy survey of academic
staff and students.
- The data collection is realized through surveys focus groups and feasibility study of the realized needs analyses, and then through using the
developed software life cycle model.
The research domain and the specific domain
research questions that were the focus are the following Research Domain Research Questions:
Knowledge Management
–– How can users create, distribute and
share knowledge via mobile devices and
applications?
–– What are the roles of mobile devices and
applications in the knowledge discovery
process?
–– Does mobile applications improve the
student’s class performance?
Collaborative and Social Networking
–– How can academic stakeholders collaborate
via mobile devices and applications?
–– What are the economic values pertinent to
mobile devices and applications?
–– What factors influence people to network
utilizing mobile devices and applications
technology?
Adaptive learning User Adoption and Usage
–– How can mobile devices and applications
enhance Lifelong Learning for its users?
–– Which features in mobile devices and
applications artifacts are pertinent in user’s
adoption and usage?
Social networking services
–– How social networking services and their
applications can improve and how much is
social Learning effective for learners?
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technics technologies education management
Also analyzes of factors that influence instructional technology in mobile devices is realised.
From our qualitative research and content analyses
we have identified the next factors that influence
essentially and they are: technological experience,
access to technology, multicultural background,
language ability, etc.
As a main contribution from the research undertaken we have created a instructional design
template that is offered to the tutors as starting
point in authoring their m-learning content.
3. Research Instrument Development
Major challenge for mobile researchers is to assess the m-learning effectiveness. In order to do
that used is the methodology the author previously
developed for e-learning systems, and adopted for
m-learning systems called MLUAT (M-learning
Usability Attributes Testing) described in [6] which
combines an inspection technique with user-testing
based on 4 usability attributes previously set. The
usability attributes we have set as the most important factors that influence mobile apps are:
1. Time to learn,
2. Performance speed;
3. Rate of errors;
4. Subjective satisfaction.
The theoretical bases are pedagogical conceptions [6]:
–– Learning according to the constructivist
perspective,
–– Usability of the e-learning environment and
–– Research about user opinions.
This methodology is necessary for presenting
the m-learning in an efficient aspect. The theoretical bases are the pedagogical conceptions defined from (Fryer, 2005) as following: 1) Learning
according to the constructivist perspective, 2) usability of the m-learning environment and 3) research about user opinions.
The measuring instrument is based on the use
of predefined evaluation tasks (PET) defined from
our previous study [5], [6], which precisely describe the activities to be performed during inspection
in the form of predefined tasks, measuring previously assessed usability attributes.
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Using this technique evaluated usability attributes using evaluation tasks for a particular scenario. Evaluation tasks in this technique are determined throw designing several user scenarios and
choosing the scenarios that include the most of the
provided options of the software solution.
We have based the measuring instrument on the
use of predefined evaluation tasks (PET), which
precisely describe the activities to be performed
during inspection in the form of predefined tasks,
measuring previously assessed usability attributes.
We have named it as PET inspection technique and
using this technique we evaluated usability attributes using evaluation tasks for a particular scenario.
Evaluation tasks in this technique are determined
throw designing several user scenarios and choosing the scenarios that include the most of the options of the software. This kind of approach using
this technique has shown very effective, straightforward and useful in determining the distance
between learner activities and preconceived scenarios in several research project we conducted. Using
the MLUAT methodology and PET inspection technique we have gathered information on interactions between human actors (intervention strategies
and content). Scenario contains at least a collection
of components and a method. The components are
roles, activities or activity-structures, which role
does what (which activity) and at which moment
is determined by the method which is made up of
one or many plays formed by a series of acts. In
an e-learning environment, information obtained
from learner activity contain a certain pedagogical
semantic. The observed route of a learner has been
used to give feedback information on the level of
learning and its effectiveness. We have considered
the next learning modeling approaches: the content-oriented, the tool-oriented, and the task-oriented approach, and we have chosen the task oriented
approach for which we developed the methodology
to suite to our specifics.
The PET inspection technique uses the next
measurements: M – Menu Error; R – Repeat task;
F- Frustrations; S – Selection error; O – Uses online Help, E – Other errors, H - Help calls, *-Subjective Satisfaction (5-very high, 4-high, 3-average, 2-low, 1-very low).
Majority usability testing include questionnaire
surveys or interviews (in the place, telephone or
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email), or observational studies; or quantitative
measuring of some usability attributes defined
in [5], [6] as: learnability, efficiency, simplicity,
memorability, readability, learning performance,
errors, satisfaction.
Table 1. PET inspection technique task based form
Recover from errors
Help search
Task completion
Task n#
Time for:
Time to
Learn:
M
S
E
R
O
H
F
*
Total:
Usually, in designing mobile applications, usability guidelines for desktop applications are
used, which are not appropriate and do not address the issues related to the current limitations
of mobile devices which are supposed to be used
as learning mediums.
Also, there are various guidelines for usability
testing of desktop applications which are not always relevant to mobile applications [5] “The latest
mobile devices are agonizingly close to being practical, but still lack key usability features required for
mainstream use” [6]. There is a lack of methodologies ascertained as good usability testing methodology for designing usable mobile applications.
Therefore, it is essential to devise and implement appropriate usability testing methodologies
to evaluate the usability of mobile applications.
5. The Experiments
Although mobile learning is a new and popular field of research, however there is a lack of
research regarding the Multicollinearity of mlearning and e-learning and their interrelations and
factors influencing them.
5.1 Experiment 1 - Multicolinearity
Multicollinearity is a statistical phenomenon in
which two or more predictor variables in a multiple regression model are highly correlated.
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The analyses is important since it is crucial to
find the correlations in between e-learning and
m-learning factors and in this way to gain insight
about the specifics of m-learning to address and
focus in other experimental case studies.
The study is conducted through qualitative
testing method using a questionnaire consisted
of 24 questions about the academic background,
computer skills and e-learning usage and opinion
about m-learning. Participants were students and
teaching and administrative staff of SEEU-South
Eastern European University, from all five faculties: Computer Sciences, Business Administration,
Law Faculty, Public Administration, Languages
and Communications. There are approximately
more then 6000 students currently studying in
SEEU. 150 students filled-in an online questionnaire that contained multiple-choice questions.
For some of the questions students had to denote
their own attitude. The questionnaire was alienated into four sections: “General information”,
“Computer skills”, “Usage of E-Learning”, and
“Usage of m-Learning”. The results are presented
in percentage, graphics and diagrams. E-learning
and m-learning usage is primarily in the field of
Computer Sciences.
Results are presented in the following regression equation: Y=2.56 + 0.457*x
Table 2. Regression output
Coefficient (slope) b1=0.457 is positive which
means that for each increase level in use of elearning, willingness to use m-learning increases
by 0.457. The constant b0 (_cons in the regression
output table) is an intercept of the regression line,
or the initial position: willingness to use m-learning would be about 2.56 (meaning would like to
use m-learning “rare” or “only for entertainment”
– among level 2 and 3) for students that do never
use e-learning.
The probability of the F statistic, the test for statistical significance of the regression equation (an
F-value > 4.0 is usually statistically significant),
for which we got the value of F=67.91, means that
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technics technologies education management
the regression equation helps us to understand the
relationship between x and y.
The probability of the F statistic (67.91) for the
overall regression relationship, the p value describes
the statistical significance of the test: it is significant
at 99% level, because the p value is 0.000.
The value of r-squared, r2 = .32 which is the
measure of relationship and indicates that with the
known value of x (the level of e-learning use), we
can explain 32% of the variance in y (the willingness to use m-learning). We reject the null hypothesis
that there is no relationship between the independent
variable and the dependent variable (in case r² = 0).
We support the research hypothesis that there is
a statistically significant relationship between the
independent variable and the dependent variable.
The defined m-learning indicators are: 1) the
mobile device itself, 2) network accessibility, 3)
the end-user education level and experience with
technology, 4) context of usage, 5) usability.
The software solution has been developed for
iOS platform. Used Xcode and the iphone SDK
from Apple. The software solution was focused
on helping students learn Software Engineering.
Learning is organized using Expert Based Learning (EXBL) methodology. Using this methodology students are not left alone and are encouraged
to learn each week sequentially. In order to go to
next task students have to finish the previous task.
The final Task, Quiz, consists of questions defined
as PMQ (Performance Measurement Questionnaire) described previously.
Learning is organized in Task Based Learning
concept [2] and organised in 15 weeks per one semester, and each week is consisted of 4 tasks. First
task is conceptualized for student to read that particular week Lectures, second task is to read the
Practical/Tutorials Part, third task is Assignment
based on concrete problem description and final,
fourth task is the Quiz using PMQ.
5.2 Experiment 2 - Development of Mobile
Solution for Expert Learning
The second experiment has been initiated in
order to test the correlation with Expert Learning.
A mobile application was created to help students
learn Software Engineering using Iphone mobile
devices and IPad tablets.
The focus of this research study is the investigation into development and analyses of mobile
learning knowledge management system. Knowledge management is currently focused in business
aspects rather than education.
What if apply knowledge management [9] into
mobile learning and educational aspects in general and all that we combine with adaptive learning theories. Integrating knowledge management
into practical educational activities and especially
combined with adaptive learning applied in mobile
learning using the proposed Expert based learning (EXBL) methodology as approach according
to user feedback and Performance Measurement
Quuestionnaire (PMQ) has shown effective solution that can improve the knwoledge transfer substantialy. Expert based learning is something that
is not researched and represents a very interesting
opportunity of enhancing mobile learner’s knowledge management and problem based skills.
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
Figure 1. Customized appearance after changing
the style
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technics technologies education management
ences, and compare the index of the items with this
integer value. If the index is smaller than integer,
application will not allow user to open that week.
Figure 2. Task Based Learning view of Tasks
Students have to finish week 1 tasks to go to next
week. So in this way students will learn the whole
material of the course Software Engineering.
Conceptually firstly created a table list in week1
view which was linked before and creating the four
tasks. So first created the table list using an array,
after that all the items were linked to a new file let’s
name it week1view. The UITableViewController
subclass should not be selected in such case.
Dual moderator focus group study was conducted. One moderator being the first author ensured the session progresses smoothly, while the
second author in this research ensured that all the
topics are covered. The focus group included 10
students, 5 experts, third year students from computer Sciences, while 5 novices, third year students from Business and Economy Faculty.
The insights from the research realized with a
focus group of students suggested that should block
the view to other weeks until the learner has not finished all the tasks from the previous week. Therefore decised to not let users open week 2 without
completing week 1 tasks. To do this have to get an
integer value 0, and save it to application prefer870
Figure 3. View of Task 1
This integer value will increment after user has
done the fourth task of week1, which is the quiz.
Visually used a green icon in front of the week
title were the user is allowed to open any week,
and vice versa when user is not allowed to open
that item there will be shown a red icon which figure him that he cant open that item.
5.3 Experiment 3 - EXLMS - Expert learning
knowledge management system
The focus of this research study is applying
knowledge management into mobile learning
and combines it with current research on personalization and adaptive learning as well as Adaptive Learning Environments, focusing on Expert
Based learning (EXBL) methodology to be used
in mobile learning.
In order to test the developed methodology a
mobile software solution is created and tested the
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efficiency of the developed solution. The contribution of the research study is the proposed Expert
Based Learning (EXBL) methodology to be used
for developing m-learning applications. Also contribution of the study is the PMQ (Performance
Measurement Questionnaire) that is used for evaluating not only learning but also for developing
performance measures.
Figure 4. The interface of EXLMS Expert Based
Learning Management system
In order to investigate the Expert Based learning (EXBL) methodology that is recommended to
be used in mobile learning a software solution is
developed and can be found online at the following link: http://gproject.kodingen.com.
The research concept is focused into implementing EXBL- Expert Based learning scenario using
the project based learning and forum and in this
manner to make the interface adaptable to different
instructional approaches and learning styles.
Contemporary learning theory suggests that
individual learners differ in the way they learn
and that learning must be tailored to the individual learner. Consequently, learning environments
must have the flexibility to adapt themselves for
the individual learner. According to [2], adaptive
learning systems have traditionally been divided
into separate components or 'models'.
While different model groups have been presented, most systems include some or all of the following models (occasionally with different names):
–– Expert model - The model with the
information which is to be taught
–– Student model - The model which tracks
and learns about the student
–– Instructional model - The model which
actually conveys the information
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–– Instructional environment - The users
interface for interacting with the system.
Currently there is no research about Expert based
learning. Expert Based Learning is synonymous
with learning in depth from expert in the field either
from his/her project or interacting with the expert
on a forum type system. A well-designed project
provokes learners to encounter (and struggle with)
the central concepts and principles of a discipline
and gives a lot of insights how to approach and do
something and a finished project from an expert can
be extremely good source of knowledge when provided as template to learn from.
Performance is assessed on an individual basis,
and takes into account the quality of the work produced, the depth of content understanding demonstrated, and the contributions made to the ongoing
process of project realization. On the other hand
the academic learning is organised in semester
(15 week) based learning were the content is provided and organised in strictly organised lectures
and practical’s that ensure the learning and entire
knowledge is gained in the process.
Learners in using EXLMS will be able to direct
their learning by using one of the two modes that
are offered: 1) learning from University Professor
and instructors in academic organised manner organised in semesters or 2) learning from experts in
their respective fields by viewing their published
projects and problem based solutions the experts
published in the system and learn by analysing experts work and communicating with them in clarifying something they need or solve some particular
problem with their help. Roland Barth (1990) calls
this a “community of learners.” In the same manner
the EXLMS will encourage on creating a “community of experts” that will be evaluated form learners
as well as from their fellow colleagues.
Figure 5. The learning interface
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technics technologies education management
The academic learning interface presented in
the figure above is supporting Task based learning,
were the learner is not left alone but rather guided
each week with 4 (four) tasks: reading the lecture
for that particular week and then he can move to
the next Task2 to read the practical part, and after
the learner finishes this part can access the Task 3
which is solving a practical assignment. And finally Task 4 the learner has to undertake a Quiz
that involves questions from the previous Tasks.
The system in this manner is self-sufficient in assessing automatically and independently the learners and in this manner provides them an overview of
the learned content and measures their performance.
Creating expert learning systems allows the best
content and content experts to respond to all learners. At the same time the intersection of Professor
working with these expert systems would become
progressively more capable by facilitating these
systems. The more they facilitate these programs,
the more expert they become. Under these conditions learning would truly be a lifelong experience.
6. Data Collection From Experiments
The data collection is realized through surveys
focus groups and feasibility study of the realized
needs analyses, and then through using the developed software life cycle model.
Depending from the Software Lifecycle used
for each m-learning software solutions developed
as experiment case study the developed MLUAT
methodology and PET testing as research instrument have been used. To collect the date are used
questionnaire, surveys, focus groups, usability
testing and other software testing groups.
Conceptually for the case study software solution
decided to follow the instructional approach with
Problem Based Learning. This decision is based
upon testing learners learning style adopted from
Felder-Silverman model. In here experts assign
problem based assignments as learning tasks and
then the next step is to assess their knowledge and
performance using what we have defined as PMQ
(Performance Measurement Questionnaire) [2].
Once the PMQ is answered and sent automatically goes to the email of the instructor and outside expert engaged in clinical teaching within the
course and it has the time stamp of date and time
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sent. This option is provided in the settings option
of the software solution.
The PMQ (Performance Measurement Questionnaire) is used for evaluating not only learning
but also and developing measures. It is based on
the premise that measures should appraise, reinforce and rewards improvements in performance.
PMQ is structured into 2 main parts:
–– Part 1 asks respondents to answer problem
based assignment questions and asses their
knowledge.
–– Part 2 asks respondents to score specific
performance measures, of specific
improvement areas, comparing before and
after the leaning process.
In overall, PMQ assesses the knowledge and
performance of specific improvement areas while
allowing them further development, as well as
proposing new insights and measures onto an existing system.
7. Data analysis
Several statistical procedures were conduct for
data analysis. First, the zero-order correlations
were computed among all variables. The aim of
this operation is to have an initial test of whether
there were relationships among the variables. The
interaction of technology with teaching or social
presence was considered if including those items
would increase the power of the regression model
substantially.
The standard multi-progression procedures
were conducted with course subjective satisfaction through the perceived learning outcome,
learning engagement assessed through time to
learn and time of performance as dependent variables. All assumptions of normality, usability, of
residuals were checked in those regression analyses. In order to handle those data we have used the
triangulation technique from Dumas and Redish
(1999), were we look at all data at the same time
to see how the different data supports each other.
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The research study reviewed the factors that
influence usage and adoption of m-services or
mobile based educational services, the usage environment feasibility analyses, mobile applications
specifics and requirements.
The software testing results are as follows:
Users were able to employ the developed case
study experiments effectively to solve the given
tasks. The usability testing process was divided
into three phases and we have followed the guidelines as defined from [1] and [10]: planning, acquisition and execution with evaluation. After the
usability test collected were the data from the 10
participants following guidelines and procedures
according to [10]. Also tabulated are the data for
the performance measurements using the next usability attributes: time to learn, speed of performance, Perceived Visual perception, rate of errors,
Subjective satisfaction. Below is given the tabulated data sheet for the general usability requirements measures.
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
Best possible
We recommend focus on the three dimensions
of strategic instruction given below in order to increase attention:
–– Think-ahead instruction (to activate
students’ background knowledge, motivate
students, create student-interest and create
an anticipation for learning);
–– Think-during instruction (to use as new
subject-matter is explored); and
–– Think-back instruction (to facilitate student
review of main ideas and essential details,
reflection, evaluation, and elaboration of the
information presented during the lesson).
Planned target
level
8. Results
Time to
Time to learn learn to
to use
use the app
(seconds)
Worst acceptable
Figure 6. Triangulation technique, Dumas and
Redish (1999)
Current Level
average
Usability
Attribute
Value to be
measured
Table 3. Results from the Measurements
18
35
25
9
750
600
500
4
1
0
2.5
3.5
5
low
2
very low
1
Time to
complete
650
all 4 tasks
(seconds)
Number of
Rate of errors
4.07
errors
Satisfaction
Subjective
degree of 3.52
satisfaction
users
* legend:
very high
high
average
5
4
3
Speed of
performance
9. Conclusion
The significance of this research study is based
in the fact that almost every student has a mobile
device at all times while not everyone has a computer and internet connection at all times. The excepted impact is in providing information and this
system to open the doors for the community, parents and other parties who somehow are interested
or have stakes in the content or the time of delivery of content. This way our system will involve
the community and will create more opportunity
for knowledge transfer, thus increasing the likelihood of change induced by the knowledge in the
target audience.
The devised m-learning indicators and expert
learning concept can place Universities and institutions at the forefront of pedagogical excellence
of practice, answering student requirements for
flexibility and ubiquity: ‘anywhere, anytime, and
any device’ access to information.
The focus of this research was to review and
realize comparative analyses of Knowledge Management, Mobile Learning, Adaptive Learning Environments, with analyses of Expert Based learning, and Academic Learning. The intersection and
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technics technologies education management
combination of the insights from all the reviewed
and analysed concepts was used to Develop Mobile
Expert Learning Knowledge Management System
that combined all the best practises and aspects of
the previous mentioned concepts. The research objective was to apply knowledge management into
mobile learning and combine it with current research on personalization and adaptive learning.
This study attempted to resolve some of the
definitional and methodological difficulties encountered by previous researchers. It involved
review and comparative analyses of Knowledge
Management, Mobile Learning, Adaptive Learning Environments, with analyses of Expert Based
learning, and Academic Learning. Contemporary
learning theory suggests that individual learners
differ in the way they learn and that learning must
be tailored to the individual learner. Consequently,
learning environments must have the flexibility to
adapt themselves for the individual learner.
In the near future, it is expected that learning
will move more and more outside the classroom
and lectures halls into the learner’s environment
both real and virtual negotiated by mobile devices.
The excepted impact is in providing information
and this system to open the doors for the community, parents and other parties who somehow are interested or have stakes in the learning and the time
of delivery of content. This way the knowledge
management system will involve the community
and will create more opportunity for knowledge
transfer, thus increasing the likelihood of change
induced by the knowledge in the target audience.
The research study as its contribution proposes
Expert Based Learning (EXBL) methodology to
be used for developing m-learning applications
and the PMQ (Performance Measurement Questionnaire) that is used for evaluating not only
learning but also for developing performance
measures. Also as contribution the research study
has investigated and analyzed the multicolinearity of m-learning and e-learning factors and also
proposes m-learning indicators to be evaluated
and measured when designing and developing mlearning software solutions.
The defined m-learning indicators are: 1) the
mobile device itself, 2) network accessibility, 3)
the end-user education level and experience with
technology, 4) context of usage, 5) usability.
874
10. References
1. Dumas, J. S., & Redish J. C. (1999) “A practical
guide to Usability Testing” revised edition, Pearson
Education Limited, pp.55-62
2. Ebibi Mirlinda, Fetaji Bekim, Fetaji Majlinda,
(2012)."Combining and suporting Expert Based
Learning and Academic Learning in Developing
Mobile Learning Knowledge Management System",
Journal TEM, Technology Education Management
Informatics, ISSN: 2217-8309, Volume 1, Number 1,
2012, Association for Information and Communication Technology Education and Sciences, Serbia.
3. Fetaji Bekim, Ebibi Mirlinda, Fetaji Majlinda
(2011), “Developing and Analysing a Mobile Learning Knowledge Management System”, CompSysTech
'11 Proceedings of the 12th International Conference
on Computer Systems and Technologies, Pages 524533, ACM Digital Library
4. Fetaji M. Fetaji B., (2008a), “Universities go Mobile
– Case Study Experiment in Using Mobile Devices” In
the proceedings of ITI 2008 - 30th International Conference on Information Technology Interfaces, IEEE
conference, Cavtat, 23-26 June 2008, pp (123 - 128).
5. Fetaji M. Fetaji, B. (2008b)."Usability testing and
evaluation of a mobile software solution: A case
study" – IEEE conference, ITI, Dubrovnik, Croatia,
23-26 June 2008, pp (501 - 506).
6. Fetaji, M., Fetaji, B. (2009),”Devising Usability
Framework For Mobile Learning Software Solutions, EEEL 2009 : "International Conference on
e-Education and e-Learning", Paris, France, June
24-26, 2009
7. Jovica Djurkovic, Jelica Trninic, Vuk Vukovic,
Lazar Rakovic (2011), Implementing knowledge
management systems in small and medium-sized
organisations in the autonomous province of Vojvodina, Journal for Technics Technologies Education
Management (TTEM), ISSN: 1840-1503, Publisher
DRUNPP Sarajevo, Bosnia & Herzegovina
8. KUKULSKA-HULME A., PETTIT J., (2009) Practitioners as Innovators: Emergent Practice in Personal Mobile Teaching, Learning, Work, and Leisure,
in the book (Ally, 2009)
9. Maryam, A. & Dorothy, E.L. (2001). Knowledge
management and knowledge management systems:
conceptual foundations and research issues. MIS
Quarterly, 25 (1), 107-136, March 2001.
10. Nielsen, J. (2000). Designing Usability: The Practice of Simplicity. New Riders Publishing, Indianapolis, ISBN 1-56205-810-X
Corresponding Author
Mirlinda Ebibi,
South East European University,
CST Faculty,
Macedonia,
E-mail: m.ebibi@seeu.edu.mk,
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
technics technologies education management
The Use of Web Mapping Services for
Designing e-City Government Web Portals
Enes Sukic, Leonid Stoimenov
Faculty of Electronic Engineering, University of Nis, Serbia
Abstract
The Internet as we know it today is not just
a static source of information in which users are
consumers only. It represents a more active and
interactive service whose users have become major designers of the contents since they can control the development of this incredible resource.
Blogs, social networks, video hosting services,
wiki services, mapping services and many other
2.0 web services have huge potential that the city
administrations could use for new generation web
portals that would serve citizens in many ways. In
this paper, the emphasis will be on the description
of using web mapping services as an important
part of modern technologies. Such services could
be used in the process of creating an e-city web
portal in numerous ways.
Key words: Web Mapping, Google Maps,
OpenStreetMaps, e-City.
1. Introduction
The tendency of new generation web technologies lies in their flexibility and compatibility of
combining them into some new web services. Web
mapping technologies have passed a long way
from being complex, expensive systems for georeferencing and map displaying to extremely affordable and free of charge services that in an intuitive
way allow users to utilize the resources and then
modify and adjust them to their needs. Geographic Information Systems through their iteration of
commercialized and open-source types of tools
enable serious geospatial visualizations that are
useful in pointing out and solving various geospatial problems. In recent years, GIS systems have
become more web-oriented and thus available to a
much larger group of people. It was not long ago
when the first public services for map presentation appeared and today there is almost no spot
on Earth that has not been mapped. Google Maps,
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
Open Street Maps, Google Earth, Wikimapia, Ovi
Maps, MapQuest and Yahoo Maps are just some
of the most important free web mapping services
[1]. Web mapping services like Google Maps Services, Open Street Maps and Google Earth allow
users to freely use their resources through KML
language from the ability to adjust services locally
to the complete control of map presentation.
Purposeful mapping of a city aided by free and
available mapping services could lead to faster resolutions of numerous geospatial problems such as
urban planning and public utilities, setup of different types of installations, display and resolution of
various land register problems and others. It would
be especially attractive if the city officials could put
some effort to map the cultural, art and historical
potential of museums, parks, restaurants, pedestrian
areas and other tourism-related destinations.
eCity services representing whole eServices
offered to the citizens, which in segment of targeted city mapping with the support of available
free map services, be able to bring faster and better perception and solving numerous geo-environmental problems.
The first chapters of paper shows possibilities
of use Google Maps and Open Street Maps services through its editors for geo-referencing as
well as abilities of use API solutions, due to total
control of display of geo-environmental problem
or certain information on the map. The second
part of the paper represents concrete realizations
and abilities geo-referencing of certain geo-environmental data interesting for investors. Offered
are also concrete realizations mapping of tourist
attractions, as well as certain comparisons Open
Web Map of editors, and all in aim of representing
eminent abilities web map services.
This paper particularly emphasizes the ability
of combining different web mapping services in
order to get detailed local maps which can be further enriched with powerful e-city portal services.
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technics technologies education management
2. Google Maps services
Using public services of mapping to display locations on the web has become a popular solution
that is more and more used instead of commercial
geographic information systems (GIS). One of the
most popular public services is Google Maps. With
the introduction of the first version of Google Maps
Application Programming Interface (API) in June
2005, Google enabled users to embed local maps
on their websites using JavaScript programming
language. At the same time, Google introduced option for editing maps through “My places” section
and soon afterwards introduced the Google Map
Maker tool which enabled them to cooperate with
users and create highly detailed and precise maps.
Users can draw lines, placemarks and polygons and
thus get full control of a map using built-in or selfcreated markers, adjusting appearance and color of
lines. Such moderated maps can be used locally or
on a specific Internet location. Moreover, moderated maps can be forwarded to Google for verification and if approved they can be published in the
official Maps service [2].
2.1. Google Maps API Solutions
Google Maps API is an application programming interface for display of maps on websites
by using JavaScript programming language. [3]
Google Maps API is a family of the following
API applications: Maps JavaScript, Google Earth,
Maps Images and Web Services.
–– The Google Maps JavaScript API is the
most important resource for creating Google
Maps. [3] Along with display of maps, API
enables controlled addition of dynamic
objects which do not include only maps but
multimedia contents as well. With its 1.0
version, API drew attention and dazzled
programming and user communities. The
very option to modify and use localized maps
has contributed to API’s faster development.
The current version is 3.0. The new version
compared to version 2.0 has brought many
innovations and updates starting with the
way basic HTML document (HTML 5)
is declared, organization of methods and
function calls to numerous options for
876
defining events over objects. [3] In addition,
creating icons, lines and polygons is way
easier in the newer API version while the
key for using a map is not necessary but still
recommended.
–– Google Earth is the most popular application
which displays maps in a highly efficient
and interesting way. The introduction of
KML language, which enables programming
and localization of Google Earth Maps, has
contributed to rapid popularization of this
service and user software under the same
name. On the other hand, the introduction of
API to Google Earth service made it possible
to use all resources of this service and adjust
them to private Internet locations [2].
–– Maps Images API enables users to convert
maps into some other image format and
then upload such maps to desired Internet
locations.
–– Google Maps API Web Services is a
collection of API solutions which enable
georeferencing of maps and multiple
calculations related to the maps.
The process of mapping various locations and
events can be useful in almost all human activities.
www.healthmap.org offers a map which shows locations of diseases as they appear worldwide. The
map is updated daily [4]. The latest version of this
map was designed in Google Map JavaScript API
v3 and descriptively displays places where outbreaks of diseases have been reported. (Figure 1).
Figure 1. A map of Europe showing current
locations of infectious diseases [4]
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technics technologies education management
Thanks to the advanced features of API v3, the
map was designed in such way that when a user
clicks on an icon showing some specific location,
a window with additional multimedia contents that
are related to the disease and its location pops up.
Web mapping technologies enable mapping of
objects through Google Maps service. An example of object mapping is shown in Figure 2, a map
of Elizabethtown campus [5]. The map of campus
was designed in layers, so that a user can choose
the layer depending on his or her needs. Google
Maps JavaScript v3 enables georeferencing based
on the object coordinates and integration of layers
from external locations [6].
of the most important open source projects on the
web which licenses enable programmers and users
to continuously improve and upgrade it. [8] OSM,
in addition to Google Maps, represents the best designed web mapping service which allows users to
edit maps. Edited maps can be locally uploaded or
sent to the OSM community for validation and thus
improve the quality of map details. OSM API allows complete flexibility in the process of georeferencing and downloading maps for local purposes.
Using OSM and GPS data is really important.
This proved to be true during the natural disasters
worldwide, when many roads, bridges and other
routes drawn in official maps were impassable so
it was necessary to draw in new routes on the go
(Figure 3) [9], which enabled emergency rescue
services and supplies to reach villages and small
towns in remote and inaccessible areas much faster.
Figure 2. An illustration of object mapping [5].
Google has recently developed a series of 3D
mapping services, Google Street View being the
most significant project which currently covers
some of the most important world metropolises’
locations. The ultimate goal of this service is to
cover all inhabited areas at some point in the future [7]. The huge potential of creating 3D objects
has led to the Google SketchUp project with its
API solution which enables conversion of 2D objects into 3D objects on the map [7].
3. OpenStreetMaps (OSM)
In 2004, University College London initiated a
project of collecting and uploading maps that are
free to use on its website. Soon afterwards, the
project exceeded the university and became one
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Figure 3. Georeferencing by using GPS in
practice [9]
Apart from the www.openstreetmap.com builtin editing tool, there is an external editor that is
even more used: Java OpenStreetMap Editor. No
matter which one we use, there are many ways to
benefit from and localize maps for the purposes of
an e-city portal. This will be further explained in
the paper.
4. Web Map e-City Portal
City administrations can make use of the above
mentioned free web map services on their e-city
portals by uploading maps that the citizens, tourists, investors, businessmen, traders and others
could access and use as an important service.
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technics technologies education management
eCity Web Portal should be multy-layers, where
each layer would be specific service to physical or
legal individuals. eCity maps could join communal-land office display, where the users, on a precis way get to see wanted geo-environmental information, will be sending for certain corrections
or other legal works connected to town planning,
communal or land office activities etc.
eCity web portals should allow users to be
involved in the process of designing and georeferncing of the city and enviroment in additon to
presentation of locations and maps that are essential to them through thematic layers. For example,
citizens could mark and look for rentals and sales
or follow the latest traffic news in their city using
this service. If a street is temporarily closed due to
road construction, the street would appear on the
map with detailed information about when it is
closed and how much time the construction will
take. The citizens could also mark objects of tourist significance that they own by adding info windows that provide more information. Data organized like this must be firstly checked and verified
before being published on the e-city web portal. In
other words, it is possible to create a very useful
multilayer service that would provide city administration and citizens with wide usability.
