COPYRIGHT Copyright and Reprint Permission: Abstracting is permitted with credit to the source. Libraries are permitted to photocopy for private use. Instructors are permitted to photocopy, for private use, isolated articles for non-commercial classroom use without fee. For other copies, reprint, or republication permission, write to IIIS Copyright Manager, 13750 West Colonial Dr Suite 350 – 408, Winter Garden, Florida 34787, U.S.A. All rights reserved. Copyright 2013. © by the International Institute of Informatics and Systemics. The papers of this book comprise the proceedings of the conference mentioned on the title and the cover page. They reflect the authors’ opinions and, with the purpose of timely disseminations, are published as presented and without change. Their inclusion in these proceedings does no necessarily constitute endorsement by the editors. ISBN: 978-1-936338-93-1 (Post-Conference Edition) The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics: IMSCI 2013 PROGRAM COMMITTEE Chairs: Freddy Malpica (Venezuela) Friedrich Welsch (Venezuela) Acerete, Basilio Cost, Richard Domoshnitsky, Alexander Florescu, Gabriela C. Gore, David Hallagan, Jean E. Hendel, Russell Jay Hopper, Kimberly Jonson, Mark Lappas, Georgios Lee, Marie D. Ong, Soh-Khim Petit, Frédéric Rauch, Allen G. Royo, Sonia Schiering, Marjorie S. Sulema, Yevgeniya S. Suresh, Lal B. Yavich, Roman Yetano, Ana Zaretsky, Esther University of Zaragoza Johns Hopkins University Ariel University Center National Institute for R&D in Informatics Eastern Michigan University SUNY Oswego Towson University Eastern Michigan University Army Research TEI Henry Ford Health System National University of Singapore Polytechnic Montreal Molloy College University of Zaragoza Molloy College National Technical University of Ukraine Kakatiya University Ariel University University of Zaragoza Academic College for Education Givat Washington Spain USA Israel Romania USA USA USA USA USA Greece USA Singapore Canada USA Spain USA Ukraine India Israel Spain Israel The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics: IMSCI 2013 ADDITIONAL REVIEWERS Abdel Hafez, Hoda Abdel Razek, Mohammed Abdel-Qader, Ikhlas And One, Ioan Andreopoulou, Zacharoula Aranda, Daniel Beer, Martin Beligiannis, Grigorios Bordogna, Roberto Bouza-Herrera, Carlos Narciso Caldararu, Florin Chau, Kwok-Wing Cho, Eunsoon Cisneros-Cohernour, Edith Cubukcu, Feryal Diallo, Anthony Dvorakova, Zuzana Elías Hardy, Lidia Lauren Encabo, Eduardo Ercole, Enrico Eze, Uchenna Fillion, Gerard Florescu, Gabriela Fonseca, David Frosch-Wilke, Dirk Fúster-Sabater, Amparo Gorge, Najah Guo, Gongde Hou, Jianjun Huang, Hsiu-Mei Ibrahim, Hamidah Iovan, Stefan Ismail, Mohd Nasir Jonson, Mark Joubert, Pieter Kalwinsky, Bob Khechine, Hager Suez Canal University University of Montreal Western Michigan University University of Iasi Aristotle University of Thessaloniki Open University of Catalonia Sheffield Hallam University University of Patras-Western Greece Istituto Superiore di Studi Avanzati University of Havana ECOSEN Hong Kong Polytechnic University Mokwon University Autonomous University of Yucatan Dokuz Eylul University Sahara Media Group Ltd University of Economics Prague Institute of Technology and Applied Sciences University of Murcia University of Eastern Piedmont Nanyang Technological University University of Moncton National Institute for R&D in Informatics Ramon Llull University University of Applied Sciences Kiel Spanish Council for Scientific Research Precitec Inc. Fujian Normal University Peking University National Taichung Institute of Technology Universiti Putra Romanian Railway IT Company MARA University of Technology RDECOM University of Pretoria Middle Tennessee State University Laval University Egypt Canada USA Romania Greece Spain UK Greece Italy Cuba Romania Hong Kong South Korea Mexico Turkey Tanzania Czech Republic Cuba Spain Italy Singapore Canada Romania Spain Germany Spain USA China China Taiwan Malaysia Romania Malaysia USA South Africa USA Canada Kim, E-Jae Kropid, Wendy Kuang, Yu Kumaran, Thangavelu Lai, Cristian Lasmanis, Aivars Law, Rob Lee, Keon-Hyung Lenaghan, Michael J. Lind, Nancy Litvin, Vladimir Loeb, Gene Mahanti, Prabhat Majid, Shaheen Mihaita, Niculae Mitchell, Charles Mohamed, Jedra Mondéjar Jiménez, Juan A. Monney Paiva, Joao Montaña, Mireia Nedic, Zorica Nousala, Susu Objelean, Nicolae Ong, Soh-Khim Opfer, Neil Orsitto, Fulvio Pester, Andreas Prodan, Augustin Rajamony, Bhuvenesh Romagni, Susana Sala, Nicoletta Sánchez-Navarro, Jordi Sanz-González, José L. Sathyamoorthy, Dinesh Scholl, Margit Snow, Richard Soner, Yildirim Stomp, Frank Sulema, Yevgeniya Sureerattanan, Nidapan Tenqchen, Shing Thammakoranonta, Nithinant Toledo, Cheri Usmanov, Zafar Wang, Ching-Huang Wang, Yi-Hsien Wolfinger, Bernd Xia, Shunren Yaras, Eyyup Yeniçeri, Tülay Zwaneveld, Bert LG Electronics Institute of Technology University of Wisconsin Stanford University University of Madras CRS4 University of Latvia The Hong Kong Polytechnic University Florida State University Miami