4.1. Use of Free Web Map Editors and API
Solutions
A series of maps showing potential locations for
investors can be created. This is essential for any city
administration which wants to present its resources
in the best light and attract investments. Strategic location, distance from the city’s center, public transportation, accessibility, traffic conditions and infrastructure, greenery, environment and many other
factors that are important to investors can be easily
displayed on the maps. By using very intuitive and
simple Google Map Editor, which allows usage of
external contents such as Youtube videos, Panoramio
pictures, texts, etc., it is easy to combine these contents with built-in maps and create desired maps.
For the purposes of this paper, a map edited and
georeferenced using “My Places” option in the
Google Map Web service has been created (Figure
4). In terms of marking the map, it is possible to
draw placemarks, lines and polygons [10].
878
Figure 4. Illustration of a map created by
integrating Google Maps with the images and
videos from external sources [10].
In accordance with his needs, a user can choose
how to mark parts of the map. In addition, external
sources for creating icons, lines and polygons can
be used. The map shows potential locations for investors with ability to display it in different layers
as offered by the Google Maps service:
–– Satellite imagery
–– Road maps
–– Terrain imagery
–– Hybrid imagery
–– Direct display of the map in Google Earth.
It is possible to completely moderate default
Google maps using Google Maps JavaScript API
for the purposes of an e-city portal. It is also possible to use user-created graphics for placemarks,
roads and other elements on the map. Apart from
traditional functions of the Google Maps Maker
tool, some other effects like animations and control
of events can be created through the event class.
In order to enable map to be displayed on an
HTML page, it is necessary to set up the starting
parameters such as the desired coordinates, the
way a map is displayed and starting level of zoom.
It can be done using this code:
var map = new google.maps.Map(mapDiv, {
center: new google.maps.LatLng
(43.142018,20.51661),
zoom: 15,
mapTypeId: google.maps.MapTypeId.ROADMAP });
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Depending on what an e-city portal wants to
present, a map can be initiated in one of the two
different modes: roadmap and satellite. In roadmap mode it is possible to adjust the option terrain
which is sometimes more suitable for displaying
elements on the map. [11]
The markers are extremely important for displaying objects on the map. Google Maps JavaScript API v3 introduces some innovations related
to the markers. Namely, it is now possible to
change predefined marker icons with the userdefined ones. It is possible to create maps so that
each of them has different marker icons and appropriate visual display of the desired object or
location. A series of images that mark specific objects and locations in the city have been created
for the purposes of this paper. The introduction of
new marker icons from an external source is done
as follows:
var infoWindow = new google.maps.InfoWindow ({
position:
new google.maps.
LatLng(43.138369,20.520903),
content: ‘About Location’ });
var icon = ‘http://adress/icon.jpg’;
var marker = new google.maps.Marker({
map: map,
icon: icon,
position: new google.maps.
LatLng(43.137994,20.520893),
});
The event class enables user to create an interactive map by defining events which are executed by different mouse actions: Click, Dblclick,
Mouseup, Mousedown, Mouseover and Mouse
out. The map is enriched by linking events to one
of these specific actions.
Markers can be used to trigger info windows,
some web sites or web services. For example, defining an event for initiation of an URL address by
clicking on a specific marker is done as follows:
As it is to be noticed from the sample code, in
order to create markers it is necessary to provide
exact marker location georeferencing coordinates.
Other parameters such as the map object to which
the marker is attached and the link to user-defined
marker icon must be provided as well.
Displaying information about some object in
a pop-up window that can be placed above the
marker is done through InfoWindow. This function is of high essence when it comes to creating
maps for the purposes of an e-city portal. Any
city administration, in addition to visual information, would also like to display textual information about specific locations and objects on the
map. Apart from textual data, the info window can
display multimedia contents from other Internet
services. This is an extraordinary option of combining different sources in the process of creating
map contents. Standardized code for creating an
info window looks like this:
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
It is necessary to provide geo-coordinates and
the content displayed in the window as the function parameters. In the section “content”, it is
possible to use HTML tags for determining the
contents of the window in addition to its visual appearance on the map. Furthermore, it is possible
to add multimedia contents like video or image by
providing the link to it:
content:
‘<object style=”height:280px;width:280
px”>
<param name=””value=”some source code”
</object>’
google.maps.event.addListener (marker1,
‘click’,
function(){
window.location.href = marker1.url;});
The code that creates an event for opening info
windows after clicking on a specific marker looks
like this:
google.maps.event.addListener(marker,
‘click’,
function() {infoWindow.open(map, marker); });
Events can be created on an e-city web site to
provide rich contents and information for each object and marked location which would make the
display of the map more interesting.
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technics technologies education management
For the purposes of this paper, a map of interesting locations of the city of Novi Pazar has been
created (Figure 5). Each marker on the map is
unique and stands for a specific location i.e. object.
This type of marking objects makes them more
visible which the ultimate goal when it comes to
the presentation of tourist places of the city. An ecity administration web site, that contains adjusted
maps of Google Maps JavaScript API v3, should
be made of a series of layers that would display
different objects on the map. This improves map’s
descriptiveness and its efficiency.
In the example we provide, all object and location markers in the city are interactive, which is
achieved by adding contents to the info windows
that are initiated by Mouseover action:
built-in markers for various objects and locations.
This collection of markers is highly applicable
in the local presentation of objects on the map
because the map layers can be created in a quick
and useful way. Thus, the e-city portal users can
display desired objects on the map easily. For example, if a user wants to see all the businesses in
one city, he will simply choose the layer for that.
Another example is the layer that displays public
institutions, hospitals, police stations, etc. Figure
6. shows the ability of quick georeferencing of one
part of the city of Nis with the help of numerous
markers predefined in OSM Portlach P2 editor.
google.maps.event.
addListener(marker,’mouseover’,
function() {this.setIcon(objekatHover);});
Info windows that contain text, images, video
animations, links and external sources of information are very useful since they aim to attract potential users and make them put some effort and
visit a specific tourist location i.e. object. This is
the purpose of creating “Tourist locations” layer
on an e-city administration portal.
Figure 6. The use of OSM Potlach P2 markers
4.2. Comparison of Web Map Editors
By comparing OSM Portlach P2 built-in editor
to the Google Maps Maker tool, we come to the
conclusion that each of them has some advantages
over the other as shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Comparison of OSM Potlach P2 and the
Google Map Maker tool
Figure 5. Tourist locations in the city
By using OpenStreetMap Portlach P2 editor it
is possible to georeference maps for the purposes
of an e-city portal. Unlike Google Maps Maker
Tools, OSM Portlach P2 has a larger variety of
880
OpenStreetMap Potlach
P2
Google Maps Maker
Tool
Much larger collection of
markers.
Built-in maps are more
detailed, due to a larger
number of users.
Visual adjustability on a
higher level. Option for
changing background and
many different styles for
display of layers.
Much larger variety of
drawing polygons and
lines.
Direct conversion into an
Option for combining
XML file, Map image or external web resources with
HTML embedded.
the elements on the map.
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
technics technologies education management
Java OpenStreetMap Editor offers more possibilities than the traditional editor embedded in
the OpenStreetMap service. Greater flexibility in
georeferencing, large collection of markers and
option to use data from GPS devices and many
other options make this open source tool an excellent substitute to more complex GIS systems.
For the purposes of this paper, a map of one of
the parts of Nis has been created and georefrenced
by using JavaOpenStreetMap editor (Figure 7).
city administration will choose, Google or OSM
solution, since both of these services offer equally
rich collection of resources.
References
1. A. Skarlatidou and M. Haklay, “Public Web Mapping: Preliminary Usability Evaluation,” GIS Research, UK, 2006.
2. Enes Sukic, Natasa Veljkovic, Leonid
Stoimenov,Google Maps JavaScript API v3 u izgradnji e gradskog Web portala, XI International Scientific Symposium INFOTEH, Bosnia and Herzegovina,
2012.
3. G.Svennerberg and C. Turner,“Beginning Google
Maps API 3,“ Apress, 2010.
4. Health Map, http://www.healthmap.org/
5. ElizabethTown Campus Map, http://www.etown.edu/
map/
6. G. S. Dionysios, “Web maps with the google map
API,” DR DOBBS JOURNAL, 2007.
Figure 7. The use of Java OpenStreetMap Editor
5. Conclusion
The possibilities of using advanced technologies on city administration portals are indeed
huge. Starting with the services for citizens i.e. users of the e-city administration to a very detailed
and descriptive display of locations and object that
investors may find appropriate to invest money
into. As we have explained in the paper, free-touse mapping services offer sufficiently detailed
solutions that there is almost no need to invest
money into additional systems for presentation of
city maps and their georeferencing. In comparison
to expensive GIS systems, we make a conclusion
that a large number of geospatial problems can be
solved using Google Maps open services. Web
Maps services are more oriented towards mobile
devices which in combination with GPS technology become very useful in practice for over viewing and problem solving of geospatial problems,
presentation of potential locations for investments,
as a tourist guide that can be accessed using an ecity web portal. It does not matter which one the
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
7. B. Micusik and J. Kosecka, “Piecewise planar
city 3D modeling from street view panoramic
sequences,”IEEE Conference on Computer Vision
and Pattern Recognition, 2009.
8. Haklay M. , Weber P. , OpenStreetMap: User-Generated Street Maps, Pervasive Computing, IEEE,
Volume: 7 , Issue: 4 , pp, 12 – 18, 2008.
9. Emir O., The Power of Community Mapping and
Open Spatial Data, OpenStreetMap Indonesia, http://
en.openstreetmap.or.id/news/ , 2012.
10. Enes Sukic, Natasa Veljkovic, Leonid Stoimenov,
Using Google Maps Mashup for e-City Government, in order to Present Potential Locations for Investment, 18th conference YUINFO, Serbia, 2012.
11. Maurizio G., Alex S., Richard M., Pablo M., Paul
L., An Exploratory Cartographic Visualization of
London through the Google Maps API, Applied
Spatial Analysis and Policy, Volume 1, Number 2
(2008), 85-97.
Corresponding Author
Enes Sukic,
Faculty of Electronic Engineering,
University of Nis,
Serbia
E-mail: esukic@yahoo.com
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Traditional and contemporary approach to
teaching mathematics
Irena Misurac Zorica1, Maja Cindric2, Fatih Destovic3
1
2
3
Filozofski fakultet u Splitu, Učiteljski studij, Croatia,
Odjel za izobrazbu učitelja i odgajatelja predškolske djece Sveučilišta u Zadru, Croatia,
Pedagoški fakultet u Sarajevu, Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Abstract
Because of great importance of mathematical literacy of students, their personal needs, as well for
society as a whole, it is necessary to constantly review the models used in the teaching of mathematics. Traditional teaching of mathematics, which
still dominates in our schools has not resulted to satisfactory results that our students made competitive in the global world. Contemporary approach to
teaching mathematics is based on the needs of modern society that require learners ingenuity, independence, creativity and successful application of
learned mathematical knowledge. The paper presents the main characteristics of traditional and modern approach to teaching mathematics.
Key words: traditional mathematics teaching,
contemporary mathematics teaching, mathematical literacy
1. Introduction
Mathematical knowledge and skills are used
daily, both in private and professional life. Mathematics develops logical thinking, introduces us to
forms that stand in the background of the world
around us, empowers us to handle numbers, shapes
and other physical structures, teaches us concisely, clearly and concisely amount of thought and
much more. In addition to the personal level, the
mathematical results are an important factor in the
development potential and prosperity of society,
which is why we are becoming more interesting.
"High student achievement in mathematics and
related subjects may have important implications
for the future role of some countries in the field of
advanced technology, as well as its overall competitiveness at the international level. By contrast,
poor student achievement in mathematics can
have negative consequences for the labor market
882
and the possibility of finding employment, as well
as their ability to actively participate in society
"(Bras Roth et al, 2008, 122).
Despite the importance of mathematics to personal and professional lives of individuals in contemporary life, with pupils' results we are generally not satisfied. Many students fail to reach the
level of mathematical literacy that would be sufficient for their future needs. Mathematical literacy
is an individual insight into certain mathematical
knowledge and ability to apply that knowledge in
a variety of situations which will be described as
mathematical skills or competencies. Mathematical literacy is "an individual's ability to recognize
and understand the role that mathematics plays in
the world, to make well-informed decisions and to
apply mathematics in ways that suit the needs of
that individual's life as a constructive, concerned
and thinking citizen" (Bras Roth et al, 2008, 124).
Mathematical literacy is dependent on the width
and depth of mathematical knowledge and skills,
but includes much more than that, "it also depends
on the ability of mathematical thought and action,
including modeling and problem solving. These
competencies include knowledge of mathematical
concepts, monitoring and evaluating mathematical arguments, setting up mathematical problems,
choice of modes of mathematical situations and
expressions of individuals opinions on matters
with a mathematical content. Mathematical literacy is dependent on the ability to apply this knowledge, this understanding and these skills in a wide
variety of personal, social and work contexts. The
applications of mathematical knowledge in new
and unfamiliar circumstances today are increasingly emphasized as the ultimate goal of mathematics education. Anyone who knows the art of
mathematical formulas and solve abstract mathematical tasks, and does not know to solve the
problem solving situation that requires the appliVolume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
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cation of mathematical knowledge and skills outside the school context, did not reach the level of
mathematical literacy with which to meet. Therefore, a modern teaching method in mathematics
education emphasizes the need to reconsider the
necessity of learning a large amount of material
that should be mastered in mathematics. "The new
paradigm of learning for the 3rd Millennium teach
people, teach learning, not teaching content "(Jurdana-Sepic and Milotic, 2005, 19), indicating a
clear need for lifelong acquisition of mathematical
skills that enable the application of mathematics to
diverse and new situations. Too big math curricula
should be changed by focusing attention less on
the content, and more on the processes of learning
mathematics. These recommendations clearly illustrate the very foundations of education in Croatia through the National Framework Curriculum
for preschool education and compulsory general
secondary education. This important document
sets out the purpose and a goal of general education clearly recognizes mathematical fields as one
of the fundamental areas of education and emphasizes the orientation of education towards the
development of competencies, such for example:
acquire basic mathematical skills and processes
and to establish and understand the mathematical
relationships, be able to solve mathematical problems and use mathematics in different contexts,
including the world of work, develop a positive
attitude towards mathematics, the responsibility for its success and progress of the consciousness of his mathematical achievements, identify
and understand the historical and social role of
mathematics in science, culture, art and technology and its potential for the future of society, be
able to abstract and spatial thinking and logical
reasoning, effectively communicate mathematical knowledge, ideas and results using a variety of
views etc. These competencies certainly can not
be achieved merely by learning the terms, formulas, definitions theorems, solving textbook tasks,
which are all features of the work that we encounter in many of our mathematics classrooms. "To
prepare mathematically literate citizens for the
21st century classroom should be reconstructed so
that students learn mathematics with understanding. Perhaps the most important feature of learning
is understanding the facts not just knowing facts.
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When a student acquires knowledge with understanding, he can apply that knowledge in learning
new topics and solve new and unfamiliar problems
"(Carpenter and Lehrer, 1999, 19). To improve the
results of students, prepare them for further education and living needs, and improve the overall
social picture of mathematics, it is concerned to
question the modes used in teaching mathematics.
2. Traditional methods of teaching
mathematics
Traditional teaching of mathematics is characterized by the goals set by students and models of
teaching. It is emphasized, prices and encourage
procedural skills, particularly numeracy skills,
knowledge and skills of algorithms to solve standardized tasks. "The act of applying mathematics
consists of selecting the appropriate mathematical
skills in one's "toolbox "and performing a series
of computations, i.e. the symbolic manipulation to
get the same answer as that given by the teacher
or one who is among the solutions in the textbook
"(Draper and Siebert, 2004, 930). In the traditional
teaching of mathematics is much attention paid to
the mechanical memorization of definitions and
statements, tables, addition, subtraction, multiplication and division, and various other memorizing facts (mathematical words, names, rules,
formulas, explanations, ways of talking to the
correct procedure to solve certain types of problems, etc.). Learning content defined as fixed and
immutable program that has to be realized in the
time allotted, and textbooks and accompanying
materials it is strictly followed. One of the main
features of the traditional teaching of mathematics
is a great emphasis on content learning and skill of
rapid and accurate computation. Learning content
defined as fixed and immutable program that has
to be realized in the time allotted, and textbooks
and accompanying materials it is strictly followed.
Emphasize the computing, speed and accuracy of
results as the main purpose and features of mathematics, and automation of computational operations is one of the main objectives, particularly
in the initial teaching of mathematics. To achieve
this it would take out many simple numerical tasks
in defining and automating the application of computational operations. "Mathematics curriculum
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is fragmented into small parts, which focus on
developing mathematical procedures as isolated
skills. The textbook presents problems that can be
solved without much thinking, blind application
of the processes that are currently being taught
"(Schoenfeld, 1988, 163). In order to solve certain
types of problems there are established algorithms,
which are in fact ordered sets of rules, operations
and relations, algorithmic steps for solving similar
problems. Almost all the problem-solving tasks
are thought in a way that the teacher demonstrates
the process of solving a particular type of problem
students, and later they are in the process almost
unchanged applied to similar cases. The emphasis
is always on the procedure of applying the algorithm, not understanding the context of the task.
This is the reason that children are "problematic
mathematical tasks perceived as abstract problems
that do not need to understand to successfully resolve them. Traditionally taught students first learn
the importance of performing certain actions with
the given numbers. Looking only figures set in a
task children ignore the structure of task, so do not
even recognize the inconsistencies (Vizek Vidovic
et al, 2003, 394) that the task or the solution may
occur. In the traditional teaching model "to give
the correct answer is much more important than
understanding the concept that lies at the back of a
problem" (Stoll and Fink, 2000, 162).
Traditional education is designed with an emphasis on teaching, a very dominant role of the
teacher or teacher. These lectures and demonstrations amount of mathematical content that is
taught, and then devising exercises and activities
for students that will enable them to automate repetitive and learned the rules. In the final step of
finding the most effective forms of assessment of
learners' knowledge and skills, which are commonly verification tests with standardized tasks
(DeShawn Kemp, 2007). Since the teacher is a
person who knows the mathematical content and
knows the correct answers, it is clear that students
are expected to reproduce the knowledge and
skills in a way that his teacher showed in class.
The teacher controls the learning environment
and to ensure the accuracy of learned correcting
any ambiguity or wrong answer to the student.
The student sits, listens, and reproduces the contents of his cash in the form prescribed by offering
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teacher or textbook. Its activity is mainly focused
on memorizing facts and repeating and automating procedures demonstrated. Learning is based
on constant repetition and practice, is not significantly associated with the real life experiences and
is strongly supported by individual effort and cognitive development. "Mathematics is presented
as an activity that should be done independently,
and the evaluation process is based on individual
tasks. Cooperation among students is often used in
traditional classrooms is seen as cheating "(Berry
and Nyman, 2002, 641). Therefore, students often
work individually mathematics, using textbooks
and collections of tasks. As a teacher of a person
who knows the correct result or response, it is
clear that he questions the students, not vice versa.
The student teacher will eventually ask if something does not understand or do not know, while
his teacher as an unquestionable authority to give
an answer, or possibly help you find the correct
answer. Traditional teaching strategies are focused
on the ultimate outcome or response to, rather than
on the process of arriving at that outcome.
Traditional approach emphasis weak features
of mathematics that allow students to make sense
of the world around them and not put very weak
emphasis on communication and the use of mathematical knowledge. Unfortunately, the traditional
teaching of mathematics has not achieved satisfactory results in mathematics, according to the
different assessments in mathematics PISA and
National examinations.
3. Contemporary methods of teaching
mathematics
The basic idea of the wide modern mathematical and educational community is that in the
present conditions of living necessary mathematics for all and that all people can successfully learn and apply. Such ideas were historically often
occurred in the thinking of advanced scientists and
educators, and Socrates has already held that "the
mathematical knowledge should be available to
everyone, not just the privileged. Modern research
strongly supports this view "(Ginsburg and Seo,
1999, 120). Therefore, we should not be satisfied with the poor results of a large number of students who leave school mathematically illiterate.
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
technics technologies education management
Modern ideas of teaching mathematics are based
primarily on clearly set goals, often called the
standard of mathematics education. They tell us
precisely define the knowledge and competence
of an individual written mathematically expected
in modern conditions of life. Standards related to
the knowledge that one must adopt the call content
standards (or mathematical concepts), and competencies that an individual must develop a process
called standards (or mathematical processes). In
addition to making clear expectations and guidelines for teaching mathematics, the standards allow
international comparison of mathematical results
and create broader methodical mathematical community united in order to achieve better educational outcomes in mathematics. This approach
starts from the needs of students and the needs
which exist in reality, the choice of mathematical
programming content. Therefore, it is clear that
the necessities of life, the application of mathematics, logical thinking and the development of
skills, become more important than the amount of
knowledge in advance of the planned curriculum.
Learning and teaching mathematics that can be
used in the everyday life is taken as the default
setting in the modern concept of teaching mathematics. The basic theory of modern teaching mathematics is that "children are not receiving mathematical knowledge from the outside. It rather reveals the math and design their own peculiar way,
and their mathematical knowledge can be qualitatively different from adult knowledge or expertise
"(Ginsburg and Seo, 1999, 114). ). Such a view
of learning and teaching mathematics to a great
extent changed the ways of teaching mathematics,
social forms of work in the classroom, how to use
the curriculum materials and textbooks, and fundamentally different mathematics experience for
all participants in the educational process. In the
modern teaching of mathematics should take into
account the fact that "the development of mathematical ways of thinking essential immediately,
concrete experience in its use of the sizes that gradually leads to mathematical understanding, generalization, and dealing with abstract concepts. Not
considered to be the most important practicing of
mathematical facts and procedures, but emphasizes the gradual building of knowledge networks
of mathematical concepts and their relationships,
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
and flexible application of different procedures,
procedures for resolving problems. (...) The idea
that will be sustained by practicing computational
operations (explaining that "the right thing to do"),
at a certain time to achieve and understand "why
is this so" proved to be unfounded "(Vlahovic-Štetić, Vizek Vidovic 1998, 6-7).
"The main feature of the modern concept of teaching math is clear educational content guidelines,
support for teachers, effective evaluation and accountability for student learning" (DeShawn Kemp,
2007, 32). Students are placed in the center of contemporary teaching and allowed them to take control over the learning process by making decisions
that enrich them and their teachers. The responsibility of students to learn mathematics is an important item of modern education, which is also a bit
different from traditional teaching because "I know
that people, including children - whether it refers to
them as responsible people who contribute to their
group, which should perform some task - to fit in
with that expectation, of course, some better than
others, but everyone will benefit from it "(Bruner,
2000, 87). Students are encouraged to communicate with each other, opposing opinions and modify
concepts they seek a deeper understanding of mathematics. In addition, they are asked to come up
with any new content by relating it to situations in
life. The ultimate goal of modern teaching getting
motivated and independent learners.
The modern curriculum based on standards,
"says mathematical thinking and reasoning, conceptual understanding and problem solving in
realistic contexts" (Remillard, 2005, 211) as the
primary goal of teaching mathematics. Changing
objectives of mathematics education are changing, and access to learning and teaching mathematical content. While the traditional teaching of
mathematics most of their time solving a simple,
standardized, numerical tasks that are practiced
procedures and automate arithmetic operations, in
contemporary teaching solves a smaller number
of more complex problems often have multiple
possible solutions. In solving these problems are
encouraged to use varied approaches, strategies,
results and interpretation, and special attention is
devoted to communicating the way of thinking,
of proving his claims and exchanges of experience among students. In the modern approach to
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teaching mathematics encourages independence
and creativity in choosing the ways that lead to a
solution of the given problem. "Contemporary efforts to develop students' mathematical creativity
include the use of research problems logging in
thinking and a host of other mechanisms" (ICMI
Bulletin, 2004, 32). Solving the problem situation is set to the center of mathematical teaching,
and of all the students expected to learn and use
mathematical reasoning, reasoning, proof, communication and representation of mathematical
ideas. In modern mathematics, the new content is
usually introduced to students by presenting some
unknown problem in your life, rather than through
abstract, numerical tasks.
To achieve high standards of modern teaching
mathematics is the most important engagement of
students who achieved in collaborative research,
mutual clarification, the use of representational
materials and oral and written arguments. So we
talk about active learning "involves a high degree
of autonomy and self-learning and the ability to
apply a variety of mental strategies and specific
cognitive skills that enable the identification of
essential material, breakdown and comparison of
information, linking them with existing knowledge and critical appraisal of their significance.
The information you have that kind of learning
are stored in long-term memory are easily accessible and can be efficiently applied to solve new
problems and new situations "(Vizek Vidovic et
al, 2002, 16). All this requires motivated students
involved in the process of learning to their own
ideas, often through collaborative research, mutual clarification, the use of various representations,
discussions and writing about their thoughts and
strategies (DeShawn Kemp, 2007).
The aim of modern education to create a stimulating and collaborative environment that promotes
collaboration between students and collaboration
with the teacher. That's why most of the conclusions
and results obtained in the group. "Math is learned
by doing mathematics: A group is more efficient
(you can do more in less time) than the individual. Students realize they are not the only ones who
have the occasional problem in understanding. The
group allows students to "speak the language of
Science", and thus share their skills and understanding "(Berry and Nyman, 2002, 643). As students
886
acquire math, must eventually become confident
in yourself and your ability to solve complex problems and correcting errors. Such confidence will
reach students, if they were allowed to continue to
make mistakes, try again, argue, question and communicate freely. Given that the attitude of students
of mathematics, especially in the beginning of the
school, formed the basis of his first experiences
with mathematics and influenced by teachers, it is
clear that the affective component of the teaching of
mathematics should pay attention.
Students use a variety of ways to present content to learners, which includes a demonstration,
drawing, facial expressions, modeling, and formal
mathematical and logical reasoning to convince
themselves and their peers about the validity of
their thinking and solutions. "Today, most teachers
and teacher, mathematicians and psychologists who
deal with mathematics holds that children should
learn mathematics begins with the mental representations of problems, it is a process of thinking about
possible ways of solution, then only a symbolic presentation of the problem and perform mathematical
operations" (Vizek Vidovic et al, 2003, 394). Thus
contemporary mathematics education encourages
and nurtures a variety of forms of representation of
mathematical ideas, processes and problems.
Due to the different views on learning in the
contemporary teaching of mathematics, it is changing and the role of teachers in this process. The
constructivist teacher rejects the model of learning
as knowledge transmission (transmission model of
teaching) and the pedagogy of control or conventional lectures. Instead, he accepted teaching methods that students are placed in contact with the
environment, with other students and the teachers
themselves in a way to ask questions, seek resources (including myself and others) and propose solutions to problems. The role of the constructivist
teacher is to assist students while they create their
own structures. In modern mathematics, teaching
focus is shifted from the teacher as omniscient authority with the right answers, to the students who
seek the truth in the logical argumentation and
mathematical argument. The modern teacher will
encourage students to take an active and independent learning, logical thinking and reasoning and
to find ways to get students motivated and interested in learning mathematics. This course is not
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easy to achieve because it prepares students for
independent forms of activity requires the teacher
more time, will and skill, but the effectiveness
of teaching by guided higher than that achieved
by the shape of the frontal. The modern school is
expected that these types of alternate optimal.
In contemporary teaching encourages teachers
to appreciate and reward students' hard work
and perseverance, to show children how prudent
approach mathematical problems and to encourage them to use different approaches mathematical
tasks" (Stipek et al, 2001, 214). Not every child
equally need time to solve the problem, nor will
all that be just as successful, but the modern teacher should allow every child to achieve their own
personal maximum. The classroom must feel mutual respect, understanding, patience and tolerance
to the student completely free of fear, unease and
uncertainty that could fully engage their capacities. The teacher needs to find and offer students a
variety of methods of teaching and learning time
to organize in a way that each student has the opportunity to acquire the necessary knowledge and
skills. As Feldman suggests (as DeShawn Kemp,
2007), if a student can not remember some of the
content, or to find a solution to the problem, it
must be encouraged to use critical thinking to find
the answers or solutions. Teachers are expected
to show enthusiasm in the work on mathematical
content, but not in a way that always plays a dominant role in the classroom. "The enthusiasm in teaching implies a manifestation of personal interest
in the material as a special liveliness to teaching.
Such a teacher truly shows his satisfaction with
the content of the teaching which is reflected in a
live speech and expressive movements and Mimica "(Vizek Vidovic et al, 2003, 337).
4. Conclusion
"The world we live in is full of problems. Every
job, even everyday life, consisting of the simpler
or more complex problems. Therefore, the school
and the teachers set an important goal: qualify for
problem solving "(Matijevic, 2004, 21). We can
not know what the problems our students encounter in their future life and work, but we can be
sure that the problem will be there and they will
have to deal with them. Educators agree that stuVolume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
dents should get more involved in learning and
problem solving, and less need to develop their
computational skills (DeShawn Kemp, 2007, 35).
Thus, "teachers who believe that children learn
mathematics in constructing their own understanding of the process of problem solving (modern approach), the words used by multiple tasks
and spend more time on developing strategies for
solving these problems before children start to become familiar with numbers and facts about them,
from those teachers who believe that mathematics teaches adoption of computational operations
demonstrated by teachers in separate lessons (traditional approach) "(Stipek et al, 2001, 216).
By encouraging students to communication,
critical thinking everything they hear, the requirements for proof of claims imposed, increasing unpredictability of the teaching process, which makes
anticipating the course of the lesson. All this indicates the fact that it reduces the teacher's control
over the educational process, which is a traditional
teacher had, and increases the need for improvisation and orientation in the classroom. Such an approach requires a teacher who is confident in themselves and in their knowledge and who is willing to
take risks in new circumstances. Modern teachers
have to work harder, try more, have to concentrate
more deeply and to accept more responsibility than
pedagogical traditionalist teacher who just finished
work on lessons in the textbooks and mainly used
to solve the model simply listing of standardized,
pre-prepared, computational tasks. If teachers want
to use modern, constructivist approach to teaching must encourage our own conceptual change, at
least in so far as to expect from their students. It is
not easy and it is almost impossible without major
changes, and himself (his way of thinking, an increase of mathematical knowledge, goals) and the
overall learning environment (classroom, didactic
resources, technology, etc.). It is not therefore surprising that many teachers resist such changes, and
prefer to remain in the traditional system, which often hide behind their own authority and abstraction
of mathematical content.
If we want to improve the performance of students in mathematics, it is necessary to change
the ways of teaching mathematics. Contemporary
competence requires teachers who know and apply the modern approach to teaching mathematics
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5. References
1. Berry, J.; Nyman, M. A. (2002). „Small-group assessment methods in mathematics“ International
Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and
Technology, vol. 33, no.5, 641-649
2. Braš Roth, M.; Gregurović, M.; Markočić Dekanić,
A.; Markuš, M., (2008). PISA 2006 – prirodoslovne
kompetencije za život, Nacionalni centar za vanjsko
vrednovanje obrazovanja – PISA centar, Zagreb
3. Bruner, J. (2000). Kultura obrazovanja, Educa, Zagreb
4. Carpenter, T.; Lehrer, R. (1999). Teaching and
Learning Mathematics With Understanding. in
„Mathematics classrooms that promote understanding“ (ed. Fennema, E.; Romberg, T.), Mahwah, NJ:
Erlbaum, 19-32
14. Stoll, L.; Fink, D., (2000.). Mijenjajmo naše škole:
kako unaprijediti djelotvornost i kvalitetu škola,
Educa, Zagreb
15. Vizek Vidović, V.; Vlahović-Štetić, V; Rijavec, M.;
Miljković, D. (2003.). Psihologija obrazovanja,
IEP-VERN, Zagreb
Corresponding Author
Maja Cindric,
Odjel za izobrazbu učitelja i odgajatelja
predškolske djece,
Sveučilište u Zadru,
Croatia,
E-mail: mcindric@unizd.hr
5. DeShawn Kemp, M. (2007). A Comparasion of Traditional Instruction and Standard-Based Instruction
on Seventh.Grade Mathematics Achievement, A Dissertation, Faculty of Mississippi State University,
Mississippi State, Mississippi
6. Draper, R. J.; Siebert, D. (2004). Different Goals,
Similar Practices: Making Sense oft he Mathematics
and Literacy Instruction in a Standards-Based Mathematics Classroom. American Educational Journal.
41. 927 – 962
7. Ginsburg, H.; Seo, K. H. (1999). Mathematics in
Children's Thinking. Mathematical Thinking and
Learning, 1 (2), 113-129
8. Jurdana-Šepić, R.; Milotić, B. (2005). Komunikacijski „perpetuum mobile“ u poučavanju budućih nastavnika. Metodički ogledi, 12 (1), 19-23
9. Matijević, M. (2004). Ocjenjivanje u osnovnoj školi,
Tipex, Zagreb
10. Primjeri zadataka iz procjene PISA 2000 –
čitalačka, matematička i prirodoslovna pismenost.
(2007). Nacionalni centar za vanjsko vrednovanje
obrazovanja – PISA centar, Zagreb
11. Remillard, J. (2005). Examining Key Concepts in Research on Teachers' Use of Mathematics Curricula.
Review of Educational Research, 75, 211 - 246
12. Schoenfeld, A. (1988). When Good Teaching Leads
to Bad Results: The Disaster of “Well Taught”
Mathematics Courses. Educational Psychology, 23
(2), 145-166
13. Stipek, D.; Givvin, K.; Salmon, J.; MacGyvers, V.;
(2001.). Teachers' beliefs and practicesrelated to
mathematics instruction, Teaching and Teacher
Education, 17, 213 - 226
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technics technologies education management
Analysis of the impact of time and maintenance
strategy on availability of complex technical
system
Slobodan T. Ristic1, Zivoslav Z. Adamovic2, Zoran P. Cekerevac3
1
2
3
University of Belgrade - Faculty of organizational sciences, Belgrade, Serbia,
University of Novi Sad, Technical Faculty Mihajlo Pupin, Zrenjanin, Serbia,
“Union” University Belgrade, Faculty of industrial management, Belgrade, Serbia.
Abstract
The paper considers reliability and availability of
technical systems and highlights the fact that maintenance strategy based on “constant durability” is
more favorable than maintenance strategy based on
“constant date”. Time analysis was carried out and
basic expressions for operative and total availability are given. Reliability diagrams, failure intensity,
and maintenance costs are presented.
Key words: preventive maintenance, reliability, availability, costs.
1. Introduction
The results of the research on availability of
complex technical systems are not sufficiently
known yet. Bearing that in mind, and taking into
account that availability can be presented in the
percentage of the time of correct functioning of
the system, or as a probability that at a point of
time the system is operative, a study of a number
of technical systems in iron and steel industry was
carried out. [1] As a motive of research it can be
mentioned that availability also depends on strategy of preventive maintenance. The results of the
research are obtained in conditions of real exploitation of technical systems (results for Agio-machine are presented here), whose reliability have
impact on the production which is worth around
107,000 EUR a day.
2. Explanation of terms malfunction and
probability of occurrence of malfunction
The aim of maintenance is to provide functionality of technical systems. We should try to keep
the systems and their functionality and not only
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operational aspect used by operators. Redundancy
improves functional reliability but also increases
the costs of life cycle in the sense of preparations
and keeping the level of work of technical systems.
Types of malfunctions are specific malfunctions
of equipment which result in functional malfunction of a system and/or a subsystem. Dominant
types of system malfunction are those which are
responsible for importance of proportion of all malfunctions within them. Not all the types or causes
of malfunctions justify preventive maintenance or
maintenance according to the condition due to low
probability rate in their appearance and their inconsistent effect. For addressing technical content, analysts and planners have to establish if the existing
maintenance activities cover all identified potential
types of malfunctions and result in desired/expected levels of reliability. Type of malfunction must
be envisaged or the existing maintenance activities
will not be effective in identifying type of malfunction. Later, it can result in incorrect identification in
distribution of fundamental probability in malfunction of function. A lot of information can be proved
or upgraded through reliability checks.
Reliability can be presented as probability of
a unit to function successfully in a defined operational period under specific operational conditions,
without malfunctions, which is usually expressed as
a life cycle, period until malfunction, or period between two malfunctions. Conditional probability in
appearance of malfunction measures probability of
a unit with defined operational period of work without occurrence of “state of malfunction” which will
eventually lead to malfunction within the interval. If
the conditional probability of occurrence of malfunction increases with time elapsed, technical system
will show characteristics of wearing out. Level or
frequency of malfunction is relatively insignificant
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for maintenance program, being too simple to be
measured. Frequency of malfunctions is useful for
the process of decision making regarding expenses,
as well as for establishing maintenance intervals, but
gives us no information on what maintenance activities are suitable or which, on the other hand, will be
a consequence, i.e. result of malfunction. Solutions
regarding malfunctions should be estimated within
sphere of safety and economic consequences which
we want to prevent. Maintenance activities must be
applicable, with the aim of their efficiency.
In the table 1 a possible method of quantifying
probability of malfunction is presented. In case historical data is available, “powerful” tool for establishing rank can be provided. In case historical data
is not available, ranking can be estimated based on
experience with similar systems within a company.
Contemporary maintenance methods are focused on a whole technical system. They are meant
more for maintenance of functionality of whole system than functionality of its components. Reliability is the base for making decision. Characteristics
of malfunction of technical systems must be understood in order to establish efficiency of preventive
maintenance. For successful realization it is necessary to constantly search for knowledge of conditional probability in occurrence of malfunction in
specific time period (possibility that malfunction
will occur in every supposed operational period).
We should always consider safety first, and
then economic reasons. Safety must always be preserved. When safety is out of question, preventive
maintenance must be based on economic reasons.
3. Dependence of operative and total
availability on time
Availability of technical system in a general
case can be presented by time relationship:
. ............................. (1)
where:
Tor - average time at work,
Tz - average time in failure.
It can be said that availability is in direct correlation with the exploitation capacity of a technical system, excluding the causes of failure (breakdown). In a general case, availability includes:
–– proper availability Av,
–– operative availability Aop, and
–– total availability Au.
The same can be calculated by applying the
following patterns:
Table 1. Categories of probability in occurrence of malfunction
Rank Effect
1. 1/10000
2.
1/5000
3.
1/2000
4.
1/1000
5.
1/500
6.
1/200
7.
1/100
8.
1/50
9.
10.
1/20
1/10
890
Description
Small probability of occurrence of malfunction, i.e. it would be unreasonable to expect it
Low probability of occurrence of malfunction, similar to previous plans in the past which had low
level of occurrence of malfunction for given volume / load
Low probability of occurrence of malfunction, similar to previous plans in the past which had low
level of occurrence of malfunction for given volume / load
Accidental occurrence of malfunction, similar to previous plans in the past which had low level of
occurrence of malfunction for given volume / load
Medium probability of occurrence of malfunction, similar to previous plans in the past which had
low level of occurrence of malfunction for given volume / load
Medium - high probability of occurrence of malfunction, similar to previous plans in the past
which had low level of occurrence of malfunction for given volume / load
High probability of occurrence of malfunction, similar to previous plans in the past which had
high level of occurrence of problems
High probability of occurrence of malfunction, similar to previous plans in the past which had
high level of occurrence of problems
Very high probability of occurrence of malfunction, almost certain to cause a problem
Very high probability of occurrence of malfunction, almost certain to cause a problem
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............................ (2)
for preventive maintenance based on "constant
durability" (T) (elements are replaced when they
reach a certain life):
. .......................... (3)
........... (7)
............................ (4)
......... (8)
where:
Toz - average time between the failures,
Tpo - average technical time of duration of repair after a failure,
Top - average time between two consecutive
maintenance interventions,
Tpog - average technical time of duration of repairs after failures, and
Tpov - average time of duration of repairs including the stand-by time.
In this paper, the time when preventive maintenance intervention should be performed, is the
time when the total maintenance costs (EUR/hour)
are minimal. Account was also taken of reliability
magnitudes R(T) and failure intensity λ(T) in the
process. The highest operative and total availability for the minimal maintenance costs (EUR/hour)
can be calculated:
for preventive maintenance based "on constant
date" (D) (the elements are replaced at pre-set moments of time, regardless of the 'age' of elements):
............... (5)
where:
Top (CTmin) - average time between two consecutive maintenance interventions for the period of
work when total maintenance costs are minimal,
F(T) - distribution function,
R(T) - reliability function [R(T) = 1-F(T)].
The quoted patterns (5),(6), and (8) can be used
for calculating the availability for any time period
of work, and also for some current system availabilities A•opD„ and A•opT average time of duration
of repair (system restoring time Tpop) can also be
calculated. If the expressions are minimized:
..................... (9)
................ (10)
then the maximum availability can be obtained,
which is, in fact, the basic aim. By applying the
relations (9), and (10), the following is obtained:
. .... (11)
............... (6)
where:
T(Cdmin) - the period of work when total maintenance costs are minimal,
Tpop - average technical time of duration of repairs for operations of preventive maintenance,
Tpov(g) - average time of repairs, including the
stand-by time (repair after a failure),
Tpov(p) - average time of stand-by (repair in a
preventive intervention),
Hm - restoring function (average number of restoring).
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
........ (12)
4. Result and data processing
The data on performance of the technical system are obtained from the "Report on system performance" and refer to the time period of system
work between two average repairs. In order to enable defining of appropriate conclusions on possibilities of increasing the availability by organizing
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maintenance actions in real conditions of exploitation on the basis of all the recorded data, the obtained data are arranged in a new way, as shown in
Table 1 and Table 2.
Time period (T) of occurrence of a failure has
been chosen in the time interval of 100 hours,
considering the periodicity of maintenance teams'
work in shifts. In other words, it turned out that the
occurrence of failures in particular time intervals
also depends on the makeup of the workgroups maintenance teams.
By x-square test, the hypothesis of normal
(Gauss) distribution of probability of failure was
verified. It was also determined that average time
between failure (failure-free operation) has a normal distribution which facilitated calculating the
restoration function (Hm). Maintenance cost estimate was performed for one preventive intervention, for both preventive maintenance based on
"Constant durability", and "constant date", taking
into account total costs for failure elimination (Cg)
and for preventive intervention (Cp) as follows:
Table 1 and 2 The data on performance of the technical system
892
Expenses caused by the
occurrence of a failure
Cq-Hm /EUR/
Toial maintena-nce costs
CD /EUR/h/
5
0.046
0.069
0.069
0.114
0.167
0.197
0.243
0.273
0.342
0.388
0.426
0.464
0.533
0.571
0.594
0.647
0.677
0.700
0.800
0.853
0.929
1.000
6
0.954
0.931
0.893
0.886
0.883
0.803
0.757
0.727
0.658
0.612
0.574
0.536
0.467
0.429
0.406
0.535
0.323
0.300.
0.200
0.147
0.071
0.000
7
0.048
0.024
0.042
0.007
0.063
0.037
0.060
0.041
0.104
0.075
0.066
0.070
0.147
0.088
0.056
0.150
0.092
0.076
0.500
0.036
1.070
2.070
8
0.046
0.115
0.222
0.336
0.503
0.700
0.943
1.216
1.558
1.946
2.372
2.836
3.369
3.940
4.534
5.181
5.858
6.558
7.358
8.211
9.140
10.140
9
5.580
11.110
27.275
27.395
32.015
32655
35.845
40.835
53.705
55.165
56.875
61.095
M.I 35
67.435
67.915
77.715
78.605
79.085
84:2 05
85.965
89.295
95.255
10
2131.20
32.82
1207.20
272.22
231.96
3640.70
11659.55
1741.11
1842.89
7223.66
6253.46
7853.83
1315.71
31065.35
3151.60
1902.74
31155.04
8720.39
174497.97
34313.09
2131.20
32.82
11
40.44
36.82
22.41
17.12
14.62
17.06
24.07
11.74
10.77
14.35
12.50
12.75
7.54
25.67
7.74
6.61
21.66
9.36
13.07
20.14
40.44
36.82
Maintenance costs with
"constant durability"
Average time between
two maintenance
interventions Top /h/
Costs caused by the
occurre-nce of a failure
CgF/R/
Costs caused by
reventive interve-ntions
Cp-R(T)
Total maintenance costs
CT /EUR/h/
Average duration time of repair
(Tpo/h/)
4
0.046
0.023
0.038
0.007
0.053
0.030
0.046
0.030
0.069
0.046
0.038
0.038
0.069
0.038
0.023
0.053
0.030
0.023
0.100
0.053
0.076
0.061
Average number of restoring
(Hm=∑F)
3
6
3
5
1
7
4
6
4
9
6
5
5
9
5
3
7
4
3
13
7
10
8
Failure intensity λ=f/R
Number of failures (Ni)
Probability of failure occurrence
(f=Ni/∑Ni)
2
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
500
1000
1100
1200
1300
1400
1500
1600
1700
1800
1900
2000
2100
2200
Maintenance
costs with
"constant date"
Reliability (R=l-F)
Period T(h)
1
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
TABLE2
Unreliability (F-∑f)
Ordinal No.
TABLE 1
12
288.50
377.80
466.40
549.70
630.00
705.70
778.40
844.20
905.40
962.80
I0I6.4
1061.10
1106.00
1146.60
II8I.9
1214.20
1244.00
1264.20
1278.13
1285.00
288.50
377.80
13
1027.20
1.14
400.80
76.61
59.77
817.36
2559.43
347.64
331.02
1181.90
981.74
1138.24
172.39
3879.43
364.69
203.15
3387.36
905.92
1773.61
338.94
1027.20
1.14
14
8930.00
8860.00
8330.00
8030.00
7570.00
7270.00
6580.00
6120.00
5740.00
5360.00
4670.00
4290.00
4060.00
3530.00
3230.00
3000.00
2000.00
1470.00
7100.00
0.00
8930.00
8860.00
15
34.51
23.48
18.72
14.75
12.11
11.46
11.74
7.66
6.71
6.44
5.66
5.11
3.83
6.46
3.04
2.64
4.33
1.88
1.94
2.63
34.51
23.48
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technics technologies education management
. ....................... (13)
...................... (14)
Maintenance costs were calculated by applying
the relations (13) and (14), and are shown in Table
2. From Table 2 and Figure 2, it can be seen that
the minimal maintenance costs (1.88 EUR/hour)
are for the operation time of 2,000 hours, and it is
for maintenance strategy based on "constant durability". For this period of time, the highest operative and total availabilities can also be calculated
by applying the patterns (5), (6), (7), and (8):
Figure 1 Diagram of Failure Intensity A and
Reliability R in the period of six months
Figure 2. Diagram of costs of preventive
maintenance based on constant date (CD) and
constant durability (CT) for six months
5. Conclusions
It is obvious that higher availability values are
obtained for the maintenance strategy based on
"constant durability" than for the maintenance
strategy based on "constant date", which confirms
again the fact that for the observed technical system, the most acceptable maintenance strategy is
the one based on "constant durability". The results arouse special interest, because the exclusive
maintenance strategy based on "constant date" has
been applied to the technical system (Agio-machine) until now. By applying Table 1 and Figure
1, it can be noticed that the failure intensity λ(T)
begins to rise sharply-after 1,800 hours of work,
and thus the system should be covered and maintenance preventive action should be carried out.
However, as maintenance costs for this period of
time are higher than the costs for the period of time
of 2,000 hours, the preventive activity is therefore
delayed until the 2,000th work hour.
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
It is common to estimate the state of a technical
system each time when preventive maintenance is
carried out. After realization of certain number of
actions in preventive maintenance and recording
them for each technical system, sufficient quantity
of information will be available for establishing
whether a technical system should be exposed to
more or less frequent maintenance actions, and
how frequently preventive maintenance should be
carried out.
The research results provide the following conclusions:
1. The better preventive maintenance is, the
better availability. The difference between
operative and total availability gives the
impact of preparation time for failure
elimination.
2. However, total availability is lower than the
operative one if maintenance organization
is improved, and it is possible for total
availability to come closer to the operative
one in value. The ultimate goal should be
operative availability
3. The applied method of obtaining availability
and total maintenance costs is suitable for
maintenance planning. Detailed comments
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technics technologies education management
of all the results have not been given in the
analysis of the given example, since the
stress has been laid on defining availability,
and the objective was to indicate to a
possible way of calculating the availability
of a complex technical system.
Corresponding Author
Zoran Cekerevac,
“Union” University Belgrade,
Faculty of industrial management,
Belgrade,
Serbia,
E-mail: zoran_cekerevac@hotmail.com
Optimizing available technical resources of a
company with minimal expenses is a fundamental
principle of contemporary business management.
It is explained as a way of obtaining maximum
time of flawless work and achieving value of every technical system. By applying the right form
of maintenance, and at the right time, significant
financial savings can be made, thus increasing
time of flawless work of a technical system.
References
1. Šubara N., Čekerevac Z., Parametars of limit conditions of railway construction elements with crack,
Krizovy manažment, No.1/2009, ISSN 1336-0019,
University of Žilina, Slovakia, 2009, p.81-86
2. Adamovic Z. Total maintenance, Novi Sad: University in Novi Sad, 2005.
3. Adamovic Z. Reliability of the machine, Novi Sad:
University in Novi Sad, 2006.
4. Kuzmin, I., Evaluation of efficiency and optimization
ASKU, Moskva: Sov. radio, 1971.
5. Anthony M. S., Reliability Centered Maintenance,
New York: McGraw-Hill, 1993.
6. Billinton, R„ Allan, R. N„ Reliability Evaluation of
Engineering Systems: Concepts and Techniques, Pitman Advanced Publishing Program, London, 1983.
7. Darter, M.I., Smith, R.E., Shahin, M.Y., Use of Life
Cycle Cost Analysis as the Basis for Determining the
Cost-Effectiveness of Maintenance and Rehabilitation Treatments for Developing a Network Level
Assignment Procedure, Proc., North American Pavement Management Conference, Toronto, Canada,
7.5-7.18, 1985.
8. Moubray, J., Reliability-centered Maintenance, 2nd
Edition, Industrial Press, New York, 1997.
9. Rausand, M., Hoyland, A., System Reliability Theory: Models, Statistical Methods, and Applications,
Wiley-IEEE, 2004.
894
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
technics technologies education management
Value added tax in Serbia and Bosnia and Herzegovina
A comparative aspect vat in Serbia and Bosnia and
Herzegovina
Ljiljana Dmitrovic Saponja1, Suncica Milutinovic1, Sasa Gravorac1, Snezana Besic2
1
2
University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Economics Subotica, Serbia,
PC “Serbian Railway”, Belgrade, Serbia.
Abstract
Value added tax (VAT) has been adopted by almost all countries with developed market economies, as well as other countries. It is an all-stage
and multiple-stage tax levied on added value, created at the given stage of turnover. What is being
taxed is only margin earned at the given stage,
whereas the VAT paid at previous stages of turnover is excluded. Serbia and Bosnia-Herzegovina
have implemented this tax model in their taxation
systems. This article will analyse the essence and
significance of VAT, the basic functioning determinants of the VAT system functioning in Serbia
and Bosnia-Herzegovina, and its fiscal features
with a focus on the comparative aspect.
Key words: value added tax, legal aspects of
VAT, fiscal framework of VAT
Introduction
Value added tax is a taxation model used in the
economic practices of developed countries for a
long time. According to some theoreticians, a limited VAT first appeared in Turkey in 1926, but only
in production sector. The first European country to
introduce VAT was France in 1948. Its implementation started in 1954, followed by introduction
by all developed market economies. This taxation
model is currently the most widely used in the
world. It is characterised by the fact that its introduction required a longer period. The preparatory
period required for its successful functioning may
last up to five years. The average length of preparatory actions for its introduction in European
countries usually did not exceed a year.
The importance of this taxation model in contemporary market condition is best illustrated b y
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
the fact that it is applied in over 120 countries, including all OECD members, except Australia and
the USA. Through the accession process, the EU
imposes the introduction of VAT as one of pre-accession obligations to transition countries, so that
this tax has acquired the status of an “EU tax”.
Opting for the introduction of this tax in Serbia
and Bosnia-Herzegovina stemmed from the fundamental advantages entailed by the VAT on the
other hand, while on the other, the introduction of
this tax resulted from the process of accession to
the EU, as one in the range of demands the EU sets
before candidate countries. The introduction and
functioning of this taxation model entails significant advantages, and certain disadvantages, which
will be the subject of subsequent considerations.
1. The essence and characteristics of the
value added tax
The value added tax (VAT) is a specific taxation model – a form of public revenue collected
at each stage of turnover cycle, imposed only on
newly generated, added value in the given stage of
turnover cycle. This is a way of avoiding taxation
of taxes, which is present in other taxation models.
The value added is the margin between the output
and input values. Calculating the VAT amount is
anything but simple, and imposes significant efforts on tax authorities, In this sense, this taxation method has developed two basic methods for
assessing the value added1 – direct and indirect.
The essence of the direct method is to establish
the amount of tax base; however, due to numerous
1 Raičević, B., Porez na dodatu vrednost – teorijski i praktični
aspekti, Ekonomski anali 160, Belgrade, Ekonomski
fakultet, March 2004, p. 112
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shortcomings, it is virtually disused, and is mostly reduced to a theoretical category. The indirect
method is more dominant in practice. Literature
often refers to this method as tax credit method, or
invoice based VAT, as it significantly reduces tax
evasion, due to the fact that both customers and
vendors are controlled by themselves, by way of
an invoice chain.
The academic and professional literature best
shows the VAT functioning system with an example illustrating the production flow of a typewriter.
Cnossen illustrates it with the following sentence:
“Following the production and distribution circle,
we start from the mine that sells iron ore to ironworks, which in turn supplies steel to manufacturers, who sell the typewriters to wholesalers, who
distributes them to retailers, one of whom sells it
to me.”2 VAT is paid at each of these stages, where
tax paid in the previous stage is deducted from the
one in the current stage. For instance, the typewriter manufacturer deducts the tax previously paid by
the ironworks, meaning that the subject of taxation is only the value added in the current stage.
The specific feature of this taxation model is reflected in the fact that the taxable persons use their
own tax return forms to submit reports to the tax
authorities – reports on paid input tax, reports on
paid output tax, and the established margin. If the
taxpayers have paid excess tax, they have the right
to tax refunds, whereas if they have paid less, they
will have to make additional payments.
The above described taxation model is characterised by the inability to differentiate between tax
rates and tax reliefs. This is due to the fact that it
is virtually impossible to differentiate between tax
rates and tax reliefs at each stage of production
and trade. The given taxation model entails two
paradoxes, as they are often referred to in literature3. The first paradox refers to the fact that the
exempt person is a taxable person as well. What
does it mean in essence? The taxable person who
is tax exempt at first sight has already paid the tax
and transferred it to his customers. The other paradox means that the taxable person is exempt at the
2 Ristić, Ž., Sejmenović J.: Fiskalna makroekonomija,
Belgrade, Liber, 2007.
3 Raičević, B: Porez na dodatu vrednost – teorijski i
praktični aspekti, Ekonomski anali 160, Belgrade,
Ekonomski fakultet, March 2004, p. 118
896
same time. The final burden of taxation is borne
by the final customer, who is in fact not a taxable
person, but bears the tax burden, due to the character of VAT as a shiftable tax, for the burden of
paying VAT is shifted to the final consumer. The
best example for this is retail.
Given that the VAT is an indirect taxation
model, it entails certain advantages and disadvantages. The main advantages of indirect taxation
models are reflected the fact that they are general
in character, payable by everyone (regardless of
their property and economic power), and the present cost-effectiveness of collection. On the other
hand, the essential shortcomings of these forms
of these taxation models, including VAT, include
their sensitivity to market trends. Another shortcoming is the possibility of abuse, in terms of excessive taxation of both private and legal persons,
which is accompanied by a degree of unfairness
and ineffectiveness. Out of these strengths and
weaknesses, the main features of indirect taxation
stemming from this model include4:
–– high elasticity of these taxation forms;
–– high extent of tax liability;
–– social injustice, as everybody is subject to
them, regardless of their financial strength;
–– high shiftability; and
–– sufficiency and abundance, for they enable
tax authorities to collect required funds for
meeeting all social needs.
2. The basic determinants of VAT system
functioning in Serbia and Bosnia and
Herzegovina
Seven years have passed since the introduction
of VAT5, which is a relevant period of time for assessment and highlighting the basic determinants
of its functioning in the taxation system of Serbia.
Looking into the internal revenue, one can conclude that VAT is the main funding source of social
needs n Serbia, together with social contributions.
Opting to adopt VAT, Serbia chose the European
VAT model, which is, among others, characterised
4 Stakić B. & Barać S.: Javne finansije, Belgrade,
Univerzitet Singidunum, Poslovni fakultet, 2009., p. 120
5 VAT was introduced into the taxation system of the
Republic of Serbia on January 1st, 2005.
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by several dominant features. First of all, it is an
expenditure-based VAT, which means that acquisition of capital goods is not subject to taxation.
VAT tax base is broadly defined and encompasses
a major part of total turnover. It is characterised by
credit model6, as stated above. As for international
trade, this tax models is levied according to expenditure place.
Viewing VAT in Serbia, one will notice that it is
based on several essential principles7:
–– the principle of self-taxation, meaning that
taxpayers calculate their own tax amount,
whereas the tax administration’s role is to
control the tax assessment and payment
process;
–– the principle of documented transaction,
meaning that VAT is levied based on invoices;
–– the principle of mutual control of taxpayers
and debtors, meaning that that the taxpayer
must have an invoice from the supplier with
stated VAT in order to deduct the previously
paid VAT; otherwise, VAT cannot be deducted
In view of the above, the question is, how does
the VAT assessment and payment system function
in Serbia? This will be illustrated by the table below.
To clarify the table, we shall take several key
concepts required for its comprehension. The input
VAT is VAT incorporated in the supplier’s invoice,
whereas the output VAT is the VAT incorporated in
the customer’s invoice. Viewing the relationship
between the input and output VAT, one can distinguish between the following two relationships:
6 The essence of the credit model is establishing tax
liabilities indirectly, as the margin between the VAT.s for
deliveries and acquisitions
7 www.ekof.bg.ac.rs/PDV u Srbiji… (accessed February
11, 2012.)
INPUT VAT < OUTPUT VAT è THE TAXPAYER IS SUBJECT TO VAT
INPUT VAT > OUTPUT VAT è THE TAXPAYER IS VAT EXEMPT (entitled to tax refunds
from the state)
Bosnia-Herzegovina opted for the expenditurebased VAT9, in total compliance with the requirements of the EU Sixth VAT Directive10. The essence of this method is taxation of sales of goods
and services according to destination or place of
consumption, and credit method is used for its
calculation. The essence of the expenditure-based
form of VAT is in deducting all capital expenditures
from the sales value, thus avoiding double taxation,
whereas the essence of the credit method is reflected in juxtaposing VAT incorporated in the invoices
issued by suppliers and customers, and the margin
between these two amounts is the basis for meeting
the liabilities to the state under this taxation model.
If the margin is positive, the taxable person pays
the tax liabilities to the state, whereas in the case
of negative margin, the taxable person is entitled to
request the refund of excess tax.
The introduction of VAT eliminated the income
tax levied at entity level from the taxation system,
and meant transition to a unified collection system at the level of Bosnia-Herzegovina. The VAT
is paid to a single account open for these purposes
at the Central Bank of B-H. The Indirect Taxation
9 VAT in Bosnia and Herzegovina (B-H) was introduced
on January 1st, 2006.
10 Directive 77/388/EEC from 1977. godine, known as the
Sixth Directive, is regarded as the “basic EU law in the
VAT area”. It sets the most important definitions and
principles of value added taxation. This Directive also
defines all the basic legal descriptions of the state of
affairs in the value added tax.
Table 1. An example of VAT calculation for imported products across stages, from the moment of import
to the moment of retail sale 8
Stages
Stage I (import)
Stage II (wholesale)
Stage III (retail)
Purchase price
(without VAT)
500
800
1000
Input VAT
90
144
180
Sales price
(without VAT)
800
1000
1400
Output VAT
Net VAT liability
144
180
252
54
36
72
8 Modified from: ibidem (accessed February 12, 2012)
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
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technics technologies education management
Authority (ITA) of Bosnia-Herzegovina is the only
body in charge of levying this taxation module.
To clarify the VAT function system in B-H, we
shall illustrate its application in the following table 2.
The basis for VAT assessment is the price not
including VAT, and then a unified VAT rate of 17%
is applied. In that case, VAT is calculated using the
formula11:
SALES PRICE WITHOUT VAT * 17%
VAT = -----------------------------------------------100
There are also possibilities for calculating VAT
based on sales prices with VAT incorporated, when
the following formula is used12:
100 * VAT RATE
VAT = ----------------------------------100 – VAT RATE
The above can be illustrated:13
Sales price without VAT is 100 convertible
marks, and sales price with incorporated VAT is
145 convertible marks. The first formula (VAT
= 100*17%/100=17) will be applied in the first
case, where the sales price including VAT is 100
+ 17 = 117 convertible marks), whereas the second formula (100*17% /100-17% = 14.53%)
will be applied in the second case. The application of this percentage on the sales value with
incorporated VAT produces the amount of VAT
(14.53%*145=21), and sales price excluding VAT
of 145 – 21 = 124 convertible marks.
11 Source: ibidem, (accessed February 12, 2012)
12 Source: ibidem, (accessed February 12, 2012)
3. The regulatory aspects of VAT in Serbia
and Bosnia and Herzegovina
Having opted to implement VAT in their taxation systems, Serbia and Bosnia and Herzegovina
had to arrange their taxation formats from the legal aspect.
Serbia regulated VAT with the Law on Value
Added Tax14 passed in 2004, so that everything
was ready from the legal aspect for introducing
this taxation model as of January 1st, 2005. This
Law has been subjected to some amendments, the
last ones being adopted in 2007.
Bosnia and Herzegovina also regulated the
VAT system with Law on Value Added Tax15, creating a legal basis for seamless introduction of
VAT into the legal system of Bosnia and Herzegovina as of January 1st, 2006. This Law has also
been subjected to some amendments, the last ones
being adopted in 2008.
To clarify the specific features of legal regulation of the VAT system in Serbia and Bosnia and
Herzegovina, the basic legislative regulations16 of
this legislative model in Serbia and Bosnia and
Herzegovina will be presented in the table below.
14 Law on Value Added Tax, The Official Gazette of RS
84/04, 86/04, 61/05 i 61/07
15 Law on Value Added Tax, The Official Gazette of B-H
09/05, 35/05 i 100/08
16 This article will present only the legislation regulating
the key issues of functioning of the VAT system in
Serbia and Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Table 2. Collection of VAT across stages of trade13
Stage
Subject
1
2
Stage I
Producer
Stage II Processor
Stage III Wholesaler
Stage IV Retailer
Total
Purchase
3
300
500
700
1500
Value Sales value
Input
Output
VAT on VAT amount
added without VAT
VAT
VAT
value added
payable
4
5=3+4
6=3*17% 7= 5*17% 8=4*17%
9=7-6
300
300
0
51
51
51
500
800
51
136
85
85
900
1400
85
238
153
153
500
1200
119
204
85
85
2200
3700
255
629
374
374
13 Modified from: http://www.uino.gov.ba/h/Porezi/PDV/Opce_informacije.html (accessed February 10, 2012)
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Table 3. Regulatory aspects of VAT in Serbia and Bosnia-Herzegovina – comparative aspect17
Legal regulations
Serbia
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Revenue from VAT
Distribution and calculation method for
the share of collected revenue under VAT
are regulated by the Law on payments, to
Belongs to the Budget of the Republic of
a unified account, and income distribution
Serbia. Regulated by the Law on Value
in compliance with criteria determined in
Added Tax
Article 21, para. 3, points 1, 2 and 3 of the
Law on Indirect taxation in Bosnia and
Herzegovina
Subject of taxation
- Delivery of commodities and provision
of services completed in the Republic
for remuneration, within regular business
activities
- Import of commodities into Serbia
- Turnover of commodities and services
which the taxable person performs
on the territory of Bosnia and
Herzegovina for remuneration, within
regular business activities
- Import of commodities into Bosnia
and Herzegovina
Taxable person
- Persons dealing in commodities in services
within their regular business activities
in their own name and for their account
(e.g. production, trade or service provision
for remuneration, exploitation of natural
resources, agriculture, forestry and other
independent professions)
- The Republic and its bodies, bodies
of territorial autonomy and local selfgovernment, and legal persons established
under the Law for the purpose of performing
the tasks of the national administration
in the case of turnover of commodities
and services outside the bodies' scope of
activities, or performing tasks outside
state administration, provided that they are
subject to taxation under the Law on VAT
- Any person performing economic
activities
independently
(e.g.
production, trade or service provision
for remuneration, exploitation of
natural resources, agriculture, forestry
and other independent professions)
- Persons in whose name and on whose
behalf the commodities are traded or
imported, or services provided
- Persons dealing in commodities
or commodities, or importing
commodities in their own names for
the account of other persons
- The state and its bodies, entity
bodies, bodies of districts and local
self-governments if they deal in
goods, services and transactions that
are competition to firms in private
ownership
Taxpayers
Under the Law on VAT, taxpayers include:
the above mentioned taxable persons, tax
representatives appointed by foreign persons
without quarters or permanent facilities,
who trade in commodities and services in
Serbia, and the recipients of commodities
and services if the above mentioned foreign
person does not appoint a representative, a
person who discloses VAT in balance sheets
or other documents serving as balance sheets,
but is not liable to pay VAT under this law, or
the person importing the commodity.