Dade College Illinois State University California Institute of Technology Center for Technology and Health University of New Brunswick Nanyang Technological University Academy of Economic Studies, Bucharest Grambling State University University in Rabat University of Castilla-La Mancha Polytechnic of Viseu Open University of Catalonia University of South Australia University of Melbourne State University of Moldova National University of Singapore University of Nevada University of Connecticut Carinthia Tech Institute Iuliu Hatieganu University University Malaysia Perlis Metropolitan University Università della Svizzera italiana Open University of Catalonia Polytechnic University of Madrid STRIDE University of Applied Sciences Wildau Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University Middle East Technical University Wayne State University National Technical University of Ukraine Thai-Nichi Institute of Technology ChungHwa Telecom Labs National Institute of Development Administration Illinios State University Tajik Academy of Sciences National Formosa University Chinese Culture University University of Hamburg Zhejiang University Aksaray University Aksaray University Open University South Korea USA USA India Italy Latvia Hong Kong USA USA USA USA USA Canada Singapore Romania USA Morocco Spain Portugal Spain Australia Australia Moldova Singapore USA USA Austria Romania Malaysia Venezuela Italy Spain Spain Malaysia Germany USA Turkey USA Ukraine Thailand Taiwan Thailand USA Tajikistan Taiwan Taiwan Germany China Turkey Turkey Netherlands The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics: IMSCI 2013 ADDITIONAL REVIEWERS FOR THE NON-BLIND REVIEWING Acevedo-M., María-Elena Alvarez, Omar Barbosa, Catia Bonometti, Virginia Broten, Regina Dieringer, Eve Foko, Thato Gentile, Douglas Hulshof, Ana Johnson, Luna Kaczmarek, Tomasz Kanthawongs, Penjira Kikis Papadakis, Kathy Koshy, Swapna Kotze, Danelle Larios Osorio, Víctor López-Sánchez, Máximo Misbahuddin, Syed Murphy, Tom Musial, Jedrzej Najjar, Lotfi Opfer, Neil Pavarala, Vinod Pellegrin-Romeggio, Frederic Rosas Téllez, Lorna Verónica Saglietto, Laurence Sahin Basfirinci, Cigdem Sample, Travis Sanchez, Carol Sarker, Muahmad Jahangir Sathyamoorthy, Dinesh Silva, Cristiano Srinivasan, Satish Todesco, José Leomar IPN Universidad de Colima Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais MGB Enterprises LLC Molloy College Molloy College CSIR Iowa State University UX Consultant University of North Carolina Poznan University of Economics Bangkok University Institute of Applied and Computational Mathematics University of Wollongong in Dubai University of the Western Cape Autonomous University of Queretaro CENIDET Umm Al-Qura University Contra Costa College Poznan University of Technology University of Nebraska University of Nevada University of Hyderabad Reims Management School UPAEP L'IAE de Nice Karadeniz Technical University Shenandoah University Professor Emeritus Grand Valley State University Umm Al-Qura University STRIDE Federal University of São João del Rei University of Nebraska Stela Institute Mexico Mexico Brazil USA USA USA South Africa USA Canada USA Poland Thailand Greece UAE South Africa Mexico Mexico Saudi Arabia USA Poland USA USA India France Mexico France Turkey USA USA Saudi Arabia Malaysia Brazil USA Brazil Usmanov, Zafar Vargas Sánchez, Nelson A. Vitkute, Daiva Yeniceri, Tulay Zanella Palacios, Vittorio Tajik Academy of Sciences Universidad Distrital Vytautas Magnus University Aksaray University UPAEP Tajikistan Colombia Lithuania Turkey Mexico The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics: IMSCI 2013 Honorary President William Lesso Program Committee Chairs Freddy Malpica Friedrich Welsch General Chairs Nagib Callaos Andrés Tremante Organizing Committee Chairs Angel Oropeza José Vicente Carrasquero Conferences Program Manager Maria Sánchez Hardcopy Proceedings Production Chair Maria Sánchez Technical Consultant on Computing Systems / CD Proceedings Production Chair Juan Manuel Pineda Submissions Quality Control Support Leonardo Contreras Meta-Reviewers Support Dalia Sánchez Systems Development, Maintenance and Deployment Dalia Sánchez Keyla Guedez Bebzabeth García Operational Assistants Marcela Briceño Help Desk Louis Barnes The 11th International Conference on Education and Information Systems, Technologies and Applications: EISTA 2013 in the context of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics: IMSCI 2013 PROGRAM COMMITTEE Chairs: Angel Oropeza (Venezuela) Friedrich Welsch (Venezuela) José Vicente Carrasquero (Venezuela) Amoia, Marilisa Antonucci, Paul Ayuga, Francisco Beauboeuf, Theresa Bidarra, José Chang, Maiga Doerfler, R. L. Dosi, Vasiliki Dotter, Franz Fradkin, Larissa Fuentes, José-María Gaeta, Matteo García, Ana-Isabel Guntuku, Dileepkumar Harriehausen-M., Bettina Hartpence, Bruce H. Hendel, Russell Jay Hilzensauer, Marlene Holpp, M. Holz-Clause, Mary Jarméus, Pierre Jones, Paul Kalay, Yehuda Karamat, Parwaiz Krakowska, Monika Lang, R. Raymond Marshall, Laurel