According to the Law on VAT,
taxpayers include: taxable persons, tax
representatives appointed by foreign
persons without quarters in B-H, dealing
in commodities and services in B-H,
and the recipients of commodities and
services if the above mentioned foreign
person does not appoint a representative,
a person who discloses VAT in balance
sheets, and are not obliged to calculate
and pay VAT
17 Compiled based on legislation on VAT in Serbia and Bosnia and Herzegovina
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Tax rate
Overall VAT rate for taxable turnover of
commodities and services or import of
commodities amounts to 18%. A special rate
of 8% is applied for trade in commodities and
services or import of commodities (e.g. bread
and other bakery products, milk and dairy
products, textbook and teaching materials,
daily newspapers, etc.
There is only a standard PDV rate for
taxable turnover of commodities and
services, and import of commodities into
Bosnia and Herzegovina, of 17%.
Tax
revenues,
submitting
tax
refund forms, VAT
assessment
and
payment
Taxable revenue is calculated once in a
calendar month. Persons subject to VAT have
the obligation to submit reports and pay VAT
between the 1st and 10th after the expiry of
taxable period. The amount of VAT liability
or tax refund claimable by taxable person is
the margin between the input and output VAT
calculated over the taxable period.
Taxable revenue is calculated once in a
calendar month. Persons subject to VAT
have the obligation to submit reports and
pay VAT between the 1st and 10th after the
expiry of taxable period. The amount of
VAT liability or tax refund claimable by
taxable person is the margin between the
input and output VAT calculated over the
taxable period.
4. The basic fiscal framework of Value
Added Tax
As said before, introduction of VAT, as an indirect taxation model, requires a longer period
of preparation. The necessity to complete these
preparations stems primarily from the characteristics of VAT as a taxation model, i.e. significantly
larger administrative procedures for its application
in the taxation of trade in commodities and services. To evaluate the effects of introducing VAT
in the taxation systems of Serbia and Bosnia-Herzegovina, it was necessary to complete a whole
range of preparations, so that, upon coming of this
taxation model into force, any possible difficulties caused by its introduction could be avoided.
Both countries expected from introducing this tax
model significantly higher public revenues under
VAT compared to sales tax. At this point, however,
a logical question is imposed: Has the introduction
of VAT resulted in higher tax revenues compared
to sales tax? The answer to this question is illustrated by the table below:
Studying Table 4, one notes that 3.4 bn CM was
paid under indirect taxes in B-H in 2006, whereas
revenue under these taxes after the introduction of
VAT in 2006 rose to 4.29 bn CM. This shows significant fiscal effects resulting from the introduction of VAT into the taxation system of B-H. This
statement is corroborated by data on the revenue
gained under indirect taxation for the first year of
900
application of VAT (2006) compared to the previous year (2005), with the sales tax still in force. If
these data are supported by data on revenues under
indirect taxation in 2007, one notices that the unified ITA’s account received a total amount of 5.279
bn convertible marks, which is an increase of 23%
compared to 2006 and 55% compared to 2005.
Unlike Bosnia-Herzegovina, the Republic of
Serbia implemented the value added tax a year earlier. For a more detailed illustration of the effects
of introducing VAT into the taxation system of Serbia, we shall observe a longer period, from 2000 till
2006, which is best seen in the following table 5.
Studying the table above table, one notices that
the share of indirect taxation in total tax revenues
from 2000 till 2006 showed a constant growth until 2005, while 2006 shows a decline. If, however,
we analyse the share of VAT in total tax revenue,
we shall notice a global growing trend in the share
of VAT in total tax revenue. If we observe the year
of introduction of VAT (2005) and the subsequent
year, we shall notice a significant growth in the
share of VAT in total tax revenues. A decline was
observed in 2006, but it is also notable that the
share of VAT in total tax revenue achieved in 2005
and 2006 is higher than the share of sales tax in
total tax revenues observed by years starting from
2002. This slight fall in the share of VAT in the
total tax revenues and the fall in the share of indirect taxes in total tax revenues in 2006 is notably a
consequence of reduced excises on the one hand,
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Table 4. Effects of introducing of VAT into the fiscal system of Bosnia-Herzegovina viewed on the basis
of revenues from indirect liabilities earned in 2005 and 200618
2005 – bn CM
ITA – 62%
Entities/BD –
Customs
38%
duties
Taxes on
Excises
trade in other
Taxes on
commodities
excise
commodities
Tax on
Tolls
provision of
services
1
2
2.10
1.30
2006 – bn CM
ITA – 96%
Entities /
Customs
BD – 4%
duties
Taxes in
Excises
arrears
VAT
for other
Imports
products
according to
VAT reports
Tolls
4
5
4.06
0.23
Total bn
CM
3
3.40
Total bn CM
%
6
4.29
7 (6/3)
26
Table 5. The growing trend of indirect taxation in Serbia 19
2000
Share of indirect taxes in total tax revenues
Share of VAT in total tax revenues
2001
u%
42.0
44.4
25.4
28.4
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
47.5
27.5
49.4
27.5
48.8
27.5
51.1
31.3
46.0
28.7
Table 6. Performance of VAT on the domestic market in 2005, in million dinars 20
Number of
VAT payers
0-2 mil. din
2-5 mil. din
5-10 mil. din
10-20 mil. din
20-50 mil. din
50-100 mil. din
100-500 mil. din
500-1000 mil. din
> 1000 mil. din
Total
43516
26394
18929
13270
10183
4202
4150
512
468
121624
Group
Share in
turnover
turnover (%)
Annual turnover of VAT payers
30898
0.7
57477
2.0
134598
3.0
186907
4.2
317651
7.2
294640
6.7
853900
19.3
351829
8.0
2161350
48.9
4419430
100.0
Net VAT on the
domestic market
Share in
VAT (%)
- 304
2547
3003
3816
5714
5120
12600
5665
22350
60511
- 0.5
4.2
5.0
6.3
9.4
8.5
20.8
9.4
36.9
100.0
Table 7. Trends in collected revenues from indirect taxes in B-H for the period 2006-2010 21
in million CM
VAT
Customs duties
Excises
Tolls
Total revenue from indirect taxation
18
19
20
21
2006
2349
557
861
177
3945
2007
2705
655
917
187
4464
2008
3118
651
937
189
4895
2009
2810
347
997
250
4404
2010
2915
302
1172
307
4696
Source: www.uino.gov.ba (accessed February 18, 2012)
Source: http://www.fren.org.rs/attachments/034_km7-14-lupa3-pdvusrbiji.pdf (accessed February 20, 2012)
Source: http://www.fren.org.rs/attachments/034_km7-14-lupa3-pdvusrbiji.pdf (accessed February 20, 2012)
Source: Indirect Taxation Authority, www.uino.gov.ba
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
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and growth in the direct taxes on personal earnings and profit on the other.
To gain a more complete picture on the total effects of introducing VAT into the taxation systems
of Serbia and Bosnia-Herzegovina, we shall demonstrate some basic performances of this taxation
model in the observed countries.
The basic performances of VAT as a new taxation model in the taxation system of Serbia during
the first year of its application are shown by the
table 6.
The data on the effects of introduction of VAT
into the fiscal system of Bosnia-Herzegovina is
best illustrated by trends in collected revenues
from indirect taxation in the period between 2006
and 2010 in table 7.
Having analysed the table above, one can observe that the revenues from VAT showed a constant growing trend starting from 2006, and then a
mild decline in 2009. If we analyse the other indirect taxes, we can note that, in 2009 and 2010, only
revenues from excises and tolls showed a growing trend, whereas revenues from customs duties
showed a decline, as well as revenues from VAT.
The share of VAT in totally collected indirect taxes
reaches over 50% (from 59.54$ in 2006 to 62.07
in 2010). Total revenues collected through indirect
taxes showed a growing trend over the given period, with a slight fall in 2009, which picked up as
of 2010. As for indirect taxes, the share of VAT in
those amounted over 50%, leading to an inference
that VAT is the most important indirect taxation
form in Bosnia and Herzegovina.
The table 8 shows the share of VAT in the total
tax revenue of Serbia from 2008 till January 2012.
Compared to the movements of the value added tax in the Bosnia and Herzegovina, the trends
of VAT in Serbia from 2008 till 2011 did not show
significant fluctuations. More precisely, starting
from 2008, VAT mostly showed a constant growing trend. Only in 2009 did it show a decline compared to 2008, by 4752.2 million dinars. Since
Table 8. Overview of trends of budget revenues of the Republic of Serbia 2008 – January 2012 (in million dinars) 22
BUDGET REVENUES
Tax revenues
Personal income tax
Corporate profit tax
VAT
Excises
Customs duties
Other tax revenues
Non-tax revenues
Donations and grants
2008
621,751.1
582,629.7
74,695.4
34,968.1
301,619.8
100,626.7
64,784.3
5,935.4
39,121.4
0.0
2009
624,235.2
574,480.0
71,307.9
29,494.8
296,861.6
119,820.1
48,039.8
8,955.8
44,954.5
4,800.7
2010
661,964.6
616,409.9
75,175.3
29,891.9
319,268.2
135,589.4
44,285.5
12,199.6
40,250.8
5,303.9
2011
694,255.4
646,406.4
70,285.0
34,208.6
342,367.4
152,425.2
38,804.7
8,315.6
47,849.0
0.0
January 2012
57,248.3
55,207.8
2,838.0
2,521.8
29,547.1
17,740.0
2,096.3
464.6
2,040.5
0,0
Table 9. Trends in the VAT refunds to taxpayers since its introduction on January 1st, 2006 (in convertible Bosnian Marks)23
Year
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011. (Jan. 1 – July 7)
Collected VAT
2.82 bn
3.48 bn
4.04 bn
3.56 bn
3.71 bn
-
VAT refunds
331.6 million
615.1 million
929.2 million
732.6 million
716.7 million
557.0 million
Net VAT
2.48 bn
2.87 bn
3.11 bn
2.82 bn
2.99 bn
-
22 Modified from http://www.mfin.gov.rs/UserFiles/File/tabele/2012%20februar/Tabela%202%20Budzet%2001.pdf
(accessed February 28, 2012.)
23 Source: www.capital.ba (accessed January 15, 2012.)
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2009, we have had a trend of constant growth in
collected VAT revenue. Also, like in B-H, the share
of VAT in total tax revenues exceeds 50% (in 2008
the share of VAT in total tax revenue amounted to
51.69%, and in the total revenue of the budget of
the Republic of Serbia as much 48.51%, whereas
these percentages in 2011 ranged between 52.96%
of VAT share in total tax revenue and 49.31% of
VAT share in the total revenue of the Republic of
Serbia. The given table shows that the revenue of
the budget of Serbia has had a constant growth,
as well as the share of tax revenue in total budget revenues. Only 2009 shows a declining trend
in the share of collected tax revenue in total budget revenue. In fact, any movement in revenues
achieved from VAT makes a significant impact on
total tax revenue, as their share in the latter is substantial, and moves around the level of 50%.
When observing VAT as a taxation model, one
of the significant segments of observation are the
tax refunds to taxpayers. The table below represents the achieved refunds from VAT in B-H from
its introduction in 2006 to the first half of 2011:
Analysing the given table shows a trend in
VAT refunds, starting from the introduction of this
taxation model in 2006 until July 2011. The total
VAT refund on July 18th, 2011 inclusive amounted
to 3888.2 million CM 24. VAT refunds show dynamic fluctuations (in some years, like 2007 and
2008, it had a rising trend, whereas in some, like
2009 and 2010, it showed a decline.) The given
table shows a dramatic rise in claims for VAT refunds, bearing in mind that on July 18th, 2012 the
submitted claims for VAT refunds amounted to a
stunning 557 million CM, which is as much as 107
million CM compared to the same period of the
previous year. Such trends have significant negative implications on the fiscal system of Bosnia
and Herzegovina, as such amounts result in substantial difficulties in its functioning.
Conclusion
Although value added tax features as a comparatively new taxation model in taxation systems of Serbia and Bosnia-Herzegovina, over the
24 The amount is the sum of total amounts of VAT to
taxpayers from 2006 till July 18th, 2011.
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comparatively short period of its existence in the
taxation systems of the two given countries, it has
already managed to demonstrate its strengths and
weakness, as well as the total effects on the economic systems of these countries. The practical
experiences in its functioning in the taxation systems of Serbia and Bosnia-Herzegovina have so
far shown a whole range of advantages, which are
the most obvious in significant improvements in
the functioning of the overall taxation systems of
the observed countries.
Another observed phenomenon is significant
decline of tax evasion, stemming from the characteristics of this taxation model. Furthermore, its
introduction has lead to a rise in tax revenues, as
its implementation significantly expanded the tax
base, and enabled monitoring products in all stages of reproduction, and significant reduction in the
volume of shadow economy.
The shortcomings of this taxation model include
the need for a more voluminous documentation
and overall administration related to its existence
in any taxation system, with such demands facing
primarily tax administration. Another negative side
observed in its functioning relates to its impact on
growing inflation in the observed countries.
In Serbia and Bosnia-Herzegovina, the main difference lies in the VAT rates. The Republic of Serbia maintains two tax rates – general, amounting to
18%, and special, at the level of 8%, with a tendency of change. In the context of approaching the European Union in this segment, Bosnia-Herzegovina
is at a certain advantage, given the fact that it has a
uniform VAT rat of 17%, which is in compliance
with the demands of the European Union to countries involved in the accession process
It can be said with certainty that introducing
this taxation model was accompanied by substantial difficulties, but it proved to be justified.
In the forthcoming periods, both countries should
improve legislation in this area, and incorporate
all the justified and rational demand made by the
business communities of both countries and enhance the functioning of this taxation model. The
very fact that indirect taxes, including VAT, feature as a dominant source of public revenue points
to the low economic development levels in both
countries.
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References
1. Raičević B: Porez na dodatu vrednost – teorijski in
praktični aspekti, Ekonomski anali 160, Belgrade,
Ekonomski fakultet, March 2004.
2. Ristić Ž. & Sejmenović J.: Fiskalna makroekonomija,
Belgrade, Liber, 2007.
3. Stakić B. & Barać S. Javne finansije, Belgrade, Univerzitet Singidunum, Poslovni fakultet, 2009.
4. Journal of Accountancy, Savez računovođa in revizora Srbije, Belgrade, issues 2007 – 2012.
5. Privredni savetni“, Privredni savetnik, Belgrade, issues 2007 – 2012.
6. Law on Value Added Tax, Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 84/04, 86/04, 61/05 and 61/07
7. Law on Value Added Tax, , Official Gazette of Bosnia-Herzegovina, 09/05, 35/05 and 100/08
8. www.capital.ba
9. www.ekof.bg.ac.rs
10. www.fren.org.rs
11. www.uino.gov.ba
12. www.mfin.gov.rs
Corresponding Author
Ljiljana Dmitrovic Saponja,
University of Novi Sad,
Faculty of Economics Subotica,
Serbia,
E-mail: ljiljanad@ef.uns.ac.rs
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Comparative Analysis of the Intensity of the
Induction and Assimilation Effects of the Equivalent
Geometric Structures of Graphic Reproductions
Marin Milkovic1, Nikola Mrvac2, Igor Zjakic2
1
2
University of Applied Sciences Varazdin, Croatia,
Faculty of Graphics Arts, University of Zagreb, Croatia.
Abstract
The paper analyzes the relationships and characteristics of the intensity of two related but different background visual effects (induction and
assimilation) on the example of identical geometric patterns. If we consider that these background
effects are directly determined by the characteristics of the spatial structure of the stimulus itself, it
is obvious that by choosing identical samples the
focus of the research primarily shifts on determining the impact of the choice of individual primary
colors of additive and subtractive synthesis (as the
basic design element) on the magnitude of the effect itself. Thus, for the research purposes, specific
sets of patterns were created (Munker-White grid)
that enable the intensity evaluation of both investigated effects in terms of change of perceived characteristics in relation to the physical (measured)
colorimetric values on reproductions. The study
results indicate that there are significant changes
in the intensity of the investigated effects of identical geometric structures which are determined
primarily and are dependent on the choice of color
combinations that were used in the pattern design.
Key words: induction, assimilation, effect intensity, Munker-White patterns
1. Introduction
Induction (simultaneous contrast) and assimilation (change in color appearance due to nearby
light) are two psychophysical visual effects directly associated with characteristics of the spatial
structure of the stimulus. Induction or simultaneous contrast is a visual effect that causes a shift in
color prevalence of a certain stimulus and is caused
by changing the background color [1]. In other
words, bright background causes an enhancement
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of the features of a stimulus (it induces them) so
that it seems darker. Vice versa is also true: dark
background induces the experience on its surface
(it enhances the features of the stimulus), which
makes the observed stimulus seem brighter. Induction as a phenomenon confirms in a certain
way one of the theories of human color perception of the impossibility of a uniform experience
of opposing pairs of colors (the opponent process
theory) [4]. In addition to the previously described
effect of achromatic induction based on the difference in brightness between the background and
primary stimulus (applied only with achromatic
colors) the relationships between chromatic pairs
of colors are known, which cause psychophysical
visual effect called chromatic induction. Chromatic induction is a simultaneous contrast based on
chromatic adaptation [3, 11]. If we look at pairs of
complementary colors (Figure 1), where the most
pronounced effect is that of chromatic induction,
we can notice that the blue background induces
(enhances the features) of yellow stimulus, which
is located on its surface. Cyan background induces
(enhances) the experience of red stimulus on its
surface, whereas magenta background induces the
experience of green stimulus on its surface. These
relations are valid in the opposite cases or in the
situations when the position of the primary stimuli
and backgrounds are replaced.
Josef Albers in his classic study “Interaction of
Color” from 1963 [5], examined various aspects of
induction with the purpose of teaching artists and
designers how to avoid the pitfalls of the above
mentioned visual effect in everyday practice and
how to take advantage of its benefits. The colors
of the letter “X” on the corresponding background
in Figure 2 are the same. This is evident if their
contact point in the lower part of the borders of
their background is given a more detailed look,
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although at first glance it seems that the color of
the lines that form the letter “X” corresponds to
the colors of the backgrounds of adjacent squares.
research and the explanations of the induction effect are available in texts on color perception by
these authors: Blaksle and McCourt [7], Cao, D.
[8], Monnier and Shevell [9], and Adelson [10].
Figure 3. Color perception before global chromatic induction based on the White's effect
(Cornelissen-Brenner pattern).
Figure 1. The chromatic induction effect
Figure 4. Line color perception after global
chromatic induction (chromatic assimilation)
based on the White's effect (CornelissenBrenner pattern).
Figure 2. Albers' (1963) model of the chromatic
induction
In 1991, Cornelissen and Brenner were researching the relations between chromatic induction and White's effect. Hypotheses of their studies were based on the concept that induction can
be at least partly explained by localized chromatic
adaptation [6].
By analyzing Figures 3 and 4, it is evident that
chromatic assimilation both on the left and right
backgrounds causes a shift of incidence of lightred lines in relation to the perception of the same
lines when there is no effect (white background).
In 1988, Blackwell and Buchsbaum described
certain spatial and chromatic factors that influence
the degree and size of induction. More complete
906
Crispening is a visual effect that is largely associated with induction [2]. Crispening is the effect
of increasing the perceived magnitude of the color
experience between two color stimuli that are compared, which occurs when the background which
these stimuli are compared on is very similar to the
experience of color stimuli themselves [4].
Figure 5. The crispening effect manifestation
when comparing two achromatic stimuli
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When comparing two achromatic stimuli (Figure 5) with black RTV values of 90% and 75%
on four different backgrounds, the difference between compared stimuli and the perception of a
particular stimulus are not constant but vary depending on the color of the background which the
comparison is carried out on, despite the fact that
the stimuli (their tri-stimuli values) and their interrelations in all the compared cases are identical.
Different perceptions also occur when comparing
identical relations between the stimuli with chromatic characteristics on the backgrounds that are
perceptually very similar to the stimuli [2]. If the
visual effect of crispening, which manifests itself
when comparing some of the chromatic stimuli,
includes the effect of chromatic adaptation and
chromatic induction, then we can talk about psychophysical visual effect called chromatic assimilation (global chromatic induction based on the
localized chromatic adaptation).
Figure 6. Representation of the change in color
appearance due to chromatic assimilation effect
manifestation
Font color of displayed text is identical in all
four cases - green, with the difference being that in
the last two examples thin lines of blue and red are
added to the outer contours of the letters.
The systems of differently colored parallel
lines (and of contrast) that are similar (or identical) in its shape to the classic Munker-White patterns are used daily in a variety of design solutions
[12]. However, the use of such line systems can
cause major differences in the perception of the
desired color of individual elements due to chromatic induction effect manifestation. As shown on
Figure 7 both of the blue lines systems are of the
same colorimetric values, although they are perceived differently as a brighter and a darker blue.
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Figure 7. Representation of the Munker-White
pattern
Changes in color perception in Munker-White
patterns appear primarily as a result of the geometrical structure combined with the effects of chromatic
induction (light substrate induces dark tones and they
are perceived as brighter - and vice versa) and/or assimilation (the perception of the tone of a particular
stimulus depends on the geometric shape and size of
the stimulus in relation to the geometric shape, position and size of the stimulus in the environment. In
certain cases, the influence of transparency [13] and
the mechanisms of lateral inhibition are also demonstrated - they are primarily determined by the geometrical structure of the stimulus [15].
The Munker-White patterns are basically chromatic variants of the White's patterns where the
primary geometric structure, and not the color,
determines the very existence of the effect. The
intensity of the experience is determined by the
combination of certain color pairs which cause
the chromatic induction and chromatic assimilation effects manifestations [14]. Therefore, it is
understandable that Munker-White patterns can
be created by using a variety of pairs or combinations of colors. The choice of line colors and their
relations determine the intensity of the effect, but
are not crucial for the very existence of the effect.
Given the fact that changes in color perception in
Munker-White patterns are dependant on, among
others, chromatic induction, or assimilation, it is
to assume that the intensity of the effect will increase by enhancing the contrast between selected
pairs of colors or color combinations.
2. Experimental part
2.1 Test form design
For the purposes of evaluating the intensity of
the effects of chromatic induction and assimila907
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tion, three specific groups of Munker-White patterns were created with highly contrasting pairs of
colors for evaluation of induction and two secondary and one primary color of additive synthesis for
determining the intensity of chromatic assimilation were combined. Together with the segment
for the instrumental analysis, the samples were
reproduced on the calibrated machine for digital
printing on the principle of liquid toner by using
absolute colorimetric rendering method.
Figure 8. Test form
The part for the instrumental analysis (Heidelberg PrintOpen 4-color Standard Test chart - the
upper part of Figure 8) consists of 210 fields of
different color combinations of subtractive synthesis, generated by vector graphics in increments
of 5% RTV and is intended for the spectrophotometric analysis with the purpose of determining
colorimetric values of colors.
The part for the visual evaluation is divided
into three groups of different Munker-White patterns, each with six different combinations of pairs
of colors, which makes the total of 18 patterns,
size 4x8 cm.
908
The first group of six different Munker-White
patterns is designed in a way that the colors of
the outer grid are complementary to the colors of
the inner lines, which are induced. The first three
combinations of pairs of colors are created in a
way that the outer grid is presented by the primary colors of subtractive synthesis, while the inner lines that are induced, are created with their
complementary colors of additive synthesis. The
following three combinations of pairs of colors are
created in the opposite way – the outer grid is presented by the primary colors of additive synthesis,
and inner lines that are induced are their complementary colors of subtractive synthesis.
Table 1. Color pairs combinations of the second
set of Munker-White patterns for the chromatic induction effect evaluation
Arrangement of
patterns in the
group
Colors of the
inner grid
lines
Colors of the
outer grid
lines
1
2
3
4
5
6
red
blue
green
cyan
magenta
yellow
cyan
yellow
magenta
red
green
blue
The second group of six different Munker-White
patterns is designed in a way that, besides the black
of the outer grid and the classic blue of the inner
lines (which are induced), other primary colors of
additive synthesis are used together with the primary colors of subtractive synthesis. Accordingly,
the Munker-White patterns with the color combinations presented in Table 2 are designed.
Table 2. Color pairs combinations of the first set
of Munker-White patterns for the chromatic
induction effect evaluation
Arrangemet of
patterns in the
group
Colors of the
inner grid
lines
Colors of the
outer grid
lines
1
2
3
4
5
6
red
blue
green
cyan
magenta
yellow
black
black
black
black
black
black
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Six Munker-White patterns were designed in a
way that the outer grid consists of two colors that
make (using additive or subtractive synthesis) colors of the interior lines that are assimilated (such
patterns do not have unprinted or white background). With the described principle, the Munker-White patterns with color combinations shown
in the table were obtained.
Table 3. Color pairs combinations of MunkerWhite patterns for the chromatic assimilation
effect evaluation
Arrangemet
of patterns in
the group
Colors of
the inner
grid lines
Colors of the
outer grid lines
1
red
yellow, magenta
2
blue
cyan, magenta
3
green
cyan, yellow
4
cyan
blue, green
5
magenta
red, blue
6
yellow
red, green
Since psychophysical visual effect of chromatic assimilation among other results generates
as a consequence of the global chromatic induction based on a localized chromatic adaptation, it
is evident that the selection of color combinations
in the design of the Munker-White patterns is precisely focused towards determining the intensity
of the above mentioned psychophysical effect for
the combinations of primary colors of additive and
subtractive synthesis, considering the use of certain standard rendering methods.
The test form is saved as the PDF file in CMYK
color space, and printed on the calibrated machine
for digital printing on the principle of liquid toner
(ink), with the resolution of 1200 dpi and the use of
absolute colorimetric rendering method. As a printing substrate, multiple coated glossy paper for art
printing paper was used (CIE L*a*b* values: L*=
94.4, a*= 0.2, b*= 0.2,; grammage: 175 gsm).
2.2 Instrumental Analysis
For the instrumental analysis (PrintOpen test
form), the measurement of patches using X-Rite
DTP 41 reflexive spectrophotometer was carried
out (ranging in wavelength from 390 nm to 710 nm
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of D50 light source, the increment of 10 mm and
illumination geometry 45˚/0˚). In order to increase
the statistical accuracy of the instrumental analysis,
the values of the control fields were measured on 10
printed copies of the test form. Each sample was
measured twice, after which the average values
were calculated. The average deviation in terms of
reflectance amounts to 0.5% per 10 nm wavelength
step of X-Rite DTP 41 reflexive spectrophotometer.
Etalon for the calibration was moderated by Munsell's laboratory (RIT) with an accuracy ∆E*= 0.25
for the D50 light source and angle of 2˚.
2.3 Visual evaluation
Only visual assessment aims to determine the
changes in the perception of stimulus experience
(lines that are induced or assimilated) for different
color combinations that create Munker-White's
patterns.
The fact of such evaluation is that the determination of the size of the change (i.e. deviation)
in the perception between the physically identical
patterns basically determines the value of the size
of the magnitude of the actual manifested effect chromatic induction or assimilation.
Testing was conducted at the Faculty of Graphics Arts, University of Zagreb on the sample of 18
participants, mixed (male & female) population
with an average age of 21 years. All participants
previously successfully met the criteria of the Ishihara test (24 samples) for the detection of potential
vision defection. Ambient conditions of the room
for visual evaluation were consistent with the
guidelines of ISO 3664:2009 standard. Time for
the evaluation of both processes was not limited.
The procedure of intensity evaluation of the
chromatic induction and assimilation effect for
each of the 18 White-Munker’s patterns was carried out using the simultaneous binocular reconciliation technique. With this technique of the
visual evaluation, the examined stimuli are simultaneously in the whole visual field, where the
evaluation is done with simultaneous comparison
between the surveyed samples [16].
The visual evaluation was based on the estimated differences between the stimulus of inner
lines of the Munker-White's grid with a method
which would by its classification and criteria
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match the method of constant stimuli – a random
set of different stimuli with fixed predefined values is presented to the participant. Stimulus values are selected to cover the whole potential area
of threshold of perception, so that the minimum
value of a stimulus is slightly below the expected
threshold of perception, and the highest is barely
just above the expected threshold of perception.
Aspiration is in the selection of the values that are
considered to be the closest to assessed stimulus
[17]. For the purposes of visual evaluation, an atlas with different variations of the primary colors
of additive and subtractive synthesis was created.
Each primary color was represented in the atlas
with a total of 120 of its variations. Samples of
colors in the atlas for each tested color have been
selected so as to include all the anticipated values
of the area of the tested stimulus.
ceived as the change in brightness of the primary
stimulus (lines that assimilate), and less like the
hue or saturation. Described atlas is printed on the
same substrate base with the same digital printing
machine as the examined samples. Corresponding
CIE L*a*b* values for each of the color samples
from the atlases are determined with spectrophotometric measurements (X-Rite DTP41 device).
The procedure of assessing the relations between the stimuli is based on the process of visual
detection and recognition. Each participant had
the task to perform identification of samples in the
color atlas (constant stimulus), which according to
their assessment was the most similar (or identical) to the tested sample represented with lines of
the Munker-White's grid (Figure 10).
Figure 10. The principle of visual evaluation by
using the atlas
Figure 9. The atlas used for visual evaluation
The first 26 samples of each primary color in
the atlas (Picture 9 - viewed from the left) were
designed as linearly decreasing values of brightness (HSB color model) in increments of 3%
(ranging from 100% to 22%). The last four fields
of each color are not defined by values of brightness, but as linear falling raster values in increments of 5% (ranging from 95% to 80% halftone
values). In other words, each primary color of the
variations of 30 different samples was given in
variations of 30 different samples (26 + 4). The
reason for the design of atlas with described characteristics in the field will be comprehensible if
the created Munker-White's patterns (Figure 7) are
observed in detail. It is evident that the changes
in color appearance caused by chromatic induction or assimilation in the given samples are per910
Assigning the reference sample from the color atlas (implemented for both systems of innner
lines with respect to the background and surrounding) to the tested sample, perceived colorimetric
values are joined (CIE L*a*b* sizes). If, after conducting visual evaluation from the relevant associated colorimetric values threedimensional geometric color difference - ∆E*ab (between Ya and Yb
patches – Figure 10) is calculated, the deviation of
differences in the color perception that is caused
by the chromatic assimilation effect manifestation
will be gained. Color differences can be expressed
by the formulas [18]:
DE ∗ab =
( DL ) + ( Da ) + ( Db )
∗
2
∗
2
∗
2
...........................
(1)
DL∗ = L0 - L1 , Da∗ = a0 - a1 , Db∗ = b0 - b1
where L0, a0 and b0 physical values of perceived
colour on the test sample, and L1, a1 i and b1 represent the physical values of the reference colour.