A. Martin, Susan Masog, Simone Mertens, K. C. Métioui, Abdeljalil Michon, Daniel Miller-Friedmann, Jaimie L. Miranda, Sergio O’Sullivan, Jill Orciuoli, Francesco Paolozzi, Stefano Pfeifer, Michael Poce, Antonella Ramírez, Álvaro Rastogi, Rahul Ripley, M. Louise Sanger, Patrick INRIA Lorraine Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics Technical University of Madrid Southeastern Louisiana University University of Aberta Athabasca University Federal Agency for Agriculture and Food University of Ioannina University of Klagenfurt Sound Mathematics Ltd. Technical University of Madrid Università degli Studi di Salerno Technical University of Madrid Iowa State University Darmstadt University of Applied Sciences Rochester Institute of Technology Towson University University of Klagenfurt Agroscope Iowa State University Stockholm School of Economics University of Cincinnati Israel Institute of Technology The Open Polytechnic of New Zealand Jagiellonian University Xavier University of Louisiana Kingsborough Community College Indiana University of Pennsylvania Stockholm School of Economics Institute for Agricultural and Fisheries Research Université du Québec à Montréal Claremont McKenna College Harvard University Università degli studi di Salerno Farmingdale State College Università degli studi di Salerno Università Roma Tre Technical University of Dortmund Università Roma Tre Technical University of Madrid Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University York University Alvin Community College France USA Spain USA Portugal Canada Germany Greece Austria UK Spain Italy Spain USA Germany USA USA Austria Switzerland USA Sweden USA Israel New Zealand Poland USA USA USA Sweden Belgium Canada USA USA Italy USA Italy Italy Germany Italy Spain South Africa Canada USA Schiering, Marjorie S. Sienkiewicz, Frank Soeiro, Alfredo Styron, Jennifer Styron, Jr., Ronald A. Sundberg, Carl Swart, William Takahashi, Kaoru Thysen, I. Trudel, Louis Vaida, Mircea-Florin Vangeyte, J. Von Haselberg, C. Von Solms, Rossouw Ward, R. Bruce Wieckert, Sarah Williams van Rooij, Shahron Zaretsky, Esther Zaritsky, Arieh Molloy college Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics University of Porto University of South Alabama The University of Southern Mississippi Stockholm School of Economics East Carolina University Toyota National College of Technology Aarhus University Ottawa University Technical University of Cluj-Napoca Institute for Agricultural and Fisheries Research Leibniz-Institut für Agrartechnik Potsdam-Bornim e.V. Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics Technical University of Dortmund George Mason University Academic College for Education Givat Washington Ben-Gurion University of the Negev USA USA Portugal USA USA Sweden USA Japan Denmark Canada Romania Belgium Germany South Africa USA Germany USA Israel Israel The 11th International Conference on Education and Information Systems, Technologies and Applications: EISTA 2013 in the context of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics: IMSCI 2013 ADDITIONAL REVIEWERS Abar, Celina Abrukov, Victor Abubakar, Ahmed Abureesh, Ali Acma, Bulent Ali, Ahmed Alshanableh, Tayseer Andreopoulou, Zacharoula Ariton, Viorel Arsov, Silyan Azman, Hazita Baker, John Bamidis, Panagiotis Batovski, Dobri Atanassov Baumeister, Alexander Baysal, Ugur Beierschmitt, Penny Belderrain, Carmen Berge, Zane Bhuvaneswaran, R. S. Bjering, Heidi Breczko, Teodor Canalda, Philippe Castaneda, Sandra Chan, Chiu-Shui Chau, K. W. Chaudhry, Abdus Chen, Chau-Kuang Cheng, Tsung-Chi Chopra, Nidhi Chu, Louis Coppola, Jean Costa, Mónica Cotet, Costel Emil Cubukcu, Feryal de Vries, Marc DeBaillie, Catherine Delgado, Alberto Demmon, Terri Diaz Negrillo, Ana Dukic, Darko Dukic, Gordana Dumdum, Uldarico Rex Pontifical Catholic University of Sao Paulo Chuvash State University United Arab Emirates University Umm al-Qura University Anadolu University University of Wisconsin La Crosse Near East University Aristotle University of Thessaloniki Danubius University University of Ruse National University of Malaysia Johns Hopkins University Aristotle University of Thessaloniki Assumption University Saarland University Hacettepe University Lockheed Martin Corporation Aeronautical Institute of Technology University of Maryland Nagoya Institute of Technology University of Western Sydney University of Bilystok l' Université de Franche-Comté Autonomous University of Mexico Iowa State University Hong Kong Polytechnic University Kuwait University Meharry Medical College National Chengchi University Indira Gandhi National Open University Hong Kong Polytechnic University Pace University Polytechnic Institute of Castelo Branco Polytechnic University of Bucharest Dokuz Eylul University Delft University of Technology Trinity College of Nursing and Health Sciences National University of Colombia Notre Dame University University of Granada Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek Marywood University Brazil Russian Federation UAE Saudi Arabia Turkey USA Turkey Greece Romania Bulgaria Malaysia USA Greece Thailand Germany Turkey USA Brazil USA Japan Australia Poland France Mexico USA Hong Kong Kuwait USA Taiwan India Hong Kong USA Portugal Romania Turkey Netherlands USA Colombia USA Spain Croatia Croatia USA Edwards-Henry, Anna Ekstrom, Joseph Erbacher, Robert Eze, Uchenna Faggiano, Eleonora Fillion, Gerard Finch, Aikyna Delores Finkbine, Ronald Florescu, Gabriela Fougeres, Alain-Jerome Frosch-Wilke, Dirk Fúster-Sabater, Amparo Gavrilova, Tatiana Gedviliene, Genute Gelbukh, Alexander Ghaddar, Nesreen Gharsallah, Ali Giurgiu, Mircea Goldberg, Robert Gujjar, Aijaz Ahmed Güler, Ýnan H.Abimbola, Soriyan Hadjerrouit, Said Harichandan, Dhaneswar Hartley, Roger Hassini, Abdelatif Hellstern, Gerd-Michael Herrera, Oriel Hsu, Donald Hsu, Li-Ling Hussain, Aini Ibrahim, Hamidah Idowu, Adebayo Peter Ikeguchi, Cecilia Imbalzano, Giovanni Ismail, Maizatul Akmar Ismail, Zuraini Jong, BinShyan Kalwinsky, Bob Kaur, Kiran Kim, Dongsik Klimo, Martin Koshy, Swapna Kropid, Wendy Kroumov, Valeri Kuang, Yu Lasmanis, Aivars Lee, KyungOh Lefoe, Geraldine Logan, Kerina Lowes, Susan Macianskiene, Nemira Madsen, Leza Mahanti, Prabhat Malenovsky, Eduard University of the West Indies Brigham Young University Utah State University Nanyang Technological University University of Bari University of Moncton Strayer University Indiana University Southeast Imperial Chemical Industries University of Technology of Belfort-Montbéliard University of Applied Sciences Kiel Institute of Applied Physics Saint Petersburg State university Vytautas Magnus University Instituto Politécnico Nacional American University of Beirut University of Tunis El Manar Technical University of Cluj-Napoca City University of New York Federal College of Education Gazi University Obafemi Awolowo University University of Agder University of Mumbai Leeds University Laboratory of Application and Analysis of Radiations University of Kassel Temuco Catholic University Dominican College of Blauvelt NTUNHS University Kebangsaan Putra Malaysia University Obafemi Awolowo University Tsukuba Gakuin University M.P.I. (Maker / Retired Professor) University of Malaya University Technology of Malaysia Chung Yuan Christian University Middle Tennessee State University University of Malaya Hanyang University University of Zilina University of Wollongong in Dubai University of Wisconsin Superior Okayama University of Science Stanford University University of Latvia Sunmoon University University of Wollongong Massey University Columbia University Teachers College Vytautas Magnus University Western Washington University University of New Brunswick Brno University of Technology Trinidad and Tobago USA USA Singapore Italy Canada USA USA Romania France Germany Spain Russian Federation Lithuania Mexico Lebanon Tunisia Romania USA Pakistan Turkey Nigeria Norway India UK Algeria Germany Chile USA Taiwan Malaysia Malaysia Nigeria Japan Italy Malaysia Malaysia Taiwan USA Malaysia South Korea Slovakia UAE USA Japan USA Latvia South Korea Australia New Zealand USA Lithuania USA Canada Czech Republic Marchisio, Susana Martínez, Liliana Inés Matyashenko, Grigory McWright, Mac Mendoza-Hannan, Juana Metrolho, Jose Mihir, Fnu Milosz, Marek Moch, Peggy Molina, Silvia Mondéjar-Jiménez, Juan-Antonio Monney Paiva, Joao Mueller, Julie Mullins, Michael Olivetti Belardinelli, Marta Paraskevas, Michael Pastor, Jorge Patton, Barba Pech-Campos, Silvia Pereira, Claudia Teresa Pessoa, Fernando Pester, Andreas Poobrasert, Onintra Post, Paul Potter, Marcia Prata, Alcina Quintanar, Daniel Rabe, Vlasta Rahman, Hakikur Rajamony, Bhuvenesh Rasmani, Khairul A. Reyes, María Elena Reyes-Méndez, Jorge Joel Riihentaus, Juhani Romagni, Susana Rudd, Lauren Rutkowski, Jerzy Sami, Mariagiovanna Saminpanya, Seriwat Sanz González, José L. Sasaki, Hitoshi Schoenacher, Sheryl Serwatka, Judy Ann Sh Abdullah, Siti Aishah Shiratuddin, Norshuhada Silber, Kevin Singhal, Divya Skolud, Bozena Smith, Stella Snow, Mary Soltes, Dusan Soutsas, Konstantinos Stein, Sarah Su, Te-Jen Sulema, Yevgeniya National University of Rosario National University of Central Buenos Aires SBRAS Nova Southeastern University New Mexico State University Polytechnic Institute of Castelo Branco Broward College Lublin Technical University Valdosta State University Universidad Politécnica de Madrid University of Castilla-La Mancha Institute Polytechnic of Viseu Wilfrid Laurier University University of Aalborg Sapienza University of Rome Computer Technology Institute University of Zaragoza University of Houston Victoria Autonomous University of Yucatan National University of Central Buenos Aires Federal University of Rio de Janeiro Carinthia Tech Institute National Electronics and Computer Technology Center The Ohio State University Ministry of Education Escola Superior de Ciências Empresariais Tucson Water University of Hradec Kralove Sustainable Development Network Prog. University Malaysia Perlis Universiti Teknologi MARA University of Texas Pan American Metropolitan Autonomous University University of Oulu Universidad