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3. Results
Based on the results of spectrophotometric
measurements, after the implementation of statistical analysis of the obtained values, the reference
colorimetric values L*, a*, b* of certain primary
colors and additive subtractive synthesis are determined (Table 4). These values represent a reference in respect of which on the basis of results obtained in the visual evaluation the values of colorimetric differences between certain colors, or the
shift in color perception caused by the intensity of
the effect, are calculated (Tables 5, 6 and 7).
Table 4. Reference physical values (CIE L*a*b*)
of primary stimuli of the Munker-White's patterns
measured on reproductions
Color of the stimuli
red
blue
green
cyan
magenta
yellow
CIE L*a*b* values
L*
a*
b*
51
61
34
49
-2
-39
73
-42
40
78
-26
-16
61
30
-25
85
-13
65
Table 7. Chromatic assimilation effect intensity
shown by the colorimetric color difference for the
„third” group of samples
Arrangemet
of patterns
in the group
1
2
3
4
5
6
Colors of
Colors of the
the inner
DE*ab
outer grid lines
grid lines
red
yellow, magenta 4.03
blue
cyan, magenta
3.89
green
cyan, yellow
2.93
cyan
blue, green
1.80
magenta
red, blue
2.57
yellow
red, green
1.55
4. Discussion and conclusions
Research results (Tables 5, 6 and 7) indicate that
there is a difference in the intensity of the manifested
effect, depending on the color of the primary stimulus (inner lines), and the color of the outer lines (as
well as the background color) of the Munker-White
grid, which at the same time determines the type of
the effect (induction or assimilation).
Table 5. Chromatic induction effect intensity shown
by the colorimetric color difference for the “first”
group of samples (complementary pairs of colors)
Arrangemet
of patterns
in the group
1
2
3
4
5
6
Colors of
the inner
grid lines
red
blue
green
cyan
magenta
yellow
Colors of
the outer
grid lines
cyan
yellow
magenta
red
green
blue
DE*ab
7.38
7.17
6.01
6.30
7.07
7.23
Table 6. Chromatic induction effect intensity shown
by the colorimetric color difference for the
“second” group of samples (black outer grid lines)
Arrangemet of
patterns in the
group
1
2
3
4
5
6
Colors of
the inner
grid lines
red
blue
green
cyan
magenta
yellow
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Colors of
the outer
grid lines
black
black
black
black
black
black
DE*ab
7.62
7.39
6.96
6.51
7.62
7.49
Figure 11. Effect magnitude depending on the
colored caracteristics of the primary stimulus
From these results, it is evident that the greatest magnitude (the change in the perception of the
primary stimulus) is achieved by the effect of chromatic induction on Munker-White patterns that are
created in a way that the outer lines were black. Intensity values of the effect of the patternss, depending on the color of the primary stimulus, range from
6.51 to 7.62 (expressed through ∆E*ab).
Slightly weaker intensity of the effect of chromatic induction was obtained on the patterns that
are created in such a way that the outer grid color
is made of complementary colors in relation to the
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primary stimulus. These values of the effect intensity
are expressed through ∆E*ab (depending on the color
of the primary stimulus) and range from 6.01 to 7.38.
As it was noted in section 2.1. (Test form design), the opposite pairs of colors are selected precisely because the contrast among the colors listed
is the most intense. For this reason, it was expected that the maximum values of the chromatic
induction effect magnitude would be the most expressive and highest, with these types of patterns.
However, as it can be clearly noted from the results presented in Figure 11, that is not the case:
greater effect magnitudes were found in patterns
that were made with black outer lines. The values
of the effect magnitudes of the patterns made with
black outer lines, though slight, however, in all
tested primary stimuli are higher, with the value of
∆E*ab cca. 0.5 to 1, when compared to the patterns
created with complementary pairs of primary colors of additive and subtractive synthesis.
Compared with the effect of induction, the effect
of assimilation on identical Munker-White patterns
had, in terms of changes in the perception of primary stimuli, significantly smaller magnitudes ((∆E*ab
values of 1.55 to 4.03), which represents 50% to
almost 400% lower magnitude of the chromatic assimilation effect in relation to the induction.
If we analyze achieved effect magnitudes depending on the color of the primary stimuli (Figure 11), it is evident that there is an iterative pattern which can be noticed with the colors of additive synthesis, with all three types of MunkerWhite patterns; the greatest effects intensity (of
both induction and assimilation) is realized by the
red, then blue and finally green. Unlike the colors of additive synthesis (RGB), with the colors of
subtractive synthesis (CMY) the abovementioned
iteration is not expressed.
Considering the impact of the primary stimuli
colors further, especially if we look in more details
the results obtained by evaluating the effect of assimilation (Table 7), it is noticeable that in all tested stimuli higher values of the effect were found
in the group of basic colors of additive synthesis
(∆E*ab values of 2.93 to 4.03) compared to the basic colors of subtractive synthesis (∆E*ab values
of 1.55 to 2.57). For both investigated effects of
induction (Tables 5 and 6), the indicated regularity
was not perceivable.
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Generally, the results give a clear picture of
the induction and assimilation effects magnitudes,
which undeniably leads to conclusion that the induction intensity of the tested identical geometric
structures is always of noticeably higher magnitudes than the effect of assimilation. Moreover, an
important influence that colored characteristics of
the primary stimuli (in accordance with the previously described characteristics) have on the magnitude of the tested effects was detected.
References
1. Milkovic, M.; Bolanca S.; Mrvac N.; Zjakic I.; The
influence of standard rendering methods on the manifested intensity of the chromatic induction effect. //
Technical gazette. Volume 13, Number 1, 2., / P. Raos
(ed.) / ISSN 1330-3651, UDC/UDK 655.224/225 :
535.645., 2006. pages 5-13.
2. Milkovic M.; Mrvac N; Vusic D.; Vizualna
pishofizika i dizajn, Veleuciliste u Varazdinu,
ISBN:978-953-95000-2-1, Varazdin, 2010.
3. Brown R.O., MacLeod D.I.A., Color Appearance Depends on the Variance of Surround Colors, Current
Biology 7, Elsevier Inc., London, UK, 1997.
4. Fairchild M.D., Color Appearance Models, Second
Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Cichester,UK, 2005
5. Albers J., Interaction of Color, Yale University Press,
New Haven, 1963.
6. Brenner E., Cornelissen F.W., Spatial interactions in
color vision depend on distances between boundaries, Naturwissenschaften 78, Springer-Verlag, 1991.
7. Blakeslee B., McCourt M.E., A multiscale spatial
filtering account of the White effect, simultaneous
brightness contrast and grating induction, Vision Research 39, Elsevier Inc., London, UK, 1999.
8. Cao D., Chromatic assimilation, Ph.D. Thesis, Universty of Chicago, Chicago, 2003.
9. Monnier P., Shevell S.K., Chromatic induction from
S-cone patterns, Vision Research 44, Elsevier Inc.,
London, UK, 2004.
10. Adelson E.H., Lightness Perception and Lightness
Illusions, New Cognitive Neurosciences, 2nd ed.,
MIT Press, 2000.
11. Da Pos O., Bressan P., Chromatic induction in neon
colour spreading, Vision Research,Vol. 43, Elsevier
Inc., London, UK, 2003.
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12. Milkovic, M.; Mrvac, N.; Bolanca S., Evaluation of
the Chromatic Induction Intensity on Munker-White
Samples, DAAAM International Scientific Book
2008 / Katalinic, B. (ed.). Viena : DAAAM International, 2008. pages 485-498.
13. Yung-Chun Lin; Chien-Chung Chen, Evidence for
common mechanisms subserving chromatic assimilation and Munker-White effect, 10.1167/7.9.456 Journal of Vision June 30, 2007 vol. 7 no. 9 article 456
14. Yazdanbakhsh A.; Arabzadeh E.; Babadi B.; Fazl
A., Munker-White-like illusions without T-junctions,
Perception, 2002., volume 31, pages 711 – 715
15. Li A.; Tavantzis M-J.; Yazdanbakhsk A., Lightness
of Munker-White illusion and Simultaneous-Contrast illusion:Establishing an ordinal lightness relation among minimum and split-frame presentations,
Review of Psychology,2009, Vol. 16, No. 1, 3-8
16. Braun K.M., Fairchild M.D., Alessi, Viewing Techniques for Cross-Media Image Comparisons, Color
Resarch and Application, 21th ed., Wiley InterScience, New York,1996.
17. Kling J.W., Riggs L.A., Experimental Psychology,
Holt, Reinhart & Winston, New York, 1971.
18. Wyszecki G., Stiles W.S., Color Science: Concepts
and Methods, Quantitative Data and Formulas, Second Edition, Wiley-Classics Library, New York, 2000.
Corresponding author
Marin Milkovic,
University of Applied Science Varazdin,
Croatia,
E-mail: dekan@velv.hr
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
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Thermoelastic stress analysis based on
infrared thermography
Zvonko Damnjanovic¹, Dragan Mancic2, Predrag Dasic3, Dragoljub Lazarevic4, Radoje Pantovic1
¹ Technical Faculty in Bor, University of Belgrade, Serbia,
2
Faculty of Electronic Engineering, University of Niš, Serbia,
3
SaTCIP ltd., Vrnjačka Banja, Serbia,
4
University of Niš, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Niš, Serbia.
Abstract
A new concept of visual and virtual instrumentation based on infrared analysis of thermoelastic
stress is presented in this paper. The parts of the
construction where the highest tension occur are
determined by the thermal analysis. It is predicted
by installing devices for measure the level of strain
suffered by excavator construction. Combining
thermal imaging techniques with measurements using a measuring tape tension, the great benefit in
maintaining these structures can be achieved. Thermal imaging analysis gives a general picture of the
distribution of tension. Examined the structure on
which the measuring tape to measure the intensity
and possible direction of tension action. The TSA
also helps to make a numerical analysis faster and
in a predictable manner, without need for extensive
iterative investigations, what reduces both time and
costs. In this paper are shown results of thermal
analysis wheel excavator construction.
Key words: computer, digital image, TSA
Software, Thermoelastic stress analysis, Measurement, Infrared thermography, Structural health
monitoring, Thermoelasticity.
1. Introduction
Concept of thermoelastic stress analysis based
on infrared thermografy and stress-pattern analysis by thermal emission is presented. This technique uses computer enhancement of infrared
detection of very small temperature changes in
order to produce digital output related to stress at
a point on the surface of a structure, a stress graph
along a line on the surface, or a full-field isopachic
stress map of the surface. Under cyclic loading, at
a frequency high enough to assure that any heat
transfer due to stress gradients is insignificant,
914
the thermoelastic effect produces a temperature
change proportional to the change in the sum of
the principal stresses. Although calibration corrections must be made for use at widely differing
ambient temperatures, the technique works over
a wide range of temperatures and on a variety of
structural materials including metals, wood, concrete, and plain and reinforced plastics[1], [2].
1.1. Thermoelastic stress analysis (TSA)
measurement principle
Explanation of the thermoelastic effect, measurement principle, history and applications can
be found in [3]. Thermoelasticity is based on the
thermoelastic effect, i.e. every substance (solid,
liquid or gas) changes its temperature if volume
changes due to external loading. For an homogeneous solid material, if no heat exchange take
places (i.e. the loading is sufficiently quick) the
temperature change ΔT can be related to the stress
by the following equation (1) [3], proposed the
first time by Lord Kelvin in Encyclopaedia Britannica 9th edn. In 1878:
DT =
T a (Ds 1 + Ds 2 )
.................... (1)
Cp r
where Ds 1 + Ds 2 represents the sum of the
stress time fluctuation in two perpendicular directions on the specimen surface (i.e. the first stress
invariant time fluctuations), a is thermal expansion coefficient, T is absolute temperature of the
component, ρ denotes density and CP coresponds
to specific heat at constant pressure.
In order to apply this measurement principle
to detect stress maps, it is therefore necessary
to measure a spatial distribution of temperature
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changes. In order to have a non contact stress
measurement technique temperature changes can
be measured without contact on the surface on a
loaded mechanical component by a differential
thermocamera. Typically temperature fluctuations
are measured synchronous with a reference signal, related to the loading cycle of the mechanical
component. The data processing is performed by
the lock-in technique, that mix the output signal
from the infrared detector with a reference signal
related to the dynamic loading.
1.2. The reference thermoelastic stress measurement system
The DeltaTherm Thermoelastic Stress measurement system has also found wide application.
Damage evolution and the assessment of structural integrity for both engineering materials and
components is the most frequent use. Like the
GFP, the DeltaTherm can be used on a wide range
of materials.
The DeltaTherm system is based on thermoelasticity. Simply stated, when a solid body is
stressed it gets slightly hotter or slightly colder.
Hotter when it's in compression and colder when
it's in tension. That's Thermoelasticity! With DeltaTherm, very sensitive infrared cameras are mated with special high-speed digital electronics to
measure the slight temperature perturbations. The
result is a full-field stress map in just seconds [4].
2. Experimental part
2.1. Used equipment for testing
For recording and analysis of SchRs 800 wheel
excavators construction to a open pit "Drmno"
was used infrared camera ThermaCAMTM E2,
FLIR producer (Figure1 and Figure 2). The basic
characteristics are:
–– Measuring temperature range from 20°C to
250°C,
–– Thermal sensitivity 0,12°C at 25°C,
–– Spectral range 7,5 to 13 μm,
–– Detector type Focal Plane Array (FPA),
–– Uncooled microbolometer 160 x 120 pixels.
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Figure 1. Used IR camera
Figure 2. Dimension of FLIR E2 camera used in
this research
2.2. Results and discussion
Wheel excavator is product of O&K firm from
Germanys. It belongs to a group of compact excavators (the German classification of group A). Excavator is installed during 1994. And 1995. when
it has started to work. Excavator is designed for
coal exploitation and is currently working on second BTU system.
During the work are recorded numerous deficiencies and problems in the work that are otherwise typical for this type of excavator, and are related primarily to the large installed power (power
mining) in relation to construction, the introduction
of excessive force through the hydraulic cylinder in
the zone of the rotating bearing, bad diagonal layout and too much tension in the construction.
The subject for research of tension was frame
and foremast shown in figure 9. Recording tension in this research was done by thermal imaging camera, a screening analysis for determining
the place of strengthening and setting up sensors
to control. This frame was reconstructed software
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package Image Pro Plus v6, a tension extrapolation is made using a mathematical model who is
described. Corrections are done for the surface
emissivity and reflection, as well as air extinction.
The results are shown in figure 7.
Tensions are divided into three groups, low
(green), intermediate (blue) and high (red). Thermal imaging techniques can not to define bulkiness of tension in this case, but it has been used
for accurate determination of loaded areas and
their sharing of tension. By measuring the tension
of the selected points by other techniques, allows
you to define the values of the measurements by
thermography (figure 3 – 6).
a)
b)
Figure 3. The right part of the frame, base: a)
the unloaded, b) loaded, right position
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a)
b)
Figure 4. Rig recorded at different speeds of
work
a)
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b)
Figure 5. Bollard of frame recorded during higher speed of excavator
Figure 7. Tension distribution modeled based on
the recorded thermograms
a)
Bearing in mind this tension during operation,
the arrangement of measuring tape (rosettes) in
order to obtain relevant data on the size of the tension and monitoring of behavior during the exploitation of the frame is shown in Figure 8 and 9.
3. Conclusion
b)
Figure 6. Above part of frame recorded during
higher
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A joint measurement concept Thermoelastic
Stress measurement system from an extended infrared and digital image correlation technique has
been presented. One of the advantages of the presented procedure, in addition to the greatly simplified experimental test set-up, is the fact that the
relevant thermo-mechanical fields are directly
evaluated into a finite element mesh, and hence
the interface with numerical simulations aiming
at identification does not involve any unwanted
loss of accuracy in unnecessary projection steps
for the comparison. Combining thermal imaging
techniques with measurements using a measuring
tape tension can lead to great benefit in maintaining these structures. The proposed procedure of
non-destructive analysis provides good basis for
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a wide range of investigations and eliminates, or
reduces, the need of expensive destructive tests.
The TSA also helps to make a numerical analysis
faster and predictable, without need for extensive
iterative investigations, what reduces both time
and costs.
Figure 9. Positions of rosettes for recording
value of tension
Figure 8. Positions of rosettes for recording
value of tension
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6. Z. Damnjanović, N. Štrbac, R. Pantović, Z. Stojković, Numerical methods in termal testing of building
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Conference „Research and Development in Mechanical Industry“ RaDMI 2011, 15-18.09.2011., Sokobanja, Serbia, p. 472-480
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sr-id 253649927
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Stojanović, G. 2010, "Primena termovizije pri merenju energetske efikasnosti u građevinarstvu", Energetske tehnologije, vol. 7, no. 2, pp. 9-15.
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Letellier, Infrared microbolometer sensors and their
application in automotive safety, Advanced Microsystems for Automotive Applications 2003, Springer
Berlin Heidelberg , Isbn: 978-3-540-76988-0, p.
137- 157, 2003 Doi: 10.1007/978-3-540-769880_13 http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-769880_13
16. Damnjanović, Z., Štrbac, N., Mihajlović, I., &
Stojanović, G. (2010). Primena termovizije pri merenju energetske efikasnosti u građevinarstvu. Energetske tehnologije, 7(2), 9-15.
17. Z. Stević, Z. Damnjanović, V. Nikolić, M. RajčićVujasinović ,Termovizija u elektro energetskim i
ndustrijskim postrojenjima, CD SEFIC 2005. Dubrovnik
18. Standard for Infrared Inspection of Building Envelopes2008 http://www.infraspection.com/
19. Dašić, P.: Approximation of cutting tool wear function using polynomial regression equation. Journal
of Research and Development in Mechanical Industry (JRaDMI), Vol. 3, Issue 3 (2011), str. 171-180.
20. Radosavljević, S. & Radosavljević, M.: Redesign
technical systems in coal mine. Journal of Research
and Development in Mechanical Industry (JRaDMI), Vol. 1, Issue 1 (2009), str. 30-40.
21. Šerifi, V.; Dašić, P.; Ćurćić, S. & Stojković, Z.: Algorithm approach of the implementation of investment building project with the analysis of optimal
choice of construction assignment. Technics Technologies Education Management (TTEM), Vol. 7,
No. 1 (2012), pp.305-308.
22. Damjanović, Z.; Mančić, D.; Kostadinović, Ð.:
Infrared thermography for building inspection.
Economics Management Information Technology (EMIT), Vol. 1, No. 1 (2012), p. 68-73. UDK:
691.6:502.171 ID:190792972
11. Otto, S.P. and Day, T. 2007 A Biologists Guide
to Mathematical Modelling in Ecology and
Evolution,Princeton University Press, 3 Market
Place, Woodstock, Oxfordshire, OX20 1SY
23. Web site: www.infratec.de/thermographie
12. Turchin, P. 2003. Complex Population Dynamics,
Princeton University Press, 3 Market Place, Woodstock, Oxfordshire, OX20 1SY.
26. Web site: www.infraredsolutions.com
13. K. Chrzanowski, R. Matyszkiel, Software package
for uncertainty calculations of temperature measurements with thermal cameras, Military University of Technology, Inst. of Optoelectronics, 00-908
Warsaw, Poland, kchrza@wat.waw.pl
14. Petrović, D., Damnjanović, Z., Djenadić, D.,
Pantović, R., Milić, V. (2010) Computing use modern equipement and tools to reduce the occurrence
accidents in mining systems – Rudarski Radovi –
Mining Engineering no.2 – 2010, p. 35-40.
24. Web site: www.infraredmechanical.com
25. Web site: www.flirthermography.com/
27. Web site: www.InfraTec.co.uk
Correspoding Author
Zvonko Damnjanovic,
Technical Faculty in Bor,
University of Belgrade,
Serbia,
E-mail: zdamnjanovic@tf.bor.ac.rs
15. Jovanić, P., Damnjanović, Z., Petrović, D. (2010)
Thermal analisis of SCHRS 800 continuous excavator construction frame on open pit Drmno.
Proceedings of 10th International Conference ″Research and Development in Mechanical Industry″
RaDMI 2010, 16 - 19. September 2010, Donji Milanovac, Serbia, p. 600 – 609.
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
919
technics technologies education management
Improvement of spa tourism in the Republic
of Serbia as a pattern of positive impact on
ecology and regional development
Srdjan Nikezic1, Milosav Djordjevic2, Dragan Bataveljic3
1
2
3
Faculty of Science, Kragujevac, Serbia,
High Technical School, Kragujevac, Serbia,
Faculty of Law, Kragujevac, Serbia.
Abstract
This paper shows the basic benchmarking
analysis from the standpoint of competitive comparison, which is used as external comparison,
because subjects are compared to the similar of
the same configurations. In the specific case, it is
about the analysis of the competitiveness of domestic spa tourism and possibility of international
business in current and future frameworks of tourist offer. Benchmarking is a technique of learning
on other people’s experiences and it represents a
powerful insrument for the improvement of competitive advantage of domestic spa tourist offer
and its inclusion in the flows of global economy.
A solution for the improvement of business can
be the implementation of foreign experiences and
improvement of knowledge in the function of
business quality improvement and achievement of
competitive advantage.
Key words: spa tourism in the Republic of
Serbia, tourist offers, development perspectives,
incentive measures, regional development and environmental protection, benchmarking.
1. Introduction
Tourism as a phenomenon of the 20th, and certainly of the 21st century, absolutely has global
proportions. Spa tourism as a special phenomenon
in the form of the need for a healthy life, treatment and recovery from certain illnesses is, to a
greater or smaller extent, developed in almost every tourist-oriented country in the world. Acording to the estimation of world’s analysts in tourist
movements, about 3.7 billion people decided to
go on some of the forms of tourist trips each year
920
[1]. Today, in the most developed countries in the
world, service sector, which includes tourism, employs more than 80% of total employment. Tourist
offer of Serbia has obtained the Strategy of tourism
development for ten-year period in 2005. In the
last twenty years, Serbia as tourist destination was
mostly out of the international competition, which
is also evidenced by modest results of tourist offer.
At the same time, there have occcurred some huge
changes in the global tourist market, which have
partially bypassed Serbia, because it didn’t adjust
its tourist offer to global trends, and particularly
health spa tourism [2]. Therefore, Serbia needs a
dramatic improvement of the competitiveness of
tourist spa offer, and in accordance with desired
positioning in tourist market.
The most significant problem of spa tourist
offer in Serbia is inadequate use of knowledge,
experiences and efficiency of management and,
therefore, tourist economy needs innovative management that will design and define postulates of
business on new, efficient bases. It is necessary
to adjust the business with market requirements,
global changes and latest management concepts,
respecting all foreign experiences, particularly of
neighbouring countries with the same type of offer. In addition, it is necessary to perform benchmarking analysis of the current situation in domestic spa tourist offer in relation to neighbouring
countries. The role of benchmarking is to point
to the wider public to the place where we are and
which capacities and human resources should be
implemented in the function of competitiveness
improvement.
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2. General qualifications of the Republic of
Serbia as tourist destination
Although Serbia owns a diverse attraction
structure, it is not followed by an adequate profile
of tourist products. Namely, within all key tourist
attractions, initial offers were formed before some
20 or more years. The inherited tourist suprastructure is mostly created for the needs of domestic
tourist market, and especially social, youth and
children’s tourism. This is explained by the fact
that at the time of former Yugoslavia main focus
of tourist development was on Adriatic tourism.
The main current tourism products that are also
followed by national statistics of Serbia are spas
with climate resorts, mountains and administrative
centres.
Changes that characterize the end of the 20th
and the beginning of the 21st century have intensified the requirements of tourists and management
that deals with the quality of spa hotels, i.e. hotels
in general, to form appropriate standards. The first
quality standard ISO 9000 was dedicated to quality: separately to production and separately to services. In addition, the application of international
standards of Environmental Protection Management ISO 14000 is very important for the hotels,
as significant pollutants of the sensitive environment [3].
Based on the data from October 2003, it was
possible to perform partial segmentation of domestic tourist demand and construct the profile
of domestic guest towards the two characteristic
tourist products of Serbia. It is about the following
tourist products: spas and mountains.
Profile of a spa guest, according to the above
mentioned tourist indicators, is the following:
–– Dominant people above the age of 50,
–– Elementary education prevails,
–– Lower and medium payment category,
–– Somewhat more men than women,
–– Tendency to complimentary accomodation
prevails,
–– Of those in hotels, 3* hotels are preferred,
–– Mostly organize the trip by themselves,
–– Choose destination on the recommendation
of a friend or use personal experience,
–– Spend more than 7 days in destination,
–– Use full board service,
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
–– Mostly travel alone (or accompanied by
spouse) and
–– Low additional consumption [4].
–– This research points to a few exceptionally
important characteristics of spa tourists:
–– Expressed high cognitive interest for spas in
Serbia and its values,
–– Spa users have a better opinion about spa
product after the departure, then prior to the
arival and
–– Findings about main spa attributes in Serbia
as a destination are highly correlated with
the findings of some other researches done
for foreign spa destinations.
3. Evaluation of the competitiveness of spa
tourism in Serbia
According to previous results of privatization
[5], through auction privatization, until the end of
August 2005, 71 tourist company was successfully privatized, where the income of 44.3 million
euros was achieved.
The Republic of Serbia as a continental country
with numerous spa resorts needs to pay attention
to social protection of population, particularly older, with the assumption of retaining certain accomodation capacities in state ownership that would
be refunded through social or pension insurance.
In addition, the exchange of users of spa capacities
through social and pension insurances of neighbouring countries, particularly former Yugoslavia,
should be provided [6].
Chances of the Republic of Serbia in relation to
global movements from above-mentioned eleven
products are in all domains except the „sun and
sea” tourism, whose share in teh last thirty years is
reduced in global tourism by more than 50% [7].
All key trends in the field of changing the profile
of future tourists are also favourable for Serbia. It
is particularly about the trends towards independent, technologically consecrated visitors in the
quest for authentic experiences, as well as active
tourists interested for culture and natural resources
of destinations to which they travel.
921
technics technologies education management
Figure 1. Pyramyd of competitiveness for the
development of spa tourism
4. Benchmarking analysis of spa tourism
Benchmarking process implies the application of four phases: planning, realization, control
(analysis) and adaptation and implementation [8].
In order to apply benchmarking application
model [9], the following is necessary:
–– Development of central information system
through which all interested persons can be
directly introduced to benefits of spa tourism
and offer in Serbia,
–– Setting the overall spa offer of a destination
on the Internet, including the possibility of
direct reservation of all programmes,
–– Ensure food safety and service quality as a
condition for the achievement of competitiveness [10] and
–– Cooperation with specialized tour operators,
through the inclusion of offer into catalogues
and brochures.
5. Evaluation and priorities of Serbian
health tourism
Based on performed analysis of competitiveness and benchmarking, and respecting thus the
movements on global tourism market, trends in
using leisure time and the existing resource basis
of Serbia, it can be determined that the development of spa tourism is particularly interesting for
Serbia in this moment of global crisis.
The presented concept of the development of spa
tourism has direct implications on regional aspect
of tourism development in Serbia. Namely, those
regions that would have the greatest chances (potentials) to develop and commercialize so-called
922
„quick win” products would logically be the ones to
develop most rapidly in the first step. These regions
would have a role of the driver of tourism development of Serbia, where positive effects of realized
tourist traffic in such regions would be expanding
and opening developmental space to regions that
today, objectively, have the smallest chances for
rapid commercialization of its products.
Number of spas and quality of waters which their
business is based on certainly represents great developmental potential and capital of Serbia for the
future. This is, as a rule, related to significant investments in product for the internationalization of overall business, which can occur in short period due to
the existance of quality destination management.
In accordance with the above mentioned, and
in order to attract the interest of international demand with the product of health tourism of Serbia,
it is necessary to market-reposition today’s product of spas (resorts). That will be possible only
through significant investments in production
infra and suprastructure. Therefore, it is obvious
that this product is not yet ready for international
commercialization, but it is to be developed in the
following period in a way that will gradually eliminate today’s „bottlenecks”. Therefore, the first
step should be centralization of decision-making
about all significant issues of health tourism.
Serbia has quality management that is integrated in eco-management system and environmental
protection, which is particularly important for respecting the standards of environmental management EMS ISO 14000 [11]. In addition, Serbia is
a great manufacturer of quality food for the needs
of diverse spa users with respecting food safety
management standard ISO 22000 [12].
6. Competitiveness as a strategy of spa
tourism of Serbia
Serbia was so far oriented only on domestic market, where quality of health service was
stressed primarily, and very little the quality of accomodation, catering and entertainment offer. Because of that, this product cannot currently meet
the quality standards and requirements of selective
international market.
However, although this product is increasingly
becoming popular and widespread in international
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technics technologies education management
market, its luxury element is particularly emphasized. Therefore, it is certain that without very high
investments in overall tourist offer of spas, Serbia
has relatively limited growth potential in global
market. For that reason, it is necessary to choose
the focusing strategy. Markets of a few powerful
countries (Germany, Italy, France, Austria and
Scandinavia) are particularly important because,
due to liberalization of health services within united Europe, strong positions of private health insurances in those countries and particularly high costs
of health treatment in those countries, it will come
to market movement to oher acceptable countries.
This model was applied by Hungary, particularly
in the phase of opening towards global market and
that not only in post-traumatic rehabilitation but
also in the treatments in other areas [13].
For successful international commercialization
of spa destinations, a critical step is movement
from previous way of operation of spa resorts
with the support of the Ministry of Health. The
establishment of a unique system of managing
resource basis of destination is necessary ("destination management"). Primarily, it is necessary to
form a special "Organization" in the form of competitive club that will take care and decide about
key issues of spas development and health tourism
products. This «Organization» should establish efficient business cooperation with all stakeholders.
Starting from the number and structure of overnights in health tourism of Serbia in 2004, and
with given assumptions in the paper, in 2015 Serbia could realize 3.150.000 overnights.
7. Tourist traffic in the Republic of Serbia
in 2010
At the beginning of each year, Republican Bureau of Statistics prepares and announces both appropriate statistical data and analysis about tourist
traffic in the Republic of Serbia. The same was
this year when in the end of January, annual report
was announced to public about this year’s (for the
period January-December 2010) tourist traffic in
our country, from which we have taken and partially analyzed particular data and tables [14, 15].
According to this overview, in the observed
period in Serbia there were 2.000.597 tourists
(1% less in relation to the period January-December 2009), of which number the domestic are
1.317.916 ( – 4 %), which makes 66 % of the total
number of guests, and foreign 682.681 (+ 6 %),
i.e. 34 % of the total number of guests. Only in
spas, in previous year, there were 344.967 tourists
(-4%), of which 319.953 were domestic (- 4%) and
25.014 foreign (+ 3%) guests, which is 17,24% of
the total number of previous-year tourists in our
country. Shown in table 3, it looks like this.
If we observe the overnights of domestic and
foreign tourists by the types of tourist places and
in selected tourist places, in the report mentioned,
we can see that in hotels and other accomodation
facilities in Serbia, there were 6,413.515 overnights (5% less in relation to January-December
2009), of which domestic tourists have made
4,961.359 overnights (6% less), which makes
77% of the total number of overnights, and foreign 1,452.156 (1 % less), which makes 23% of
the total number of overnights. Therefore, in spas,
there were 2.210.710 overnights (-3%), of which
2.106.273 overnights (-4%) were made by domestic and 104.437 overnights (+8%) by foreign
tourists, which in total number of overnights represents 34,47%. Table about the number of made
overnights in the previous year is the following
(table 4).
Of the selected tourist sites, according to the
number of overnights, domestic tourists (in the period January-December 2010) have mostly been in
Vrnjačka Banja -514.324 (9 % less than in period
Table 3. Number of tourists per types of tourist places 2010/2009.