Metropolitana Middle Tennessee State University Silesian University of Technology Polytechnic University of Milan Srinakharinwirot University Polytechnic University of Madrid Takushoku University Farmingdale State College Purdue University North Central University Technology Mara Universiti Utara University of Derby Goa Institute of Management Silesian University of Technology Georgia Gwinnett College Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University Comenius University in Bratislava Technological Educational Institution of Larissa University of Otago National Kaohsiung University of Applied Sciences National Technical University of Ukraine Argentina Argentina Russian Federation USA USA Portugal USA Poland USA Spain Spain Portugal Canada Denmark Italy Greece Spain USA Mexico Argentina Brazil Austria Thailand USA Virgin Islands (U.K.) Portugal USA Czech Republic Bangladesh Malaysia Malaysia USA Mexico Finland Venezuela USA Poland Italy Thailand Spain Japan USA USA Malaysia Malaysia UK India Poland USA USA Slovakia Greece New Zealand Taiwan Ukraine Suranauwarat, Sukanya Suviniitty, Jaana Tan, Ying Taylor, Stephen Thijssen, Thomas Thirunarayanan, M. O. Thorsos, Nilsa Tobos, Valentina Torrisi-Steele, Geraldine Tsaur, Woei-Jiunn Tuzun, Hakan Ulovec, Andreas Valova, Irena Varughese, Joe Vintere, Anna Wan Ali, Wan Zah Wang, Ching-Huang Wang, Jau-Shyong Wang, Jianqi Wang, Jing Wang, Zhigang Weeden, Elissa Whitworth, Jerry Wolfinger, Bernd Wu, Chu-Chu Wu, Tung-Xiung (Sean) Yamacli, Rusen Yin, Peng-Yeng Yueh, Hsiu-Ping Zainon Hamzah, Zaitul Azma Zayan, Mohamed Zhang, Yuanzhong Zwaneveld, Bert National Institute of Development Administration Helsinki University of Technology Peking University University of Sussex Saxion University Florida International University Azusa Pacific University Lawrence Technological University Griffith University Dayeh University Hacettepe University University of Vienna University of Rousse Northern Alberta Institute of Technology Latvia University of Agriculture Putra Malaysia University National Formosa University Shu Te University Ohio State University Purdue University Indianapolis Fort Valley State University Rochester Institute of Technology Texas Woman`s University University of Hamburg Georgia Southwestern State University Shih Hsin University Anadolu University National Chi-Nan University National Taiwan University Putra Malaysia University Nilesat Company Miami Dade College Open University Thailand Finland China Canada Netherlands USA USA USA Australia Taiwan Turkey Austria Bulgaria Canada Latvia Malaysia Taiwan Taiwan USA USA USA USA USA Germany USA Taiwan Turkey Taiwan Taiwan Malaysia Egypt USA Netherlands The 11th International Conference on Education and Information Systems, Technologies and Applications: EISTA 2013 In the context of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics: IMSCI 2013 ADDITIONAL REVIEWERS FOR THE NON-BLIND REVIEWING Abreu, Rosane Abureesh, Ali Ajidahun, Clement Ali Ayari, Mohammed Amos, Christopher Ayari, Arslan Barouh, Ieroham Belkin, Markus Biin, Dianne Bogomolov, Alexander Border, Charles Case, Thomas Cavkaytar, Atilla Cavkaytar, Serap Chei, Choy Lye Chen, Li-We Cole, Shadyah Correa, Ana Grasielle Costa, Aparecido Doniseti da Costa, Manuel Cuadrado, Georgina Dakhil, Nazera Demirkiran, Ilteris Ekenberg, Love Ferris, Maria Foster, Harold Fryer, Marilyn Gavrilova, Tatiana Gibertoni, Daniela Gilbert, Benjamin Góes, Luís Fabrício González, Eugenio González, Lourdes Guntuku, Dileepkumar Gyula, Horváth Herbert, Katherine Hochrainer, Stefan Hofbauer, Vera Hsieh, Hui-Lin Jiang, Nianjuan Johnson, Eric Kaewwit, Raweewan Krach, R. Michael FIOCRUZ Umm al-Qura University Adekunle Ajasin University Qatar university University of West Florida Qatar University CINVESTV Monash University Camosun College Volgograd State Architecture-Building University Rochester Institute of Technology Georgia State University Anadolu University Anadolu University Duke-NUS National Kaohsiung Norma Umm Al-Qura university Mackenzie Presbyterian University FATEC Taquaritinga University of Minho Technical University of Madrid University of Kufa Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University Stockholm University University of North Carolina The University of Akron The Creativity Centre Education Trust Saint Petersburg State university FATEC Taquaritinga FIOCRUZ Pontifical Catholic University of Minas Gerais Universidad Tecnica Federico Santa María Miami Dade College Iowa State University University of Szeged Montclair State University International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis Via donau WuFeng University Advanced Digital Sciences Center Valparaiso University Bangkok University Towson University Brazil Saudi Arabia Nigeria Qatar USA Qatar Mexico Australia Canada Russian Federation USA USA Turkey Turkey Singapore Taiwan Saudi Arabia Brazil Brazil Portugal Spain Iraq USA Sweden USA USA UK Russian Federation Brazil Brazil Brazil Chile USA USA Hungary USA Austria Austria Taiwan Singapore USA Thailand USA Kurt, Adile Askim Lin, Che-Chern Liu, Peixiang Markowsky, George Marone, Dan Masticola, Stephen Matthews, Patricia Maulding, Wanda Meira, Dilmar Mihir, Fnu Mohammed S., Hind R. Mohtashami, Mojgan Molina, Silvia Moyer, Todd Munn, Alison Noochniyom, Jiranooch Obrien, Joanne Palmer, Elisabeth Pecore, John Lee Pei, Tzusheng Potorac, Alin Dan Prandtstetter, Matthias Prust, Russell Satyamurthy, Kailasam Sh Abdullah, Siti Aishah Shore, Felice Silvernail, Nathan Simmons, Lakisha Smith, Debbie Svensson, Bo Tansiri, Panida Thomson, Simon Unalan, Turgay Vachharajani, Tushar Wasserman, Egoza Weston, Marla Williams van Rooij, Shahron Xu, Zhiguang Yu, Jianxing Zwaneveld, Bert Anadolu University National Kaohsiung Norma Nova Southeastern University University of Maine Farmingdale State College Siemens Corporate Research University of Utah University of South Alabama Pontifical Catholic University of Minas Gerais Broward College University of Kufa Advanced Infrastructure Design Technical University of Madrid Towson University Leeds Metropolitan University Kasem Bundit University Molloy College Aspen Associates University of West Florida Jackson State University University of Suceava AIT Austrian Institute of Technology Northern Arizona University Penn State University University Technology Mara Towson University Embry-Riddle Aeronautical Univresity Belmont Univesity YSU Linköping University Bangkok University Leeds Metropolitan University Anadolu University VA Medical Center Lifshitz College of Education Jerusalem Camosun College George Mason University Valdosta State University Institute for Infocomm Research Open University Turkey Taiwan USA USA USA USA USA USA Brazil USA Iraq USA Spain USA UK Thailand USA USA USA USA Romania Austria USA USA Malaysia USA USA USA USA Sweden Thailand UK Turkey USA Israel Canada USA USA Singapore Netherlands The 11th International Conference on Education and Information Systems, Technologies and Applications: EISTA 2013 in the context of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics: IMSCI 2013 Honorary President Freddy Malpica Program Committee Chairs Angel Oropeza Friedrich Welsch José Vicente Carrasquero General Chair Nagib Callaos Organizing Committee Chairs Andrés Tremante Belkis Sánchez Conferences Program Manager Maria Sánchez Hardcopy Proceedings Production Chair Maria Sánchez Technical Consultant on Computing Systems / CD Proceedings Production Chair Juan Manuel Pineda Submissions Quality Control Support Leonardo Contreras Meta-Reviewers Support Dalia Sánchez Systems Development, Maintenance and Deployment Dalia Sánchez Keyla Guedez Bebzabeth García Operational Assistants Marcela Briceño Help Desk Louis Barnes Number of Papers Included in these Proceedings per Country (The country of the first author was the one taken into account for these statistics) Country TOTAL United States Brazil Taiwan Thailand Japan Mexico United Kingdom Austria Canada Czech Republic France Hungary Israel Lithuania Russian Federation Saudi Arabia Singapore South Africa Spain Sweden Turkey United Arab Emirates # Papers 53 22 4 3 3 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 % 100.00 41.51 7.55 5.66 5.66 3.77 3.77 3.77 1.89 1.89 1.89 1.89 1.89 1.89 1.89 1.89 1.89 1.89 1.89 1.89 1.89 1.89 1.89 Foreword Informatics and Cybernetics (communication and control) are having an increasing impact on societies and in the globalization process that is integrating them. Societies are trying to regulate this impact, and adapt it to their respective cultural infra-structures. Societies and cultures are in reciprocal co-adaptations with Information and Communication Technologies. Synergic relationships might emerge in this co-adaptation process by means of positive and negative feedback loops, as well as feedforward ones. This would make the whole larger than the sum of its parts, generating emergent properties in the parts involved as well as in the whole coming forth. The academic, private, and public sectors are integrating their activities; multi-disciplinary groups and inter-disciplinary teams are being formed, and collaborative research and development projects are being organized in order to facilitate and adequately orient the design and implementation of the feedback and the feedforward loops, and potentially generating synergic relationships. This phenomenon persuaded the Organizing Committee to organize the 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) in a multi-disciplinary context along with other collocated events. Consequently, participants may focus on one discipline, while allowing them the possibility of attending conferences from other disciplines. This systemic approach stimulates cross-fertilization among different disciplines, inspiring scholars, originating new hypothesis, supporting production of innovations and generating analogical thinking. IMSCI 2013 was organized and sponsored by the International Institute of Informatics and Systemics (IIIS, www.iiis.org), member of the International Federation of Systems Research (IFSR). The IIIS is a