Republic of Serbia
Main administrative centres
Spas
Mountains
Other tourist places
Other places
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
Total
2,000.597
682.076
344.967
376.648
514.967
81.939
%
-1%
+3%
-4%
-3%
-2%
-4%
Domestic guests
1,317.916
246.458
319.953
334.351
360.863
56.291
%
-4%
-3%
-4%
-4%
-3%
-9%
Foreign guests
682.681
435.618
25.014
42.297
154.104
25.648
%
+6%
+7%
+3%
+9%
+2%
+8%
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technics technologies education management
Table 4. Overnights by the types of tourist places 2010/2009.
Republic of Serbia
Main administrative centres
Spas
Mountains
Other tourist places
Other places
Total
6,413.515
1,298.184
2,210.710
1,466.907
1,230.151
207.563
%
-5%
-4%
-3%
- 12 %
-2%
+3%
January-December 2009), then Zlatibor, Belgrade,
Sokobanja, etc. Of all spas, significant number of
overnights were achieved in Sokobanja – 290.575,
Niška Banja – 208.772, Banja Koviljača – 167.208,
Gornja Trepča – 104.689 overnights and others,
which can be seen from the following table:
Table 5. Overnights domestic tourist in selected
tourist places 2010/2009.
Selected places
Vrnjačka Banja
Zlatibor
Belgrade
Sokobanja
Kopaonik
Niška Banja
Banja Koviljača
Tara
Divčibare
Gornja Trepča
overnights of domestic
%
tourists 2010/2009.
514.324
-9%
352.538
+2%
339.301
-9%
290.575
-8%
210.032
- 28 %
208.772
-1%
167.208
+20 %
147.270
-5%
114.397
- 15 %
104.689
-1%
It is interesting that in the last year from European and non-European countries, the greatest
number of overnights in our country was made by
tourists from Bosnia and Herzegovina - 147.569
overnights (for 7 % less in comparison with 2009.),
and it is followed by tourists from Montenegro,
Slovenia, Croatia, Germany and other countries,
which in a table look like this (table 6).
Indeed, in the following years, such observed
parameters (as well as manz others), at least in tourism, and particularly in spa and climate places and
resorts and they should be significantly greater.
924
Domestic guests
4,961.359
407.482
2,106.273
1,337.776
950.724
159.104
%
-6%
-7%
-4%
- 14 %
-1%
+2%
Foreign guests
1,452.156
890.702
104.437
129.131
279.427
48.459
%
-1%
-2%
+8%
+3%
-4%
+3%
Table 6. Overnights of foreign tourists by the countries 2010/2009.
Countries
Bosnia & Herzegovina
Montenegro
Slovenia
Croatia
Germany
Italy
Russia
Macedonia
Romania
Greece
Overnights of
foreign tourists
2010/2009.
147.569
120.774
114.471
89.693
84.203
80.980
62.583
59.751
47.068
46.284
%
-6%
-5%
+ 19 %
+ 12 %
+3%
-2%
+5%
+4%
-1%
-5%
Conclusion
Starting the tourist offer in Serbia and particularly spa tourism and its competitiveness in this
moment requires a lot of efforts and creation of
strong management with leadership position who
strongly believe in what they do and they are willing to perform deep structural changes and introduction of a new way of working in this sector. This
also requires that the environment accepts new behavior style and also to adjust to changes and according to the experiences of developed countries
with affirmation of own specificities. Efficient and
effective implementation of all measures that will
improve tourism as a branch of industry and particularly spa tourism that can give the best results
in the short-period, with direct participation of the
state through appropriate ministries and government agencies, will provide adequate competitive
position in the environment in the future and partnership on equal basis.
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technics technologies education management
References
1. Liu A., Wall G.: Planning tourism employment - A
developing country perspective. Tourism Management, (2006), Vol. 27. No. 1, pp. 159-170.
2. Yang L., Wall G.: Ethnic tourism - A framework and
an application. Tourism Management, (2009), Vol.
30. No. 4, pp. 559-570.
3. Cole S.: A logistic tourism model. Resort Cycles,
Globalization, and Chaos. Annals of Tourism Research, (2009), Vol. 36. No. 4, pp. 689-714.
4. Diedrich A., Garcia-Buades E.: Local perceptions of
tourism as indicators of destination decline. Tourism
Management, (2009), Vol. 30 No. 4, pp. 512-521.
5. Song H., Kim J.H., Yang S.: Confidence intervals for
tourism demand elasticity. Annals of Tourism Research, (2010), Vol. 37 No. 2, pp. 377-396.
6. Strickland-Munro J.K., Allison H.E., Moore S.A.:
Using resilience concepts to investigate the impacts
of protected area tourism on communities. Annals of
Tourism Research, (2010), Vol. 37 No. 2, pp. 499-519.
7. Peeters P., Dubois G.: Tourism travel under climate
change mitigation constraints. Journal of Transport
Geography, (2010), Vol. 18 No. 3, pp. 447-457.
8. Hjalager A.-M.: A review of innovation research in
tourism. Tourism Management, Vol. 31 No. 1, pp. 1-12.
9. Susanne K, Ariane W. c, Mattia W.: How can tourism use land more efficiently? Tourism Management,
(2011) Vol. 32, No. 3, June 2011, pp 629-640.
10. Matarrita-Cascante D.: Beyond growth. Reaching
tourism-led development. Annals of Tourism Research, (2010), Vol. 37 No. 4, pp. 1141-1163.
11. Ristović, I., Stojaković, M., Vulić, M.: Recultivation
and Sustainable Development of Coal Mining in
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(2010) pp. 759-772.
Correspoding Autor
Srdjan Nikezic,
Faculty of Science,
Kragujevac,
Serbia,
E-mail: srdjan_nikezic@yahoo.com
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
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technics technologies education management
Research of vitamin D3 influence on the
growth and compact bone density measured
by morphometric indices
Ago Omerbasic1, Damir Secic1, Amir Denjalic2, Rifat Sejdinovic2, Denis Mackic3
1
2
3
Medical Faculty, Sarajevo University, Bosnia and Herzegovina,
General Hospital Tesanj, Bosnia and Herzegovina,
General Hospital „Primarijus Dr. Abdulah Nakas“ Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Abstract
This paper investigated the dependence of density and cortical bone growth on different doses of
vitamin D over a long time period. The development of a bone was followedby Exton-Smith, Garn
and Barnett-Nordin morphometric indices. The
results clearly shown that vitamin D has a positive
effect on bone density as well as its volume, which
is expressed through the morphometric indices,
and that deficiency of vitamin D reduces bone
density and its volume. In this study we reach the
conclusion that the Exton-Smith morphometric
index provides more complete information on the
volume in function of bone growth and vitamin
D in relation to other indices, primarily because
it also includes as a parameter length of the bone.
Key words: density of cortical bone, morphometric indices, vitamin D
Introduction
For the process of bone mineralization it is necessary, in addition to sufficient amounts of calcium and phosphate to provide sufficient quantity of
vitamin D to maintain control of calcium concentration, which is then incorporated into the bone.
Lack of vitamin D leads to disruption of normal
bone mineralization process, resulting in a change
of physical properties of the bone tissue. Although
bone tissue exists in two forms (compact and
spongious) we will be restricted to a compact tissue foe which can be said to have almost equal
density along the bone. In spongious bone density
depends strongly on the position of the sample and
topographic position in the bones of the skeleton.
Based on these facts we have the opportunity to
talk about the density of cortical bone as a con926
stant parameter in a time interval, which is subject
to measure and characterize a given bone.
Bone tissue is a composite biomaterial composed of two components: collagen and hydroxyapatite. Hydroxyapatite is a crystalline structure,
its crystals are very hard and rigid (Young’s
modulus of elongation of 165 GPa). The second
component, collagen type I, is the most common
protein in the body, has a fibrous structure, it is
made of collagen fibers and the fibers themselves
are made bundles of even thinner collagen fibers.
Tangent modulus of elasticity of bone components
is 1.24 GPa. Modulus of elasticity of bone is between these two components with experimentally
obtained values of 18 GPa.
Our idea is as follows: by programmed action
of vitamin D on the calcium incorporation into
bone tissue to change bone microstructure, structure of the crystal grid of hydroxyapatite bone
component, and thus lead to changes in mechanical properties, density and bone volume.
To form the normal crystal structure of the hydroxyapatite bone tissue component, in addition
to calcium, it is necessary to provide the sufficient
amount of vitamin D, which is indispensable biocatalyst for chemical reactions in the body and which
provides a normal incorporation of calcium in the
crystal grid. Providing sufficient amounts of vitamin
D to a group of experimental animals we should
achieve normal bone mineralization. The mechanical properties of bone in this group will have the
expected value. Another group of experimental
animals will have vitamin D deficient food and we
expect that this will disrupt the normal calcification
of bone and lead to defects in the crystal grid and hydroxyapatite component. The occurrence of defects
on micro level will alter the mechanical properties
of bone as a whole in macro level.
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technics technologies education management
In this way we will get a solid connection between the mechanical properties of bone and its
microstructure changes induced by different doses of vitamin D. As organism grows changes the
amount of bone tissue, so it is necessary to monitor
this change in the function of bone microstructure
and time. We used morphometric methods to determine the amount of compact bone tissue in order to
monitor the change in the amount of compact bone
tissue on vitamin D, and time using a morphometric
index (Barnett-Nordin, Garn and Exton-Smith). By
precise determination bone samples mass and volume of experimental animals the density was determined by standard Archimedes method.
Because of its primary role to support the human body, bones are constantly exposed to stress.
If we place a bone under load stresses and strains
will appear in it. If we want to examine the physical properties of bone tissue we must determine
the relationship between stress and strain, orto attribute specific physical properties to bone tissue
as a continuous, deformable environment.
It was experimentally found that a higher load
leads to greater stress, but it also increases the
strain from which we conclude that the strain ( s ik )
and bone deformity ( e ik ) are mutually dependent:
(
)
s ik = f e ik ,
(
e ik =φ s ik
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
Aik ,mn are the components of the tensor coefficient of elasticity for anisotropic material.
In dense long bones of experimental animals, the
physical properties in the plane of cross section of
the bone can be considered as equivalent for all directions in that plane, but significantly different from
the physical properties in the direction normal to the
cross section plane. This is a class of transversely
isotropic materials, which includes dense bone.
Symmetry of coefficients is determined by the
transverse isotropy of the material and the relationship between Poisson’s ratios which simplifies
the system of equations representing the relationship of stress and strain (1):
1
υ
υ¢
sx- sy- sz
E
E
E¢
υ
1
υ¢
e y =- s x + s y - s z
E
E
E¢
υ ¢¢
υ ¢¢
1
e z =- s x - s y + s z
E
E
E¢
ex =
g
)
Furthermore it was found that the deformation
of bones has feedback, or that after the cessation
of the causes bone deformation, it assumes its
original shape. It was also found that the relationship between stress and deformation of bone, in
good approximation, is linear, or that the bone is
Hooke’s body for which applies Hooke’s law of
elasticity. If we want to examine the mechanical
properties of compact bone, we must look for a
link between stress and strain for anisotropic material, or write Hooke’s law for anisotropic elastic materials. Hooke’s law gives the relationship
between stress and strain of the physical system (
s = Ee ) and its tensor form, in the case of anisotropic materials is:
e i k = Ai k , m n s m n
Indexes i , k , m, n have the values:
i , k , m, n =1, 2, 3
yz
=
g xz =
g xy =
Where:
G=
τ yz
G¢
τ xz
G¢
τ xy
G
E
- shear modulus in the plane of
2(1 + υ )
isotropy;
G ¢ -shear modulus in the direction vertical to
the plane of isotropy;
E -Modulus of elasticity in the plane of isotropy;
E ¢ - Modulus of elasticity in the vertical direction to the plane of isotropy;
υ - Poisson’s ratio, which is characterized by
shortening in the plane of isotropy in case of tension in that plane;
υ ¢ - Poisson’s ratio, which is characterized by
shortening of the plane of isotropy in case tension
in the vertical direction to the plane of isotropy;
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υ ¢¢ - Poisson’s ratio, which is characterized by
shortening in the direction vertical to the plane of
isotropy in case of tension in the plane of isotropy.
From these equations we can conclude that for
the orthotropic material the number of mutually
independent constants is 9 and that it is for transversely isotropic body reduced to 5 mutually independent physical constants. For isotropic materials the number of mutually independent physical
constants is reduced to 2.
From these equations it is possible to conclude
that the physical constants in a complex manner
dependent on the direction of their presentation.
The study of physical constants (here primarily
stresses and strains) is particularly difficult because the dynamics of bone tissue. Because of the
constant remodeling of the bone, bone structure
changes, which affect the change of its physical
parameters. For the compact bone was found (2)
that the modulus of elasticity change when changing the bone mineral content (e.g. calcium). The
changes are very rapid: for the change of bone
mineral content of about 4% the elastic modulus
change can reach 100%. If the modulus of elasticity of bone changes, also changes the value of other physical constants and this leads to a complete
change of the bone physical properties including
bone volume and density.
Material and methods
Dense bone tissue of long bones, which is the
subject of our study, originates from enchondral
ossification. The process of bone mineralization requires normal levels of calcium and phosphate in
the blood plasma, and the whole process is dependent on vitamin D, which is indispensable biocatalyst. Vitamin D in the bones mobilizes calcium and
thus facilitates its incorporation into bone tissue, so
we have explored in this paper how vitamin D will
affect the torsional stiffness of long dense bones.
As experimental animals we used a rabbits of
crossed Belgian giant breed, both sexes, purchased
at age of 24-26 weeks. Rabbits were housed in separate cages, separated by a wire partition in order
to avoid inconsistency in the need for vitamins and
minerals because of the potential pregnant females.
928
We formed groups of rabbits by the method of random selection: the first group consisted of 12 rabbits which had a standard regimen of nutrition and
it was the control group (K). Another group of 12
rabbits received increased programmed doses of vitamin D in the diet (group +D3). The third group of
12 rabbits had a food deficient in vitamin D (Group
C). Within each group, we selected three subgroups
that had four rabbits. In this way we can monitor
the time dependence of certain doses of vitamin
D on bone torsional rigidity. According to a subgroup within each group are sacrificed after three
months, then six months and the remaining after
nine months. All groups were in the same conditions, so the only difference between them was the
vitamin D treatment. Vitamin D was applied in the
form of D3 drops that produce Pliva from Zagreb.
Rabbits in the control group were given 900 IU,
and another group of rabbits (+D3) 1800 IU per
kilogram of food. This caused reinforced calcification of bone tissue while avoiding pathological
hypervitaminosis D. The third group (-D3) has not
received vitamin D in food, and its deficit has led
to pathological changes in bone tissue, insufficient
and incomplete ossification, which is reflected in
the density of bones and morphometric indices.
Bone samples were immediately after sacrifice
of animals and removal of soft tissue, inserted in
the buffering of formalin fixative in which they
can be kept without any aging.
Morphometry is a simple method by which
from the geometric properties of bone can be calculated the amount of compact bone tissue. Depending on the geometric characteristics that are
measured we have different morphometry indicators called morphometric indices and which estimate the change in volume of compact bone tissue. Frequently used are the following three morphometric indices:
1. BarnettNordin morphometric index:
I BN =
X1 + X 2
D
2. Garn
IG =
morphometric
2
D -d
d
=1-
2
D
D
3. ExtonI ES
2
Smith
D2 - d 2
=
D⋅L
2
morphometric
index:
index:
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D - Diameter of long bones in the middle of the
diaphysis
d - Diameter of the hollow long bone in the
middle of the diaphysis
X 1 i X 2 - Wall thickness of the long tubular
bone in the middle of the diaphysis
L - Length of the long tubular bone
very good approximation of a circular shape. By
cutting the bone normal to the axis of the bone, we
got small bones hollow rollers in which the outer
and inner diameter is constant (due to the small
amount of rolls that is a good approximation). The
volume of these cylinders is:
V =π
D2
d2
πL 2
L -π
L=
D - d2)
(
4
4
4
And the density of bones:
r=
-1
m 4m 2
=
D - d2)
(
V πL
Results
Cortical bone density almost does not depend on
the position of the sample, and by aging is changing slightly (mostly 6-7%), and this gives us the
ability to determine bone density in general, with
small variations that are functions of age and bone
type. Our bone samples on cross-section were, in
We determined morphometric indices for
groups of rabbits which had different treatments
with vitamin D over a long period of time, and
consequently the different microstructure of bone
tissue. For each group, a subgroup of rabbits (4
rabbits) is sacrificed after 3 months, a second
subgroup (4 rabbits) after 6 months and the third
subgroup (4 rabbits) after 9 months. Measurement
results are presented in tables and charts.
Table 1. Example of table for results from the K subgroup of rabbits
L ( cm )
D ( cm )
d ( cm )
X 1 ( cm )
X 2 ( cm )
I BN
IG
I ES
11.85
11.47
10.98
11.73
11.13
10.88
11.66
11.59
0.61
0.72
0.68
0.70
0.63
0.71
0.69
0.59
0.46
0.54
0.49
0.50
0.46
0.54
0.47
0.37
0.08
0.09
0.10
0.10
0.09
0.08
0.12
0.11
0.07
0.09
0.09
0.10
0,08
0.09
0,10
0.11
0.246
0.250
0.279
0.286
0.270
0.240
0,312
0.373
0.431
0.438
0.481
0.490
0.467
0.422
0.536
0.607
0.022
0.028
0.030
0.029
0.026
0.028
0.032
0.031
I BN = 0.282;
I G =0.484;
I ES =0.028
Table 2. Barnett-Nordin morphometric index measured at different time periods
Time dependence of Barnett-Nordin morphometric index
+D3 group
K- control group
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I BN
I BN
I BN
(after3 months)
0.282
0.167
(after 6 months)
0.288
0.239
(after 9 months)
0.328
0.292
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Table 3. Exton-Smith’s morphometric index measured at different time periods
Time dependence of Exton-Smith’s morphometric index
+ D3 group
K- control group
I ES
I ES
I ES
(after 3 months)
0.028
0.021
(after 6 months)
0.029
0.027
(after 9 months)
0.030
0.029
Table 4. Garn morphometric index measured at different time periods
Time dependence of Garn morphometric index
+D3group
K- control group
IG
IG
IG
(after 3 months)
0.484
0.313
(after 6 months)
0.497
0.420
(after 9 months)
0.547
0.497
Table 5. Cortical bone density in different groups of rabbits as a function of time
r3 months
r9 months
( kg m )
( kg m )
( kg m )
K0
+D3
-D3
2087
2272
2260
2192
2333
1783
2287
2656
1381
-3
The measured mass and dimensions of the
bone samples are included in the formula for the
density and we obtain data for bone density in different groups of rabbits as a function of time as
shown in Table 5.
Discussion and Conclusions
Research in the field of biomechanics undoubtedly shows a strong relationship between the structure of bones and their function. However, the impact of changes in bone structure on the physical
properties is not fully understood. This is a complex
relationship of forces acting on the bone, making it
difficult to simulate the real situation in laboratory
research. Therefore, establishing a solid relation between the physical parameters and structure of the
bones is of great importance. Because ultimately it
lead to the establishment of a comprehensive theory. In our study we followed the change of volume
of compact bone as a function of changes in the microstructure of bone tissue.
Microstructure of bone was changed by influence of vitamin D, and thus affect the incorporation of calcium, and by that the volume and den930
r6 months
Group
-3
-3
sity of bones. Increase in bone mass is monitored
through the nine-month period determining morphometric indices and bone density. The research
results (presented in tables and charts) clearly
show that experimental animals which received
higher doses of vitamin D3 in the diet over a long
period, have increased bone mass gain, which is
reflected in the growth of morphometric indices.
Charts 1, 2 and 3 shows the time-dependence of
Barnett-Nordin (1), Garn (2) and Exton-Smith’s
(3) morphometric indices and it is evident that all
morphometric indices have a tendency to increase,
which is expected because the bone grow and its
volume increases.
In a group of test animals that were treated
with increased doses of vitamin D3, is visible in
the charts faster growth and the curve has a higher
slope, which means that vitamin D3 led to a rapid
increase in the volume of bone tissue.
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Chart 1. Barnett-Nordin morphometric index for
the control group (BN k) and the group treated
with vitamin D3 (BND3)
density decreases over time. A control group of rabbits, which had a normal diet, with the usual doses
of vitamin D3 had a bone tissue with normal formed
Haversian systems, clearly differentiated lamellae
and visible osteocytes (Photo 1). Higher doses of vitamin D3 lead to stimulated osteogenesis, the rapid
formation of the new young bone tissue (Photo 2).
A deficit of vitamin D3, over a longer period, has
led to the creation of defects in the bone crystal grid,
which is manifested as incomplete formed bone lamellae in the Haversian system (Photo 3).
Chart 2. Garn morphometric index for the control group (G k) and the group treated with vitamin D3 (G D3)
Chart 4. Dependence of bone density on the time
vitamin D intake
Chart 3. Exton-Smith morphometric index for
the control group (ES k) and the group treated
with vitamin D3 (ES D3)
The density of bone tissue in the control group
remained, by good approximation, constant (Chart
4), which is to be expected because the normal diet
of experimental animals leads to the equilibrium in
ossification dynamics, and there is an equilibrium
between the formation of a new, young bone tissue
and the extinction of the old so the bone density is
constant. Higher doses of vitamin D3 leads to faster
bones calcification, vitamin D provide a better integration of calcium into the crystal structure of bone
hydroxyapatite component and the bone density is
higher (on Chart 4 shown in red dashed line). Since
vitamin D3 is essential for the proper integration
of calcium in bone tissue, the deficit of vitamin D3
in the diet of animals for a longer period of time
will lead to irregular calcification, poor integration
of calcium and reduced bone density. The Chart4
shows that the groups of rabbits that had a diet deficient in vitamin D3 have a lower density and that the
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
Photo 1
Photo 2
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Corresponding Author
Ago Omerbasic,
Medical Faculty,
University of Sarajevo,
Bosnia and Herzegovina,
E-mail: ago.omerbasic@mf.unsa.ba
Photo 3
References
1. Muftić O. Mehanika živih sustava. Tehnička enciklopedija svezak 8, JLZ Zagreb :255-70.
2. Currey JD, Brear K, Zioupos P. The Efects of Ageing and Changes in Mineral Content in Degrading
the Toughness of Human Femora. J Biomechanics
1996;29(3):257-60.
3. Lipson SF, Katz JL. The Relationship Between Elastic Properties and Microstructure of Bovine Cortical
Bone. J Biomechanics 1984;17(4):231-40.
4. Cheng S, Tylavsky F, Kroger H et al. Association of Low 25-hydroxyvitamin D Concentrations
with Elevated Parathyroid Hormone Concentrations and Low Cortical Bone Density in Early Pubertal and Prepubertal Finnish Girls. Am J Clin
Nutr2003;78:485-92
5. Marshall D, Johnell O, Wedel H. Meta-analysis
of How Well Measures of Bone Mineral Density
Predict Occurrence of Osteoporotic Fractures.
BMJ1996;312:1254-9
6. Zhu K, Zhang Q, Foo LH et al. Growth, Bone Mass,
and Vitamin D status of Chinese Adolescent Girls 3 y
after Withdrawal of Milk Supplementation. Am J Clin
Nutr2006;83:714-21.
7. Ovesen L, Brot C, Jakobsen J. Food contents and
biological activity of 25-hydroxyvitamin D: a Vitamin
D Metabolite to be Reckoned with? Ann Nutr Metab
2003;47:107-13
8. Jackson RD, LaCroix AZ, Gass M et al. Calcium
plus vitamin D supplementation and the risk of fractures. N Engl J Med 2006;354:669-83.
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An Approach to Including Uncertainty Information
in the Design Process Decision Making
Mirko Djapic1, Ljubomir Lukic1, Elma Elfic Zukorlic2, Veda Kilibarda2
1
2
University of Kragujevac, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering Kraljevo, Serbia,
International University Novi Pazar, Serbia.
Abstract
The paper presents a new approach to uncertain
evidence integration in the design process decision
making. The approach is based on a constant evaluation of design solutions based on evidence (information, knowledge) from two independent knowledge sources. Therefore, a mechanism was created
(the coefficient of relative decrease of uncertainty)
to measure the consensus of thus related evidences.
The basis of this approach lies in the Dempster - Shafer belief function theory which is used
for the mathematical representation of uncertain
evidences and the generalization of the concept of
entropy applied to set theory.
Key words: Design process, Uncertain evidence, D-S belief function theory, Belief function
entropy
1. Introduction
The basic requirements for the new generation
of computer integrated manufacturing systems are:
–– Decreasing the time of new product
development
–– Decrease in the life time of products
–– Increased product complexity
–– Increased number of product variants
In order to satisfy these requirements, enterprises have to modify their organization, production methods and generally their approach to the
product development.
The product development process is a set of
activities and its related resources, through which
team of designers develops or selects means for
achieving a certain goal under strictly defined conditions and restrictions. The transformations are
carried out by designer’s work, using his knowledge, tools, working methods and other available
resources. One aspect here that should be emphaVolume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
sized as important is that engineering design is
very creative human activity in which decisions
are being made, information and knowledge are
being processed, and moreover in which you
learn, acquire new knowledge and experiences.
And finally, through this activity the products,
processes and systems are being made as a result
of previously expressed needs.
The generally accepted opinion of researchers
and practitioners involved in improving engineering design is that those are still not well studied and
understood activities, either in education, research
or everyday practice [1-5]. Engineering project has
great uncertainty[6]. Its complexity, emergency and
uncertainty lead to a complicated system engineering of decision-making process [7]. As confirmation of this, there has been mentioned over-reliance
on experience during work or work without proper
tools which would guide designers throughout
entire process. During development the designer
makes decisions in conditions of full uncertainty,
contradiction, and not having enough knowledge
about the matter. Whether and to which extent are
those decisions right? How much do they affect on
customer’s satisfaction? These are just some of the
issues that designers face every day. Their openness
is higher with development process being in early
conceptual stages [1-5].
This points to the fact that product development
is becoming a bottleneck in the new generation of
manufacturing systems. Therefore, it is necessary
to provide new tools that will decrease the product
development time and at the same time increase
the quality of design solutions.
By following these guidelines, the paper presents a new approach to product development decision making which enables the use of (1) subjective and/or incomplete knowledge acquired from
the domain experts and (2) incomplete and/or unconfirmed data from the standpoint of the probability theory.
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This approach is based on the Dempster - Shafer of belief functions theory (mathematical theory
of evidence) [8] and the generalization of the concept of entropy applied to the set theory [9].
2. The Dempster-Shafer belief function
theory (The Mathematical Theory of
Evidence)
Making conclusions (reasoning) about certain
situation from the real world is often in difficult circumstances with insufficient knowledge, no clearly
defined criteria and mutual antagonism. Information
about evidence can come from different resources:
based on a person’s experience, from signals recorded by appropriate sensors, from the contents (the
context) of published papers and so on. Such evidence are rarely clearly delimited; it’s often incomplete, ambiguous in its meaning and full of flaws.
Uncertain evidence is not easily represented by
a logical formalism. The use of classical probability methods requires entirely complete evidence,
i.e., approximately correct specification of probability parameters which implies statistical data on
a large number of cases or experiments. Since we
are not always able to satisfy these conditions due
to various reasons, we turn to different solutions.
Dempster-Shafer belief function theory provides powerful tools for mathematical presentation of the subjective (opposite of what probability theory is based on) uncertainty while it relies
mainly on possibility of explicit definition of
ignorance [8]. This theory is intuitively adapted
formalism for reasoning below uncertainty limit.
It, actually, represents the generalization of Bayesian theory of conditional probability. As such, it
provides formally consistent method for interpretation and connection of evidence, which inside
itself carries some degree of uncertainty, and in
addition, provides getting meaningful answers to
posed questions using only partial evidence. Complete records can be used only in necessary cases.
2.1 The basic concepts of Demspster-Shafer
belief functions
Model of the belief function consists of variables, their values and the evidence, which supports
the value of variables. Variables represent specific
934
questions regarding the aspect of the problem under
consideration. Given questions are answered using
data originating from various sources, i.e., from
context of published papers, from measurement
data, from expert opinions, etc. Fully integrated
support to the sought answer is called evidence.
Evidence can be represented by belief functions, which are defined as follows:
Definition.1. [10] Let Θ be a finite nonempty
set called the frame of discernment, or simply the
frame. Mapping Bel: 2Θ→[0,1] is called the (unnormalized) belief function if and only if a basic belief
assignment (bba) m: 2Θ→[0,1] exists, such that:
å m( A) = 1 .................................... (1)
A⊂ Q
Bel ( A) =
å m( B) ............................ (2)
B ⊂ A, B ≠ ∅
Bel (∅) = 0 ......................................(3)
Expression m(A) can be viewed as the measure
of belief which corresponds to subset A and takes
values from this set.
Condition (1) means that one’s entire belief,
supported by evidence, can take the maximum
value 1, and condition (3) refers to the fact that
one’s belief, corresponding to an empty set, must
be equal to 0.
Value Bel(A) represents the overall belief corresponding to the set A and all of its subsets.
Each subset A such that m(A)>0 is called a focal element.
The empty belief function is the function which
satisfies m(Θ)=1, and m(A)=0 for all subsets of
A≠Θ. This function represents total ignorance
about the problem under consideration.
2.2 Dempster rule of combining belief
functions
Let the several independent belief function be
given on the same recognition frame but with different bodies of evidence. The Dempster’s combination rule (Figure 1) (Equation 4 and 5) produces
new belief function which represents effect resulting from the connection of the different bodies of
evidence.
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3. Using Uncertain Evidence in the Design
Process
3.1 Problem specification
Figure 1. Graphics illustration using Dempsters rule
Let us assume that the belief functions Bel1 and
Bel2 are created on Θ frame. Let A1,...,Ak, k<2|Θ|
be the focal elements of function Bel1 with corresponding m – values m1(Ai) for i=1,...,k; and let
B1,...,Bj, j<2|Θ| be focal elements of function Bel2
with corresponding m-values m2(Bi) for i=1,...,j.
Combination of these two functions is denoted
as Bel1 Bel2 and its focal elements are C1,...,Cm
with corresponding m-values m3(Ck) for k=1,...,m,
created in the following way:
m3 (C k ) = K å m1 ( Ai )m2 ( B j ) ............. (4)
A ∩ iB, j =C
i j k
where K represents a normalization factor
-1
K = 1 - å m1 ( Ai )m2 ( B j ) ................. (5)
A ∩iB, j =∅
i
j
The normalization factor K is greater than 1
whenever Bel1 and Bel2 contain a part of mass of
some belief that correspond to the subjective probability for the decoupled (contradictory) subsets of
Q. In fact, K represents the conflict measure of the
two belief functions.
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
Designers create design solutions based on
their intuition, experience and insight into existing solutions or insight into data which assist them
in deciding for the right version. The information
can have various sources, earlier design solutions, analyses, calculations and/or experience of
relevant domain experts. There is a problem here
how to include such evidence into the design process, i.e., how to enable the designers to exploit
it in their work. Another problem is related to the
above - how to use in this way included evidence
in the design process to make relevant conclusions
on the subject whether the proposed design solution is satisfactory or not.
The answer to the first question is given by the
Dempster-Shafer theory or Theory of belief function
which enables that any evidence can be expressed
mathematically through a set of belief functions.
For the solution of the second problem, this
papers presents an approach based on the generalization of the concept of entropy applied to the set
theory, i.e., on the belief entropy as a measure of the
belief uncertainty emitted by a knowledge source.
The approach is based on the combination pre
and post consensus knowledge source entropy
Equation (8) and Equation (9) which are given in
[9]. In the [1] is partial given how this equations
can be used to developed mechanism to measuring quality of product designer decision. In this
paper is presented completed analysis which show
how is determined this mechanism.
3.2 Determining coefficient of relative decrease uncertainty
The evidence of a knowledge source is expressed
by belief functions. Also, it is possible to determine
the value of its belief entropy. In order to assess a
problem, it is not enough to hear an opinion i.e.,
to use evidence from just one knowledge source.
At least one more knowledge source with particular
belief is needed to confirm the statement.
Now we have two independent knowledge
sources and the evidence from both of them sup935
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ports the possible answers to questions related to
the problem we are trying to solve. It is possible
to determine the belief entropy of these jointly observed knowledge sources (pre-consensus state).
The belief function theory enables i.e., Dempster’s
rule enables us to combine the evidence from both
knowledge sources expressed by the belief function and in this way obtain a new belief function
for which it is also possible to determine the belief
entropy (post-consensus state).
In order to find a solution for the second problem it is necessary to define a coefficient to quantify the decrease of uncertainty (confusion) in
someone’s belief who is seeking an answer to the
question X and has the information coming from
both sources. In [1] is definite requirements for the
coefficient which have to be without dimensional
measure, monotonously ascending and its value is
between 0 and 1. It named the coefficient of relative decrease of uncertainty. It is described further on how this coefficient was defined.
3.2.1 Measuring the Consensus of Evidence
from Two Independent Knowledge
Sources
Let us assume that variable X represents a question regarding a problem. Let Θ(X) represent the
frame of discernment i.e., the set of all possible values of X. 2Θ is the set of all subset of Θ, i.e., the set
of all possible answers to the question X. Also, we
have two or more independent knowledge sources
which are usually called bodies of evidence which
support possible answers to question X. The evidence from each knowledge source is expressed
via belief functions, Equation (6) and (7). By confronting (combining) the belief functions from two
knowledge sources we are actually confronting
(combining) the evidence expressed by them.
Based on the expressions for the pre-consensus
and the post-consensus belief entropy (four possible cases) their graphical representations are displayed and the method of selection and using of
the coefficient of relative decreasing uncertainty
are presented in the rest of paper.
. ....... (6)
. ....... (7)
q1 and q2 are subsets (focal elements) of the
frame of discernment Θ and represent the possible
answers to the question X. b1(q1) and b2(q2) represent
the degree of belief (bba – basic belief assignment
for subsets q1 and q2) based on evidence from both
knowledge sources that the right answer to question X lies in the subset of b1 or b2. The value of this
belief lies between 0 and 1 and in this case has the
value m1 i.e., m2. Q1 and Q2 are cores of the functions
Bel1 and Bel2 and they are sets of all subsets or focal
elements of the frame of discernment Θ for which
there exists a belief supported by the evidence of the
first i.e. second knowledge source.
Below, four cases are analyzed that can occur
when confronting evidence from two independent
knowledge sources i.e., knowledge sources based
on different bodies of evidence. Equation (8) and
Equation (9). for all four cases and the corresponding belief functions are given in the [9] and
here are only for illustration how are used to determining coefficient of relative decrease uncertainty
which is addition to work presented in [9].
The following values are analyzed:
–– Pre-consensus belief entropy of the
knowledge source
Hb(Bel1+Bel2 )=Hb(Bel1 )+Hb(Bel2 )........... (8)
–– Post-consensus belief entropy of the
knowledge source
Hb(Bel).................................. (9)
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–– Decrease belief entropy of the knowledge
source
This is represented graphically by
∆Hb=Hb(Bel1+Bel2)-Hb(Bel).............. (10)
.... (13b)
–– Relative decrease belief entropy of the
knowledge source
TH b =
DHb
H b ( B e l1 + B e l 2 )
=1-
H b ( Bel )
H b ( B e l1 ) + H b ( B e l 2 )
....................................... (11)
The pre-consensus state can be viewed as the
state where possible answers to question X are assessed separately based on the evidence from two
independent knowledge sources.
The pre-consensus belief entropy of belief
functions of the first and second knowledge source
view together for the logarithm base e is defined
by the following equation
The post-consensus knowledge source belief
entropy is defined by the belief entropy of function Bel=s(b,Q) and is represented by the following equation Figure (2b).
H b ( B e l1 + B e l 2 ) = H b ( B e l1 ) + H b ( B e l 2 )
= - m 1 l n m 1 - (1 - m 1 ) l n (1 - m 1 ) - m 2 l n m 2 - (1 - m 2 ) l n (1 - m 2 )
....................................... (12)
The shape of this surface is displayed in Figure
(2a) and it is identical to Figure (3a), (4a) and (5a).
If we want to establish to what extent do the
evidences from these two knowledge sources
agree we have to combine the Bel functions applying Dempster’s rule for the combination of belief
functions (Figure 1).
Depending on the mutual relationship of focal
element q1 of the Bel1=s1(b1,Q1) function and the
focal element q2 of the Bel2=s2(b2,Q2) function,
four cases can occur. Each case produces different
results regarding the consensus of evidences, so
they will be analyzed separately.
Case q =q
1
2
In this case, the evidence from both knowledge sources supports the same focal element. By
applying Dempster’s rule, we obtain a new blief
function Bel(b,Q).
Bel1
Bel2 = Bel ...................... (13a)
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Figure 2. Case q1=q2
Function Bel=s(b,Q) is defined by:
Q={q, Θ},
b(q)=m1+m2-m1m2
b(Θ)=(1-m1)(1-m2)
H b [ s ( b ,Q ) ] = - [1 - (1 - m 1 ) (1 - m 2 ) ] ⋅
⋅ l n [1 - (1 - m 1 ) (1 - m 2 ) ] - (1 - m 1 ) (1 - m 2 ) l n [ (1 - m 1 ) (1 - m 2 ) ]
...................................... (14)
By combining the belief functions according
to Dempster’s rule focusing our knowledge on a
specific problem occurs. As our beliefs in a particular subset of the frame of discernment become
greater, so decreases the belief entropy as the measure of uncertainty. This can be especially well il937
technics technologies education management
lustrated by the shape of the surface of the relative
decrease belief entropy THb Figure (2d).
Case q1 ⊂ q2
In this case, the evidence from the first knowledge source supports the focal element q1 which
is the subset of the focal element q2 which is supported by the evidence from the second knowledge
source. By combining functions Bel1=s1(b1,Q1) and
Bel2=s2(b2,Q2) a new belief function is obtained
Bel=c(b,Q).
Bel1
Case q1 ∩ q2 ≠ ∅
In this case the evidence from the first knowledge source supports the focal element q1 which
has a non empty intersection with the focal element q2 which is supported by the evidence of
the second knowledge source. By combining
functions Bel1=s1(b1,Q1) and Bel2=s2(b2,Q2) according to Dempster’s rule a new belief function
Bel=c(b,Q) is obtained Equation (15a).
The graphical representation of Equation (15a)
for this case is displayed below, Equation (17).
Bel2 = Bel(b,Q)....................(15a)
This is represented graphically by
. ..
(17)
. . (15b)
The post-consensus belief entropy of the
knowledge source is defined by the belief entropy
of function Bel=c(b,Q) and represented by the following equation Figure (3b)
The Bel=c(b,Q) function is defined by (see also
Figure 1):
Q={q1,q12,q2, Θ}
b (q ) = m (1-m )
1
1
b (q ) = m m
12
1 2
2
b (q2) = m2(1-m1)
b (Θ) = (1-m )(1-m )
1
2
H b [ c ( b ,Q ) ] = - m 1 (1 - m 2 ) l n [ m 1 (1 - m 2 ) ] - m 2 (1 - m 1 ) l n [ m 2 (1 - m 1 ) ] - m1 m 2 l n ( m1 m 2 ) - (1 - m 1 ) (1 - m 2 ) l n [ (1 - m 1 ) (1 - m 2 ) ]
....................................... (18)
Figure 3. Case q1 ∩ q2
Hb [c(b,Q)] =-m2(1-m1)ln{m2(1-m1)}-m1ln(m2)-(1-m1)(1-m2)ln{(1-m1)(1-m2))}.... (16)
938
The post-consensus belief entropy Figure (4b)
defined by the Equation (18) is in this case the same
as the pre-consensus belief entropy. This leads to
the conclusion that by combining the evidence
from the first and the evidence from the second
knowledge source no decrease in uncertainty or
confusion measured by the belief entropy occurs.
Therefore, in this case the decrease of belief entropy (DHb) Figure (4c) and the relative decrease
in belief entropy (THb) Figure (4d) is zero for all
values of m1 and m2.
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Figure 4. Case q1 ⊂ q2
Figure 5. Case q1 ∩ q2 = ∅
Case q1 ∩ q2 = ∅
In this case the evidence from both knowledge
sources support the focal elements that have no
common elements, i.e., their intersection is empty. By combining functions Bel1=s1(b1,Q1) and
Bel2=s2(b2,Q2) a new belief function Bel=c(b,Q) is
obtained Equation (15a).
The graphical interpretation of Equation (15a)
is displayed below, Equation (19).
(19)
The Bel=c(b,Q) function is defined in this case
by:
Q={q1,q2, Θ},
b(q )=m (1-m )/(1-m m )
1
1
2
1
2
2
2
1
1
2
b(q )=m (1-m )/(1-m m )
b(Θ)=(1-m )(1-m )/(1-m m )
1
2
1
2
The post-consensus belief entropy is defined in
this case by the Equation (20). The shape of this
asymmetric surface is displayed in Figure (5b).
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- m1 (1 - m2 ) l n [ m1 (1 - m2 ) (1 - m1 m2 )]
- m2 (1 - m1 ) l n [ m2 (1 - m1 ) (1 - m1 m2 )]
- (1 - m ) (1 - m ) l n [ (1 - m ) (1 - m ) ]
1
2
1
2
H b [ c (b, Q ) ] =
(1 - m1 m2 )
....................................... (20)
The surface of the decrease of the belief entropy is displayed in this case in Figure (5c). Observing the figure, it can be concluded that for large
m1 and m2 an increase of uncertainty occurs i.e.,
the situation becomes more uncertain with respect
to the pre-consensus state. This can be observed
from Figure (5d).
Coefficient of relative decrease of uncertaint
If we recall the conditions set for the Coefficient of relative decrease of uncertainty it is not
a qualified value, it lies between 0 and 1, it is monotonously ascending - it can be concluded that
they are satisfied in the first case when the focal
elements coincide Figure (2d).
Finally, we can conclude that evidence from either knowledge source can be represented by a belief function. In order to use in this way represented evidence for decision making, it must support
the same answers to the question X or it must be
modifiable by adequate transformations to this effect. As the measure for the decreasement of uncertainty (confusion) for someone seeking the answer
to question X by using evidence from both knowl939
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edge sources the Coefficient of relative decrease
of uncertainty defined according to Equation 13. is
proposed. It is interpreted graphically also in Figure
(6). and its value is defined in Table 1.
Figure 6. Coefficient of relative decrease of uncertainty
4. An Approach to Integrating Uncertainty
Evidence in the Design Process Decision
Making
The model of integrating uncertainty evidence
in the design process can be represented as a model
of belief functions (Figure 7 and 8). It consists of:
–– Set of variables consisting of individual
or member variables V(Xi) and a set
of joint variables J(Xi). The individual
variables represent questions regarding the
investigated problem. The joint variables
represent questions regarding mutual
relationships between individual variables.
–– Set of frames of discernment which is the
set of sets of all values that the variables can
take. To each variable, individual or joint,
corresponds one frame of discernment. The
frame of a joint variable is obtained as the
direct (Descartes’) product of frames of
individual variables.
–– Evidence which supports the possible
answers to questions defined by individual
variables and which is expressed by belief
functions.
–– Set of Coefficient of relative decrease of
uncertainty THbi.
Example 4.1 New Paradigm for Design in the
Uncertainty Conditions
We will demonstrate new paradigm for product/manufacturing design in the uncertainty conditions through example of designing of belt-flywheel. The design requirements (objectives) is to
design and select option of belt-flywheel with the
greatest casting and machining producibility.
The process has two steps. In the first step, the
optimal casting mold design variant is selected
(Figure 9 – first step). Two casting mold design
variants are created (case I and II). They are as-
Table 1. Value of the Coefficient of relative decrease of uncertainty ( q1 = q2 )
THb
m2
940
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
m1
0.0
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.1
0.000
0.252
0.282
0.296
0.309
0.324
0.345
0.377
0.429
0.535
1.000
0.2
0.000
0.282
0.347
0.383
0.410
0.436
0.466
0.504
0.561
0.662
1.000
0.3
0.000
0.296
0.383
0.433
0.470
0.503
0.538
0.579
0.636
0.729
1.000
0.4
0.000
0.309
0.410
0.470
0.515
0.553
0.591
0.633
0.687
0.773
1.000
0.5
0.000
0.324
0.436
0.503
0.553
0.594
0.634
0.676
0.728
0.805
1.000
0.6
0.000
0.345
0.466
0.538
0.591
0.634
0.673
0.714
0.762
0.832
1.000
0.7
0.000
0.377
0.504
0.579
0.633
0.676
0.714
0.752
0.796
0.856
1.000
0.8
0.000
0.429
0.561
0.636
0.687
0.728
0.762
0.796
0.832
0.881
1.000
0.9
0.000
0.535
0.662
0.729
0.773
0.805
0.832
0.852
0.881
0.914
1.000
1.0
0.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
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Figure 7. Model of using uncertain evidence in the design process decision making
sessed by two independent knowledge sources
with respect to their suitability for casting. Basic
belief assignment bba(qi) for corresponding focal
element are presented in the table on the Figure
8. When these values being assessed by the first
and second knowledge source, a point on the surface which represents the coefficient of relative
decrease of uncertainty (THb) is selected. Based on
data from Figure 9 (first step) the second cast mold
variant is selected as the variant with the greatest
producibility (THb=0.86) i.e. greater relative decrease of uncertainty.
In the second step, based on the selected casting mold variant, analysis is performed of two
belt-flywheel variants. The process of analyzing
and selecting these variants (Figure 8 second step)
is identical as in the first step. In this step, our
analyses is expanded with a new knowledge that
is a result of the analysis and decision made in the
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first step. The result of this analysis is the design
selection of the second variant belt-flywheel as
optimal variant in regard of casting and machining. Selected variant has coefficient of the relative
decrease of uncertainty equal to 0.88.
In the above example we present design of a
belt-flywheel and its transformation path from an
unsatisfactory solution with regard to casting (first
step, first variant), through a satisfactory solution
with respect to casting (first step, second variant)
to the satisfactory solution with respect to casting
and machining (second step second variant).
Finally, we observe that designers seeking for
the better solutions travel along the surface displayed in Figure 6. In this way they are selecting
solutions with greater relative decrease of the uncertainty or belief entropy from two independent
knowledge sources as is used in Figure 8.
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Figure 8. Application of new hybrid paradigm in design of a belt-flywheel
5. Conclusion
During product development the designer
makes decisions in conditions of full uncertainty,
contradiction, and not having enough knowledge
about the matter. The paper presented a new approach to uncertain evidence integration in the design process decision making.
The basis of this approach lies in the Dempster
- Shafer belief function theory and the generalization of the concept of entropy applied to set the942
ory. This mathematical tools are used to relative
decrease of uncertainty coefficient creation as a
mechanism to measure the consensus of pulling
uncertainty evidences.
The approach is based on a constant evaluation
of design solutions based on evidence (information, knowledge) from two independent knowledge
sources. Designer selecting solutions on the base of
relative decrease of the uncertainty or belief entropy from two independent knowledge sources.
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6. References
1. Djapic, M., (2005). Evidential Systems in Product
and Process Development, Intelligent Manufacturing
Series of Monographs No. 9, LOLA Institute, Belgrade, 2005 (In Serbian).
2. Thunnissen, D., Propagating and Mitigating Uncertainty in the Design of Complex Multidisciplinary
Systems, PhD Thesis, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California, USA, 2005.
3. Apley, D., Liu, J., Chen, W., Understanding the Effects of Model Uncertainty in Robust Design With
Computer Experiments, Journal of Mechanical Engineering, Vol. 128, July 2006, pp. 945-958.
4. Milacic, V., Djapic, M., Product Producibility Design
Using Mathematical Theory of Evidence, The First
World Congress on Intelligent Manufacturing Process & Systems, Mayaguaz - Puerto Rico, 1995.
5. de Weck, O., Eckert, C., Clarkson, J., A Classification
of Uncertainty for Early Product and System Design,
International Conference on Engineering Design,
ICED’07, 28 - 31 August 2007, Cite Des Sciences et
de L’industrie’, Paris, France.
6. Liu, X., Wang, Z., Jin, D.: Risk Evaluation of Cost
for Hydropower Construction under Risk Fixed
Schedule Probability Using Monte Carlo Simulation
Method, TTEM, 6(2) 2011: 287-299.
7. Guang-Xiang, G., Zhuo-Fu, W., Mi, Z., The Application of Fuzzy decision Model in Flood Control &
Evacuation, TTEM, 5(2) 2010: 301-307.
8. G. Shafer, A mathematical theory of evidence, Princton University Press, Prinston, 1976
9. H.E. Stephanou, S.Y. Lu, “Measuring Consensus
Effectiveness by a Generalized Entropy Criterion”,
IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine
Intelligence, Vol. 10, No. 4, July 1988, pp. 544-554.
10. Xu, H., Smets, P. Some Strategies for Explanations
in Evidential Reasoning. IEEE Transactions on
Systems Man and Cybernetics. Vol. 26, No. 5, 1996,
pp. 599 – 607.
Corresponding Author
Mirko Djapic,
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering Kraljevo,
Kraljevo,
Serbia,
E-mails: mdjapic@yahoo.com,
djapic.m@mfkv.kg.ac.rs
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
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Development of quality management in
enterprises of Serbia
Zora Arsovski1, Slavko Arsovski2, Srdjan Nikezic3
1
2
3
Economics Faculty, Kragujevac, Serbia,
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Kragujevac, Serbia,
Faculty of Science Kragujevac, Serbia.
Abstract
Success and reward management are generally
reported business performance at the end of the
year. The new paradigm of quality affects the role
and management processes. Since management is
expected to component processes (planning, organizing, managing, providing resources, monitoring and control, communication and promotion)
to keep exercising as long-term objectives, especially competitiveness. Therefore, in this paper
points out the management processes, competence
of managers and management processes characteristics in Serbia in relation to the required level.
Key words: management, quality, process,
competence, competitiveness
1. Setting the problem
Management is frequently used word that has
multiple meanings, including its:
–– process management in general,
–– business function or
–– position (Manager).
The impact on quality management has been
recognized only in the late 90s of the 20th century,
which resulted in ISO 9000:2000, which defines
the responsibilities of management and resource
management. In the version of the same standard
from 2008. in the point 5 (liability management)
requirements are defined in terms of commitments
and actions (5.1), the focus on users (5.2), of a quality policy (5.3), planning (5.4), responsibilities,
authority and communication (5.5) and review of
by management (5.6). But only requires a standard
enumeration indicates the narrow approach that is
directly related to the establishment of a quality
management system (QMS). In the "classical" literature in this field, set aside the views of the qual944
ity gurus Juran, who have quality management and
quality management process looked beyond, from
the perspective of TQM [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10,
11, 12], starting from the goals and policies, strategies, organization of quality assurance and control
at the operational, tactical and strategic level.
In modern literature in the field of quality management processes of management are generally described and analyzed from the perspective requires
a different standard. The quality of these processes
is treated from different aspects in different studies
[13, 14, 15, 16], which does not allow for complex
assessment of the quality management process.
The third group of information sources is literature in management, organization, strategy. In
this literature, especially the more recent [17, 18,
19, 20, 21 22, 23], management is treated as a process, but lack access to the quality of the process.
Given the breadth of process management, it
is necessary to define the scope of research. The
author chose to come from the widest model management process, defining its structure and that the
same model tested using a specific model which
is closely related to the QMS. In this study starts
with the following hypothesis:
–– H1: Management process significantly affects
the achievement of quality objectives.
–– H2: The strategic aspect of the management
in Serbia is not significantly represented.
–– H3: Competency management in Serbia
does not have a significant impact on the
competitiveness of the organization.
To confirm this hypothesis the authors on a
sample of 90 organizations of various sizes and
sectors in Serbia (about their representation) analyzed the responses based on the questionnaire.
The methodological approach is based on a strategic approach to Kaplan and Norton [20], a custom
approach to management processes [14, 15], and
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in order to determine the performance management process [19, 22], and thus assess the quality
management process.
2. Management processes
For planning, implementation and review of
quality plans, which are critical to business, the
methodology used Hoshin Kanri (Fig. 2). This
Japanese term in Western literature, translated as
"Policy Deployment".
More than 100 years has laid the foundations
of management Fayol and pointed to four main
groups of roles in management. Recent publications in the second half of the 20th century [20,
21, 13] are set based on management science in
which, regardless of the differences can determine
the structure of macro-management process:
–– planning processes,
–– organizing processes,
–– process management (leadership) and
–– control processes.
These processes are interrelated (Figure 1). Arrows indicate the orientation relationship in the
first levels. Research organizations to determine
the strength of these relations, their reliability and
risk in appropriate conditions of process management and other processes.
Figure 1. The structure of macro-management
process
Each of these processes has the structure and
relations between the component sub-processes.
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Figure 2. Hoshin Kanri model
Process P1 can be decomposed into sub-processes (Figure 3):
–– P.1.1 - Planning Goals,
–– P.1.2 - making strategic maps,
–– P.1.3 - development of strategic plans,
–– P.1.4 - implementation strategy.
Figure 3. Decomposition Process P1: The processes of strategic management
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The second group of processes related to the
organization's processes. According to De Witt
and the Meyer in [19], these processes are part of
the business and organizational systems (Figure
4). For research purposes in this paper, we used
the definition of the business system as a description of "how the organization generates money,"
and an organizational system is defined as "how
the organization has organized" where the most
important are the three components of organizational systems, and three sub-processes related to:
–– P.2.1: organizational structure,
–– P.2.2: organizational processes and
–– P.2.3: organizational culture.
–– P4.1: setting standards for inspection,
–– P4.2: the measurement of results and
comparisons
–– P4.3: establishing policies and procedures
to eliminate conflict,
–– P4.4: preparation of revised plans.
This paper is a process P1: The process of strategic management.
3. Quality management model
Since the macro-management process is decomposed into four processes, the quality of the
model includes each of these processes, which is
in relation to other processes (fig. 5).
Figure 5. The strategic map
Figure 4. Structure of business and organizational
systems
The third group of processes are running processes (leadership). Within these sub-processes of
the process stand out:
–– P.3.1: participation in decision-making,
–– P.3.2: leadership,
–– P.3.3: motivation,
–– P.3.4: decision-making,
–– P.3.5: improving personal skills,
–– P.3.6: teamwork.
Control as part of the macro-management process consists of four coupled sub-processes:
946
The quality management process model in this
paper specifically analyzes the P1 process: the
process of strategic management. Determining the
level defined by the questionnaire (first 10 questions in the questionnaire).
Competence of managers [18] is expressed
through:
–– mental competency and
–– educational competence.
Mental competency component of managers
includes:
–– problem-solving ability,
–– readiness for operational risk,
–– competitive orientation,
–– confidence in business activities,
–– adaptability to business changes,
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–– communication skills,
–– assess the reality of the phenomenon,
–– orientation towards the future,
–– the ability to notice business opportunities,
–– preference for business cooperation,
–– stress.
The education component includes the competence of managers in the field of knowledge:
–– commercial laws,
–– functioning economic system,
–– market activity,
–– competitiveness of market players,
–– Marketing analysis
–– business economics,
–– Applied Technology,
–– service provider,
–– business organization,
–– Business Informatics
–– Business Administration
–– Quality
–– risk and capacity for recovery organizations.
The processes of strategic management in the
internal perspective. Rating the quality of these
processes, as well as the strength of relationships
with other components of process management
and other processes defined by the questionnaire
(20 questions of others).
Customer perspective is analyzed in terms of
quality (third 10 questions), and strength of the relationship to previous and future prospects.
Financial Perspective in this model is defined
by competitiveness and productivity. Especially
in this questionnaire were analyzed in the next 10
responses to the questionnaire.
PART 1: Learning and growth perspective
Rating Rating 1 - 10 (1 - lowest, 10 - highest
rating):
1. Availability (x number of available time)
management competencies needed to
achieve effectiveness of
2. Top management level (1-10)
3. Middle management level competencies
4. The level of operational management skills
5. Adaptive capacity of top management for
system recovery
6. The adaptive capacity of middle management
for system recovery
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7. Adaptive capacity for recovery operations
management system
8. The level of communication between
managers
9. The level of communication with the
environment managers
10. The level of communication with
subordinate managers
11. Leadership skills of managers
12. Management commitment to achieving
the vision, mission and goals
PART 2: Internal perspective
13. The level of grounding strategy in
certificates of stakeholders and the
environment
14. How is the strategy based on understanding
the organization and its performance
capabilities
15. The level of development and review of
existing strategies and plans
16. The level of dissemination strategies and
development plans
17. Strategic management competence
18. The level of organization process
19. The level of competence of the organizers
of the process
20. The impact on the organization's process
objectives
21. Compatibility with the organizational
structure of business processes
22. Flexibility and capacity to change the
organizational structure
23. The quality of vision and mission
24. The level of values in the organization
25. The level of monitoring and reviewing the
effectiveness of management systems and
performance
26. The level of transparency to connect with
external stakeholders
27. The level of support for leaders to
strengthen excellence in employees
28. The level of quality control processes in
the organization
29. Requirements for process control
30. The level of management control
31. The level of efficiency of process control
32. Control-volume relationship of process
improvement
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PART 3: A consumer perspective
33. The level of product quality
34. The level of rapport price / quality
35. The level of relationship quality /
performance
36. The level of technical customer support
37. The level of product safety
38. The level of financial support to the customer
39. The level of eco-features of the product
40. The level of communication quality
customer-producer
41. The level of quality distribution channels
42. The level of management from the
perspective of the customer
PART 4: Financial perspective
43. The level of competition based on price
44. The level of competitiveness on a cost basis
45. The level of competitiveness on the basis
of financial support to the customer
46. The level of productivity in natural
indicators
47. The level of productivity of direct labor
48. The level of productivity of indirect labor
49. The level of productivity management
process
50. The level of past labor productivity
51. The level of impact of quality on
competitiveness
52. The level of impact of quality on
productivity.
Analysis of responsibility from 35 organizations, found that the mean score as a process of
influence in Table 1.
Total (synergistic) effect was determined on the
basis of expert opinion. In the next stage it will be determined based on the application of simulation software based on the application of extended Petri nets.
4. Conclusions
Based on the proposed implementation process model management confirmed the hypothesis
H1 (process management significantly affect the
achievement of quality) because the total impact
score about 7.5 on a scale 1-10.
The influence of process P1 (strategic management) was evaluated on the quality grade 5.4,
which confirms hypothesis H2 base of under-representation of strategic management, as measured
by its impact on quality.
The analysis answers the question about the
competence of managers (1-4 questions in the
survey) found that competence is the largest operational managers (7.2), and high (6.5), while top
management competency is the lowest rated (5.1),
which confirms hypothesis H3.
References
1. Hur M., The influence of total quality management
practices on the transformation of how organisations
works, Total Quality Management and Business Intelligence, Vol. 20, no. 7-8 (2008), pp. 847 – 683.
2. Stefanović N., Stefanović Ž., Liderstvo i kvalitet, Centar za kvalitet, Mašinski fakultet, Kragujevac, 2007.
3. Arsovski S., Menadžment ekonomikom kvaliteta,
Centar za kvalitet, Mašinski fakultet, Kragujevac,
2002.
4. Foster T., Managing Quality: An Integrative Approach, Pearson & Prentice Hall, 2004.
5. Foster T., Managing Quality: Integrating the supply
chain, Prentice Hall, 2010.
6. Juran J., Managerial Breakthrough, Mc Grow Hill,
New York, 1995,
7. Goetch D., Davis S., Introduction to Total Quality,
Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, 1997,
Table 1. Synergistic effect of process management
Marking process:
P1
P2
P3
P4
P0
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Impact on the:
Quality:
5.4
6.1
6.6
4.3
7.0
Price:
6.5
4.1
5.4
4.0
7.5
Image:
4.5
5.6
4.5
Overall impact:
6.9
6.5
7.5
6.1
8.0
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8. Rao et all., Total Quality Management: A Cross
Functional Perspective, John Willey & Sons, New
York, 1996.
9. Morgan B., Schiemann, Measuring People and Performance: Closing the Gaps, Quality Progress, January 1999, pp. 47-53.
10. Beecroft G. Devis, The role of quality in strategic
management, Management Decision, Vol. 37/6
(1999), pp. 499-502.
11. Pyon C.U., Lee M.J., Park S.C., Decision support
system for service quality management using customer knowledge in public service organization
Expert Systems with Applications, Vol. 36, Issue 4
(2009), pp. 8227-8238.
22. Thompson A., Strickland A., Strategic Management:
Concepts and Cases, Mc Grow Hill, Boston, 2003.
23. Umesh Sharma, Stewart Lawrence1, and Alan
Lowea, Institutional contradiction and management
control innovation: A field study of total quality
management practices in a privatized telecommunication company. Management Accounting Research, Vol. 21, Issue. 4 (2010), pp. 251-264
Correspoding Author
Slavko Arsovski,
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering,
Kragujevac,
Serbia,
E-mail: cqm@kg.ac.rs
12. Moore S.B., Manring S.L., Strategy development in
small and medium sized enterprises for sustainability and increased value creation, Journal of Cleaner Production, Vol. 17, Issue 2 (2009), pp. 276-282.
13. Merna T., Al-Thani F., Corporate Risk Management, 2nd Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken,
NY, 2008.
14. Jacka M., Keller P., Business Process Mapping: Improving Customer Satisfaction, John Wiley & Sons,
Hoboken, NY, 2008.
15. Arsovski S., Menadžment procesima, Centar za
kvalitet, Mašinski fakultet, Kragujevac, 2006.
16. Krkač K., Uvod u poslovnu etiku i korporacijsku
društvenu odgovornost, Mate, Zagreb, 2007.
17. Anđelković Pešić, M.: Six Sigma: Metodologija
za unapređenje procesa. Naučna monografija.
Vrnjačka Banja: SaTCIP, 2010. – 130 str.
18. Arthur E. Cartera, Cliff T. Ragsdaleb, Quality
inspection scheduling for multi-unit service enterprises. European Journal of Operational Research,
Vol. 194, Issue. 1 (2009), pp. 114-126.
19. De Witt B., Meyer R., Strategy: Process, Content,
Context, 3nd Edition, Thompson, London, 2004.
20. Kaplan R., Norten D., Strategy Maps: Converting
intangible assets into tangible outcomes, Harvard
Business School Press, Boston, 2004.
21. Juan José Tarí, Enrique Claver-Cortésa, Jorge
Pereira-Molinera, José F. Molina-Azorína, Levels
of quality and environmental management in the
hotel industry: Their joint influence on firm performance. International Journal of Hospitality Management, Vol. 29, Issue 3 (2010), pp. 500-510.
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Multiagent architecture for intelligent
monitoring of postal traffic
Branka Vasojevic Deljhusa1, Miladin Stefanovic 2, Nenad Babajic1
1
2
Public Enterprise of PTT Communications „Srbija“ , Republic of Serbia,
Faculty of Mechanical in Kragujevac, Republic of Serbia,
Abstract
Intelligent monitoring of postal traffic introduces the problems of modern AT techniques in which
the perception of the environment is very complex
due to numerous events occurring in the system and
because of the heterogeneity of the distributed environment in which the solution is applied. Most of
the the offered and the developed systems which
deal with this issue show a lack of flexibility and
scalability in solving various unforseen problems
that occur during transport and tracking of shipments. In order to overcome this one should focus
on two aspects of installing the system: a model
based on knowledge, flexible enough to manage
the various events in the system and the architecture
which supports the above mentioned model. The
paper here will present the architecture of more intelligent agents which manage various segments of
the entire process of postal shipments distribution
on their own or in cooperation with other agents of
the complex environment. The above mentioned
multiagent architecture includes methods for defining the knowledge in order to cover general concepts of postal shipments processing , as well as
the decision support which is quite complex in the
above stated problem
Key words: Intelligent decision, Multi-agent
arhitecture, RFID
1. Introduction
Although modern technologies impose new
forms of communication and information transfer,
traditional postal service still remains current, and
there are also indicators which show that some segments even increase the workload. Although based
on [1] analysis of the market shows decline in representation of the physical transfer of items from 20
% to 15 % due to stronger electronic postal market,
the growth of the physical volume of classic ship950
ments will increase due to the need for traditional
delivery. It should not be forgotten that electronic
mail generates ’phisycal items’ so even though the
classic transmission is substituted for the electronic
one, there is an increased volume of letterpost services with the intensive use of the internet. The
existence of competition in universal services is
no longer a mistery to any postal administration. It
is especially obvious in areas of large urban units.