multi-disciplinary organization for inter-disciplinary communication and integration, which includes about 4500 members. Consequently, a main purpose of the IIIS is to foster knowledge integration processes, interdisciplinary communication, and integration of academic activities. Based on 1) the transdisciplinarity of the systemic approach and its emphasis on relationships and integrating processes, and 2) the multi-disciplinary support of cybernetics’ and informatics’ concepts, notions, theories, technologies, and tools, the IIIS has been organizing multi-disciplinary conferences as a platform for fostering inter-disciplinary communication and knowledge integration processes. Multi-disciplinary conferences are organized by the IIIS as support for both intra- and inter-disciplinary communication. Processes of intra-disciplinary communication are mainly achieved via traditional paper presentations in corresponding disciplines, while conversational sessions, regarding trans- and inter-disciplinary topics, are among the means used for interdisciplinary communication. Intra- and inter-disciplinary communications might generate co-regulative cybernetic loops, via negative feedback, and synergic relationships, via positive feedback loops, in which both kinds of communications could increase their respective effectiveness. Figure 1 shows at least two cybernetic loops if intra- and inter-disciplinary are adequately related. A necessary condition for the effectiveness of Inter-disciplinary communication is an adequate level of variety regarding the participating disciplines. Analogical thinking and learning processes of disciplinarians depend on it; which in turn are potential sources of the creative tension required for crossfertilization among disciplines and the generations of new hypothesis. An extended presentation regarding this issue can be found at www.iiis.org/MainPupose. Figure 1 One of the main purposes of IMSCI 2013 is to bring together academics, professionals, and managers from the private and the public sectors, in order to share ideas, results of research, and innovative services or products, in a multi-disciplinary and multi-sector forum. Educational technologies, socio-economic organizations, and socio-political processes are essential domains among those involved in the evolving co-adaptation and co-transformation between societies and cultures on the one hand, and between informatics and cybernetics (communication and control) on the other hand. Consequently, the main conference in the context of the IMSCI 2013 Multi-Conference is the 11th International Conference on Education and Information Systems, Technologies and Applications: EISTA 2013 The relationship between education/training and Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) is quickly intensifying and sometimes appears in unexpected forms and in combination with original ideas, innovative tools, methodologies, and synergies. Accordingly, the primary purpose of the 10th International Conference on Education and Information Systems, Technologies and Applications (EISTA 2013) has been to bring together researchers and practitioners from both areas together to support the emerging bridge between education/training and the ICT communities. In the context of EISTA 2013, practitioners and consultants were invited to present case studies and innovative solutions. Corporations were invited to present education/training information systems and software-based solutions. Teachers and professors were invited to present case studies, specifically developed information systems, and innovative ideas and designs. Educational scientists and technologists were invited to present research or position papers on the impact and the future possibilities of ICT in educational systems, training processes, and methodologies. Managers of educational organizations and training consultants were invited to present problems that might be solved by ICT or solutions that might be improved by different approaches and designs in ICT. EISTA 2013 provides a forum for the presentation of solutions and problems in the application of ICT in the fields of education/training. Authors of the papers included in the proceedings provided diverse answers to the following questions: • • • • What is the impact of ICT in education and training? How are ICTs affecting and improving education and training? What networks and models are emerging? How are universities, schools, corporations and other educational/training organizations making use of ICT? What electronic tools are there to facilitate e-learning, distance education and cooperative training? On behalf of the Organizing Committees, I extend our heartfelt thanks to: 1. the 112 members of the Program Committees (21 members of the IMSCI 2013’s PC and 91 members of the PCs related to the conferences and special tracks in the context of IMSCI 2013) from 27 countries; 2. the 314 additional reviewers, from 63 countries, for their double-blind peer reviews; and 3. the 123 reviewers, from 37 countries, for their