[2]. It is a very profitable market in which everyone
must fight for their share. Competition, therefore,
requires that providers base their business on market orientation and the orienation towads the future,
the latest technologies and commercial principles.
Users, for their part, require better information on
the status of shipments. Given these facts the need
for the updated tracking of shipments is even more
urgent. Traditional methods include static tracking
of shipments based on the marks of the shipping
and the receiving mail. A more modern approach
includes sending of the so called ’ control shipments’. In this way , the visual control of marks is
taken over by RFID (Radio Frequency Identification) and the RFID readers automatically transmit
information on a certain shipment passing through
a checkpoint. In both cases, however, it is a classical statistical processing that can only perform
post-processing and quality assessment, but there is
no possibility of processing data in real time. Another disadvantage is the extensive work of human
resources, thus increasing the possibility of error. It
is obvious that the system has flaws, ranging from
outdated information or from the fact that that the
data are not immediate, ie on-line, and to the fact
that there are gaps in the status of the shipment between some checkpoints.
Public Enterprise of PTT Communications
„Srbija“, realizes its business in the territorialy scattered organizational parts with specific characteristics of each of those parts in terms of the personnel,
but also political,cultural and other characteristic of
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certain areas. In such systems decision making and
monitoring of effects must be a continuous process,
adequate from the time dimension.
Shipment monitoring development trends
bring out several basic problems to which a solution must be found:
–– Develop a system that would allow an
on-line inquiry into the current status of
shipments.
–– Develop a multiagent structure that would
provide high scalability and adaptibility
of applications. This would enable the
usage of some individual modules from
old applications and this way it would also
be possible to add new devices during the
exploitation.
–– Implement the integration of all the complex
information continuously in real time.
–– Provide real-time management of data from
decentralized subsystems that operate with
a high degree of autonomy.
–– Provide intelligent management so that the
suitable actions can be implemented immediately. This way tracking of shipments would
be transferred from the category of statistical
analysis to the phase of the automatic and
timely action.
This paper focuses on the fifth item, namely the
development of intelligent control using multiagent architectures. Multiagent architecture is based
on the concept of intelligent agents that can be described as autonomous software entities that have
the ability to perceive the environment through
sensors , to act on the environment through actuators, to perform specific tasks and thereby communicate with other agents in order to accomplish
tasks. Intelligent agents are implemented as programs ( functions) that copy perceptions into actions. Agents are designed to allow you greater automation and autonomy in monitoring in each of
the shipment transfer segments. In addition to the
description of the proposed model of intelligent
management this paper also describes the concept
of multiagent structure that allows the realization
of this task. This paper is further organized in the
following way: chapter 2 describes previous reserach on the described matter, chapter 3 explains
theoretical foundations supported by the proposed
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architecture, chapter 4 shows the architecture of
the system, chapter 5 shows the way of functioning of the described system with all the details
of the processes which go on inside the system.,
chapter 6 gives the results of the proposed model
tested on the chosen sample.Chapter 7 summerizes the work and suggests further research.
2. Related work
The development of RFID (Radio Frequency
Identification) tehnologies has been experiencing
constant growth in recent years, its application
integrating data from virtual and physical world
and constantly increasing business opportunities and changing the way of life and business as
well. Although there are different views on profitability of investments in RFID technology in big
companies, data mangement in real-time increasingly means AIDC (Automatic Identification and
Data Capture) technology with the use of RFID.
In general, RFID and AIDC technologies are responsible for accepting data in real time. This led
to the introduction of a new concept of event data.
Event driven architecture, introduced by Gartner
[3] 2003, as a complement to SOA (Service-Oriented Architecture), is a paradigm which enables
broadcasting and detecting of events, as well as
manipulation of events and the response to certain
events. Authors [4] describe the power of events
within distributed systems.
In addition to a large number of registered
events, there is a growing tendency in developing
multiagent systems (MAS) in robust systems with
time-limited reasoning that allow management of
complex processes to be split into several agents
according to their authorities. Such systems also
handle the problem of integration and control of
distrubuted resources [5]. An agent is the base of
a multiagent architecture, and acts as a software
component which functions in an environment,
perceives the environment through sensors , effects
the environment, makes decision on the task that is
to be completed, comunicates with other agents and
it can often even learn. According to [6] agents,by
definition, are independent executable programs
with defined specific goals. Multiagent structure
is an association of several agents which can exchange data among themselves and thus provides
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technics technologies education management
common activities on the complete business environment. Basic features of agents are:
–– Autonomy: independent work, usually
without user intervention.
–– Proactivity: launching an action on their
own initiative.
–– Reactivity to the possibility of reacting to
environment changes.
–– Communication:
communication and
cooperation with other agents.
–– Possibility to learn: learning from past
decisions and observations
–– Adaptability: possibility to adapt to the
environment conditions.
Application of agents with defined properties
through the layered structure enables the successful aggregation of data from many sources, whether in terms of the already existing or some that
may arise in the future. According to the origin
these data sources can be internal, ie those arising
from a parent software or external, arising from
peripheral or foreign software.
MAS has different applications with an obvious tendency for further expansion. A growing
number of studies is dealing with MAS application. Authors [7] give methods for creating an online development of a knowledge base for decision
making support in logistic processes using RFID
and MAS. MAS application area is very wide. Authors [8] describe the application of MAS in the
intelligent supervision of traffic facilities, [9] use
of MAS in planning processes and for coordination in supply chains. Application of MAS systems in the health system for identifying patients
in emergency cases is described in [10], and for
the controlled use of antibiotics in hospitals [11].
This research will describe management of the
complex process of shipment transfer by agents
who can track and regulate the entire process
based on the registered events and their divided
authorities. Intelligent management of postal and
courier shipments in terms of IT, is a set of techniques, algorithms and methods with the aim of
deveoping an advanced information system which
can perform certain tasks that were usually intended for the human factor.
Many postal and courier services require a solution that would solve the problem of autonomous
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and quality monitoring. The trajectory of the shipment itself is complex in terms of devices that enable its monitoring-starting from manual recording
of the receipt of shipments at the counter,through
an automatic reading by bar code readers or RFID
readers in postal centers, monitoring the vehicles
that carry the shipments and up to the signature
of the recipient.Based on [12] the application of
RFID stamps in postal services is experiencing
continuous growth from the moment when the
price of RFID stamps began to fall continuously.It
is interesting to note that as postal and courier services follow and except further decline in prices
of RFID products, to the same extent the manufacturers in RFID industry are keeping track of the
application of their products in postal service, in
which case they see postal and courier services as
the second most important clients, right next to the
supply chain.The main report ’RFID for the Postal
and Courier Service’, IDTechEx estimates that by
2018 , proportion of postal and courier services
on the RFID equipment market will be around 2.5
billion $ and that a trillion of shipments a year will
be identified by RFID labels.
Most widespread use of RFID technology in
the field of postal services is found in AMQM
(Automatic Mail Quality Measurements). According to [13] AMQM represents a powerful manager
tool which can be used for tracking critical points
of postal shipments transfer, and for the analysis
for the improvment of the quality of sevices.The
tendency of RFID systems development is more
and more evident and what especially stands out
is the application of RFID technology within the
agent systems in distributed environments.
Intelligent management of postal and courier
shipments, in IT sense, is the set of techniques, algorithms and methods with the aim of developing
an advanced information system that can perform
certain tasks which were usually intended for the
human factor.
Tracking shipments of the postal service is described through [14] which in an interesting manner displays the way of tracking the realization of
a goal through the analysis of the exchanged messages between agents. Comparison and parsing of
the Message log is used to determine the scenario in
which angents were active and possibly finds new
methods and scenarios.The given approach, pracVolume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
technics technologies education management
tically, presents a way of testing and debugging of
the MAS system. The research [15], does not deal
with CTA(Cognitive Task Analysis) on multiagent
architecture of postal services. Track&trace system based on the GPS (Global Positioning System) technology in logistics is described in [16],
a nd [17] tracking vehicles in brown coal mines.
The authors [18] describe tracking of vehicles using GPS/GIS/RFID technologies in logistics and
distribution. The authors also give an interesting
solution for tracking of shipments [19].
This paper will present MAS architecture for
transfer of shipments, shown in several layers,
which enables lower layers to handle processing
and data gathering and the higher layers to perform intelligent analyses and decision support.
The two main tasks to be accomplished are:
–– Set up the event-driven architecture whose
main role is to provide information in real
environment from all the different sources
of the system.
–– Enable intelligent management based on
real-time data
The advantage of the proposed system is that it
consistently maps the events linking them to realworld events and communication mechanisms are
then based on these events. It also provides additional mechanisms such as a replay of events, creating templates for reusing the same event , for other
services and mechanisms which are not possible in
other traditional systems. On the other hand, multiagent architecture allows independent action based
on messages broadcast in the system, integration
of data from different parts of the system. Such a
system helps decision making and implements actions to improve efficiency, convenience and further contributes to savings in business of the system
in which the problem is implemented.
3. A conceptual model of shipment tracking
One of the main goals of the intelligent system
for tracking objects is to perform automation of
certain business tasks in distributed, heterogenous
environments which are subject to changes, so that
the system can suggest and offer business actions
according to its mechanisms. Due to complexity
of the entire system and a large number of events
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broadcast at different locations, the system applies
sensor technology which with the application of the
event- middleware layer enables centralized collection of all information on Data Collection Server,
from which information are further forwarded to all
the listed entities which are in need of it, and to decision support systems.In such systems, registering
events, defining business rules through ’ active rule
engine’ and providing appropriate business actions
through launching certain systems are of cruical
importance. According to the author [20],the events
include information from both the sensors and the
applications in the environment, covering different
business areas . After broadcasting the event, Active Rule Engine has the role to fire an appropriate
action after recognizing and processing the event or
the pattern of events. The action here can be notification of events or calling a particular service if
certain conditions are met. In our described system,
as shown in Figure 1, event cloud registures events
from the sensor, events registered within the company’s own ERP system,as well as other solutions
(SAP, GIS) which possess information essential to
transfer of shipment problems.
Figure 1. Conceptual model of event driven arhitecture and event sources
Unlike traditional software solutions that focus
on recording and analysis of each transaction,in every event-driven model the work principle is based
on several basic segments, according to [21]:
1. Communication broadcast: various
participants of a complex business system
broadcast events. Such broadcast events can
be listened to and processed by different
segments of the entire system.
2. Timeliness: Systems broadcast events in
the order of occurrence without their local
storage and waiting for treatment.
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3. Asynchrony: A system which broadcasts
events does not wait for the system ( or
systems) which receive events to perform
the processing.
4. Fragmentation of an event: the goal is that
the applications broadcast several individual
events rather than groups of events.
5. Ontology: The covering system defines
nomenclature and hierarchy of events. The
receiving systems express interest in specific
events or groups of events.
6. Complex event processing: The covering
system should understand and monitor the
relationship between events in terms of causeeffect events, aggregation of events, etc.
Authors [20] list basic differences between
service pooling and event pushing mechanisms
shown in Table1.
Table 1. Differences between service pooling and
event pushing mechanisms
Service pooling Event pushing
Communication Request / response
Publish
mechanism
mechanism
mechanism
At the request of Notification of
Initializing
service
events
Suitable for
Suitable for
Environment
robust business complex business
transactions
environments
Publication of
One method calls
events without
Action
another in a strictly
waiting for
defined order
response
Application of RFID technology enables
complete shipment tracking in real time, which
is a very complex task. The decision imposes
intergration of RFID technology and MAS system. The system is modelled and defined in order to provide information required by postal
services, from admission to delivery, according
to standard and common principles, but it also
must have the systems for learning and solving
problems in unexpected situations that may occur in some stages of processing and transporting
of mail. The model proposed in this paper has the
ability to detect unforseen situations, to find new
solutions in such situations and to supplement
the knowledge base. Authors describe one of the
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reasoning mechanisms [21]. Basic components
of the model are:
–– Business network of the Post of Serbia,
which is the largest infrastructure and
logistics network in the country. It includes
different physical locations where postal
services are being realized, ie individual
phases:
–– objects (shipments, vehicles, couriers)
–– events of intersets (receipt of shipment,
delivery, pick-ups...)
Based on the above , the implementation of the
proposed system includes a description of a system as W( O, Ω, Att , E ) where
–– O – a set of objects in the system
(shipments,vehicles, couriers, agents...)
–– Ω - domain is an ordered subset of objects
characteristic of a certain agent’s function
D1 , D2 ,..., Dn , in which case U Di ⊆ O
i
–– Att - the set of attributes of an object
–– E – environment. is a framework within
which a certain object is observed at a
certain time and a predetermined location.
Agents which exist in the MAS system described further are given in Table 2, with their own
PAGE (Percepts, Actions, Goals, Enviroments)
descriptions.
Additional agents can be introduced without
having to change or even understand the rest of
the system. Such a concept allows the system to
be easy to modify, extend or improve. In addition
to the defined agents, characteristic of the process
of shipment delivery in the system itself, there
are other agents functioning in order to manage a
multiagent system according to the standards defined by FIPA (Foundation for Intelligent Physical Agents, 2004).
4. Agent architecture for monitoring delivery of shipments
The complete system architecture is divided
into several layers shown in Figure 2: Device layer, Context Information Layer, Reasoning and Decision Layer, User Layer. Each layer contains specific agents that communicate with each other by
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Table 2. Intelligent agents for tracking shipment tracking and their descriptions
Agent Type
Percepts
Actions
Agent of the
receipt of a
shipment
Admission of new ship- Identification of shipment characterments into the system
istics.
T&T Agent
Specific shipment status
changes, delays
HR Planner
Agent
Mobile
delivery agent
Transport
agent
Node agent
Notification
agent
Locating
agent
Goals
Enviroments
JPM
Tracking of the shipment, locating, Quick and safe
GIS
controlling,notifying and alarming. shipment delivery
Planning and scheduling delivery
Proper organizaThe expected number of workers according to the number of
tion of people on Delivery mail
shipments on delivery expected shipments and available HR
delivery
data.
Delivery of shipment to Discharge of suppliers , closing the
Delivery region
the recipient
life cycle of shipment....
Minimization of
Planning a vehicle
Postal center
transport costs
Passage of shipment
JPM, PC,
through some of the devozila...
fined postal facility nodes
Specific shipment status
Informing the recipient or sender on
Informing clients
change, a signal for the
the shipment status.
need to notify someone.
Locating an
Locating a certain object
object
Figure 2. Proposed architecture for shipment tracking
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exchanging messages, using various communication mechanisms, depending on the type of agents
that communicate and the type of information
which are being exchanged in mutual communication. The characteristics of each of the defined layers are described in brief. Figure 2 shows the main
agents belonging to each of the defined layers, so
that it could give description of the information
flow from the moment of collecting events by the
sensor to the moment of use of the information for
the purpose of observing behaviour in the system,
or for decision-making.
Device layer-Layer at the lowest level which is
the hardware abstraction layer that allows access
to RFID readers and other devices via standardized interface. This enables introduction of various
hardware devices in an information system integrated into the system without modifying application solutions. Device layer therefore includes all
such functions relating to the devices. This further
enables the application to be developed without
the hardware device itself, because it is necessary to communicate only via device layer. This
layer contains reactive agents , which do not have
a large knowledge base, but respond directly and
according to information from the environment.
Agents of this layer represent a subsystem for perception that collects data from the environment,
after which the collected data is transferred to higher level via messages of broadcast events.
Context Information Layer –the layer the
role of which is to perform further management
of the entire system information by collecting and
aggregating events from various sources. This layer manages various aspects of processing information and communication among agents.Its main
role is to provide a standardized mechanism which
allows the events to be registered and received.
This layer has the role to accept, store and process
messages about events in the sytem. In addition
to this, with consolidataion and filtering it should
provide meaningful information,partly processed
and adapted for further manipulation by the other segments of the system. Context information
layer also allows the reduction of the amount of
information which is supposed to be handled by
the application layer. Finally, it is a neutral layer
that provides data collection, filtering and grouping of events which appear in the system. All the
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events perceived in the environment by the inside
of Device Layer are on this level asynchronously
collected on Data Collection Server( DCS).
This layer also contains agents with a managing role in order to meet the standards defined by
(Foundation for Intelligent Physical Agents, FIPA,
2004): Message Transport Service (MTS) and Directory Facilitator (DF).
MTS is in charge of managing messages on
broadcast events, and their recording on DCS.
Agent contains meta data about types of events,
including their specification and rules of processing. Its main tasks are:
–– Filtering broadcast events and admission to
DCS
–– Processing of complex events
–– Creating corresponding response messages
–– Finding subscribers
–– Interaction with other agents based on the
analysed events, directly or through DF.
–– DF must possess flexible mechanisms for
searching both local (relating to the same
platform agents) and remote serveces
of external organizations, necessary for
successful functioning of MAS. The role of
DF is to:
–– Maintain the register of names of various
services and IA
–– Forward messages to other agents
–– Redirect messages based on their content.
–– Help other agents to find their desirable
‘interlocutors’.
Besides the given set of management agents,
Delivery agents, Notification agents, HR planner
and Transport agents function in this layer as well.
T&T agents are found among relevant agents of
this layer and track and realize the shipment delivery in real time, based on the work of all the
other agents.
Reasoning and Decision Layer - layer that
provides business intelligence. It contains intelligent agents that are supposed to help the decisionmaking process. The agents implemented in this
layer have a larger knowledge base thus maintaining the model of their environment in internal
data structures. This enables the agent to plan the
action and act in a goal-oriented manner. Such a
goal-oriented agent conducts actions that lead to a
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certain goal based on inputs from other agents and
forseen consequences of their actions. Knowledge
generated by various agents and other components
of the entire system is sublimated through the Fusion Agent, according to which a global image of
various multiagent system segments is developed.
The resulting global image is the basis for decision support, ie for functioning of the Decision
agent who suggests actions for satisfying optimal
business performances.
User Layer
A layer which enables visual representation
of sensors, devices and objects which exist in the
system, such as tracking of vehicles, couriers, control of various hardware devices, etc.
Authors [8] define the use of communication
mechanisms of a complex MAS system which is
applied in this research as well. Three forms of
communication are applied:
1. communication based on events represents
mechanisms the main concept of which is
the event itself. The information exchange
is based on the type of the event , not on
the identity of the sender or the recipient,
so that the event is an abstraction of the
communication between the publisher and
the subscriber.
2. direct communication between agents with
the exchanging message containing the
physical address of the agent to whom the
message is sent. This type of communication
makes sense with the agents who handle
the same information differently within a
common environment.
3. communication via blackboard system, used
for the exchange of information of various
agents sharing the knowledge base. This
communication mechanism is for the agents
of a higher layer, such as the fusion agent,
who gets conjoint information through the
given communication mechanism.
The architecture for shipment management designed in such a way satisfies the important conditions for a successful functioning of a system.
Scalability is provided in several segments with the
existence of agents in the device layer responsible
for the communication with devices and containing
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functions both for the management and control of
devices and for processing information in devices,
ie broadcasting corresponding messages about the
events. This simplifies the introduction of new devices , and the development of software solutions
which are completely independent from the devices
due to the existence of Control agents that communicate between Device agents and the rest of the
system. The need for observation of new events is
satisfied by the existence of DCS which allows archiving all sorts of events according to standard procedures. Event channel and replication mechanism
provide a continuous system operation regardless
of the availability of certain agents.This provides
the forwarding of events and the operation of other
parts of the system , regardless of the agents who
were brought to a halt and who will have the opportunity to sign , that is , to process the broadcast
events later. The security mechanisms of solutions
are implemented by strictly defined agents who
communicate with each other, ie agents who can
be subsribers for certain system events. Thus information usage control is provided by the control of
integrity and the identity of the agents themselves,
whose registration is conducted and controlled in a
centralized manner.
5. Application of the model on management of postal shipments
The model described in previous chapters is
based on the application of RFID and GPS technologies, following the entire course of the postal shipment in domestic traffic.Application of MAS architecture is the solution that makes the entire system
intelligent with the agents who perform their tasks
individually or in cooperation with others.
At the reactive level, the information collected
from various sensors are via device sensors forwarded to the control agent whose role is to manage various devices in the system for the purpose
of overcoming problems related to the hetergeneity of devices , and in order to create uniform
information on broadcast events. These events
are forwarded via the event channel to ContextInformation layer for information management.
All events, without any processing are entered on
the Data Collection which in turn provides needed
information to the interested subscribers via MTS
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and DF. Based on the broadcast events processing
of the received data is performed via interested ’
subscribers’ which provides timely management
of information. In order to achieve the defined
goals agents communicate with each other, with
the direct communication being established via
DF, where they get accurate information on the
physical address of the agent whose services they
need. Besides the individual tracking of shipment
in real time , agents have the possibility of using
the blackboard communication system mechanism for preparing data for the Fusion agent. The
Fusion agent gives the unified picture of the postal
service functioning which is, in addition, further
basis and further source of data for the decision
agent. The Decision agent now uses the received
data to make decisions based on the behaviour
in previous situations and various scenarios that
were carried out.
The text below will describe communication
between agents on the example of T&T Agent
functioning during the life cycle of postal shipment. In order to achieve the defined goal the
agents follow some of their scenarios. Based
on [22] the scenario involves all the activities
that occur in the logistics flow. Each scenario
s c k = e1k
( { p } ) , e ( { p } ) ,..., e
1k
2k
2k
d _kk
({ p
d _kk
})
represents the sequence of events that can have
several parameters {pik}, e denotes an event as a
perception of a certain happening, process or structure applied in a certain context. In our described
system examples of such events are: receiving of
the shipment, loading of shipment, shipment delivery ,etc. Further in the text we list 3 scenarios that
can be followed in order to enable the T&T Agent
to reach his defined goal. In some scenarios this
agents needs to communicate with other agents,
the description of which will be given further on.
MAS system must contain a mechanism for adding alternative scenarios in case of unexpected situatons, so that all situations can be covered, that is
, in order to constantly increase the success of the
agent’s actions. Additional scenarios are defined
by the Pattern agent according to the knowledge
base and new field situations.
Scenario 1: This scenario shows the main flow
of the shipment transport from the moment of receiving in JPM to the addressed recipient without
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any unexpected or unusual situations. Receiving
of the shipment done in one of the JPM, initiates
creating a plan of distribution and timing of shipment arrival to certain points of the infrastructure network of PTT. The received shipments are
packaged and shipped to postal centers. The postal
center then directs postal shipments towards destination postal offices ( through postals centers in
charge) and creates a Map of conclusions. The reception postal center classifies mail towards destination post offices where the couriers are assigned
according to regions, and the mail is delivered to
the given addresses.
Scenario2: The above scenario shows the regular route of the shipment to its destination. In case
a delay in arrival of shipment is detected in one of
the points in between, there is an alternative scenario according to which the last registered point
should be determined and the shipment located if
possible.After determining the cause of the irregular situation the next step is to alarm the system
which takes appropriate actions.
Scenario3: This scenario includes actions that
should be taken in case the shipment fails to be
delivered at the recipient’s adress. The sender and
the recipient are automatically notified of this,
the shipment is waiting at the delivery post office
for a certain period of time after which it is automatically prepared for the return to the sender.
At the reactive level the Node agent identifies the
passage of a certain shipment through a node of
a postal infrastructure network that can be either
receiving mail or the main postal center, a postal
center, delivery mail, etc.
Thus at the source of information the main
event is generated as the ordered triple (L,S,T)
whereby L is the dimension that contains details
of the event, ie it represents the type of event, S is
the dimension that stands for the location, and T is
the time dimension of the event appearance. After
this, the broadcast event is forwarded through the
event channel subscriber to agents of the Context
Information Layer, such as Planner Agent, Transport Agent, T&T Agent. Communication between
agents is established via DF. The T&T Agent who
is supposed to conduct the safe delivery according
to the given scenarios is of utmost importance for
the given MAS system. Its communication with
other agents will be described through the colVolume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
technics technologies education management
laboration diagram shown in Figure 3. As shown,
basic functions of T&T agents are the shipment
processing in terms of status change, planning the
time of arrival at the next nodal point, notification
of the recipient and the sender depending on the
registered status of shipment, on delivery. In disputable situations the T&T agent communicates
with the locating agent in order to react as quickly
and as appropriately as possible for the purpose of
timely shipment delivery.Planning of distribution
of couriers in delivery zones is based on the global
picture of the planned shipments for delivery at
T&T agents in cooperation with the Planner agent.
Figure 3. Collaboration diagram for the control
of shipment delivery
From a global point of view information on the
shipment transport and the success rate of business performance in all segments are via blackboard system entered from all the environments
and are used as the basis for the Global Fusion
Agent that gives a global image of the shipment
transport functioning in the entire PTT( postal)
system. The Global Fusion Agent gives the overall
picture through which critical points of the system
functioning can be observed and thus is the basis
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
for the functioning of the Decision Support Agent
based on which decisions related to HR in infrastructure nodes can be made as well the decisions
on vehicle redistribution, improvement of service
quality, following trends of traditional transport
services tendency, etc. The collaboration diagram
described in Figure 4 shows the process of storing
data for the Global Fusion Agent. At the level of
each RJ Fusion information agent , based on the
previously described agents, with the help of the
Fusion Manager Agent performing the selection of
information, performs the aggregation of information on the received shipments, the deliverde ones,
the employees engaged, the distance travelled by
the courier, minutes spent per service, which gives
us an overall picture on RJ operations. Finally,
Global Translator Agent translates the data into
general information for GFA.
Figure 4. Agent collaboration diagram for the
functioning of the Global Fusion Agent
6. Application and the results of the described
system
This chapter will show the functioning of a defined architecture in a specific case of a shipment
travelling in a tested environment between Kragujevac and Sabac. The scanned shipment , at the receiving post office 34105, activates the T&T agent
that creates a plan for the delivery of the shipment
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technics technologies education management
introduced into the system, which is entered into
the blackboard system, with estimated time of arrival at the points of processing thus becoming the
basis for the analysis within the Fusion Agent.This
information just as any other passage of shipment
through a nodal point updates the time of the arriv-
al of the shipment , but also enters the time for the
following point of the shipment processing,based
on the planning - 15000 Šabac.
Data is entered into the blackboard system as
specified in the Table 3, where the shipment was
tracked on the route between Kragujevac and Sa-
Tabela 3. Blackboard table to track the scheduled time
Blackboard
Object ID
Obj_157
Obj_157
Obj_157
Obj_157
Obj_157
Obj_157
Location
34105
34200 PC Kg
Vozilo Iveko6332
11200 GPC Bg
15200 PC Šabac
15000
Expected time
24.04.2009 17:50::29
24.04.2009 20:00
25.04.2009 7:30
25.04.2009 10:30
Time of arrival
24.04.2009 17:50:29
24.04.2009 19:20:21
25.04.2009 7:00
Figure 5. View of the location of the vehicle at a standstill with precise time of retention
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technics technologies education management
bac. The above example gives us a plan of the
standard route of the shipment, 34105 Kragujevac
- PC Kragujevac - GPC Beograd - PC Šabac. On
April 25 2009 at 10:30 a.m. theT&T Agent registered a shipment delay, ie a delay of a group of
shipments that were then found to belong to the
vehicle Iveko6332. Location Agent was activated
which gave the result shown in Figure 5 indicating that Iveko6332 vehicle was at a standstill, so
that the Agent automatically located the vehicle
and then alarmed the nearest service which was
to determine what was happening to the vehicle
and then undertake the necessary measures. In
such cases, collaboration between the locating
agents and the alarming agents is established via
MTS which forwards the physical address of the
installed agent alarming the nearest service. User
has the possibility to view the location through
the Monitoring tool before sending the back-up
vehicle there and gets a layout map of the vehicle. Visual presentation represents one of the segments of the Monitoring tool and is implemented
by a modified version of an open source solution
OpenGTS, as shown in Figure 5.
Fusion agent has a complete picture of the total
number of received shipments in the entire Work
unit, ie of all the received mail, the number of delivered shipments in delivery and the time required for
the implementation of services. Based on the data
from the Fusion agent it is possible to generate data
required for the application of PTT statistics which
calculates the productivity of the postal network
unit using MAS data. The results of a tested model
transferred to the application of PTT statistics are
shown in Figure 6 which shows the productivity of
individual post offices within the tested range.
Data compiled by the Global Translator Agent
gives an overall picture comparable from standpoint
of various RJ which in addition to the total number
of implemented services, for the purpose of measuring the productivity also analyzes some additional
characteristics such as the number of employees
envolved, work hours, setting standards for some
services, analyzes how much the terrain is jagged
and the municipality developed,etc. The translated
data, based on the Global Fusion Agent, monitor operations on a global level, so that similar data could
be obtained from the standpoint of productivity of
wider areas, ie of work units and regions.
Figure 6. Productivity of post offices within tested Work Unit of Postal Traffic
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7. Conclusion
This paper proposes architecture which enables
integration of business operations of a complex
business environment and the intelligent management of such a system based on relevant information. The main adventage of an agent architecture is
the autonomy they provide , whereby their behaviour is based on pre-defined goals and the actions
are taken independently or in cooperation with
other agents.The described system enables maintenance of quality of the postal services and thus
enables detection quality changes in real time.A
timely response to the occurred events in the system improves performance of the entire system and
brings business oprations to a higher level.
The contribution of this work is reflected in
several points:
–– Agent architecture is set and it enables
tracking of shipment in all the phases,
starting from receving the shipment, through
processing to delivery, with segments of
automatic management of shipments.
–– The appointed model enables easy expansion
to other business segments according to
asynchronous recording of main events.
–– Application of the described system
gives the possibility of adapting business
operations to available real resources by
harmonizing and coordinating activities, as
well defining time frames for performing
individual business actions.
The existing results of the described research
can be improved and expanded in the following
directions:
–– Define and model new agents that will
in communication with the existing ones
perform further improvement in connecting
and expanding the described complex and
heterogeneous system both with the existing
ERP(Enterpise resource Planning) system
and the external sources of information.
–– Improve the Fusion Agent that would,
by using Fuzzy logic and multicriteria
decion-making, identifying the criteria and
developing a model for their quantification,
advance the decion-making model by
overcoming the subjectivity, inaccuracy and
962
uncertainty the existence of which is obvious
when applying the model in different
territorial units of the system described.
–– Extend the described agent model that deals
with the basic postal services, with several
additional agents who analyse direct mail
shipments as an inseparable marketing tool
of any company that wants to increase and
improve the volume of its oprations. The
mentioned agents would enable automatic
communication with legal entities to whom
this kind of service is interesting and
necessary, and the automatic analysis of
potential users according to the analyses of
the extended Global Fusion Agent.
The way of solving problems in postal traffic presented in this paper enables monitoring of
flows, reducing delays and the increase of the service quality as well. Compared with other MAS
systems, given in chapter 2, also dealing with the
issue of postal shipments, the proposed architecture represents a flexible solution based on asynchronous events broadcast in the system, whether
issued by various sensors, business rules or external factors that effect the work of the system,
which enables easy expansion in case of the need
for additional aspects of consideration.
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Corresponding Author
Branka Vasojević Deljhusa,
Public Enterprise of PTT Communications „Srbija“,
Republic of Serbia,
E-mail: brankavas@ptt.rs
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Aachen, Germany, 20-22 June 2011, page 252-259.
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working the truck transport obtained from different sources in Black Coal Mine “Banovici”, ISSN
1840-1503, TTEM, 2011, vol. 6/1, 191-196.
Volume 7 / Number 2 / 2012
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Stefan Panic
Zoran J Popovic