efforts in making the non-blind peer reviews. (Some reviewers supported both: non-blind and double-blind reviewing for different submissions) A total of 886 reviews made by 437 reviewers (who made at least one review) contributed to the quality achieved in IMSCI 2013. This means an average of 8.52 reviews per submission (104 submissions were received). Each registered author had access, via the conference web site, to the reviews that recommended the acceptance of their respective submissions. Each registered author could also get information about: 1) the average of the reviewers evaluations according to 8 criteria, and the average of a global evaluation of his/her submission; and 2) the comments and the constructive feedback made by the reviewers, who recommended the acceptance of his/her submission, so the author would be able to improve the final version of the paper. In the organizational process of IMSCI 2013, about 104 papers/abstracts were submitted. These pre-conference proceedings include about 53 papers, from 22 countries that were accepted for presentation (48 countries taking into account the presentations in collocated events). I extend our thanks to the invited sessions and special tracks organizers for collecting, reviewing, and selecting the papers that will be presented in their respective sessions. The submissions were reviewed as carefully as time permitted; it is expected that most of them will appear in a more polished and complete form in scientific journals. This information about IMSCI 2013 is summarized in the following table, along with the other collocated conferences: Conference # of submissions received # of reviewers that made at least one review # of reviews made WMSCI 2013 210 740 1330 IMSCI 2013 104 437 886 IMETI 2013 78 346 667 CISCI 2013 184 693 TOTAL 576 2216 Average of reviews per submission # of papers included in the proceedings % of submissions included in the proceedings 1.80 6.33 116 55.24% 2.03 8.52 53 50.96% 1.93 8.55 32 41.03% 1771 2.56 9.63 93 50.54% 4654 2.10 8.08 294 51.04% Average of reviews per reviewer We also extend our gratitude to the co-editors of these proceedings for the hard work, energy and eagerness they shown preparing their respective sessions. We express our intense gratitude to Professor William Lesso for his wise and opportune tutoring, for his eternal energy, integrity, and continuous support and advice, as the Program Committee Chair of past conferences, and as Honorary President of WMSCI 2013, as well as for being a very caring old friend and intellectual father to many of us. We also extend our gratitude to Professor Belkis Sánchez, who brilliantly managed the organizing process. We also express our immense gratitude to Professors Freddy Malpica, Friedrich Welsch, Jorge Baralt, Angel Oropeza, José Ferrer, Andrés Tremante, and José Vicente Carrasquero for chairing or co-chairing the respective Program Committees and/or Organizing Committees. We also extend our gratitude to the following scholars, researchers, and professionals who accepted to deliver plenary workshops and/or to address the audience of the General Joint Plenary Sessions with keynote conferences. Workshops, more details (abstracts and short bios) were included in the Conference Program booklet and at http://www.iiis.org/summer2013plenaryevents/ Professor Leonid Perlovsky, Harvard University and The Air Force Research Laboratory, USA, two hours plenary workshop, “Mathematical Equivalence of Evolution and Design” Professor Louis H. Kauffman, University of Illinois at Chicago, USA, two hours plenary workshop, “Circularity, Topology and Cybernetics: Second Order Science” Professor T. Grandon Gill, University of South Florida, USA, four hours plenary workshop, “Interdisciplinary Research, Education, and Communication through Case Studies and Methodologies” Plenary Keynote Speakers, more details more details (abstracts and short bios) were included in the Conference Program booklet and at http://www.iiis.org/summer2013plenaryevents/ Professor Leonid Perlovsky, Harvard University and The Air Force Research Laboratory, USA, “Musical Emotions: Cognitive function and evolution: A mathematical-psychological theory and experimental evidence.” Professor Louis H. Kauffman, University of Illinois at Chicago, USA, “Circularity, Topology and Cybernetics: Second Order Science” Professor Stuart A. Umpleby, The George Washington University, USA, “Expansion of Science.” Professor Shigehiro Hashimoto, Kogakuin University, Japan, “An interdisciplinary area of research offers the tool of cross-cultural understanding: cross-cultural student seminar for communication training on biomedical engineering.” Professor T. Grandon Gill, University of South Florida, USA, “Complexity, Cybernetics, and Informing Science: Building a Better Mousetrap.” Dr. Jeremy Horne, President-emeritus, Southwest Area Division, American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), USA, “Complexity, Cybernetics, and Informing Science: Building a Better Mousetrap” Dr. Karl Muller, University of Vienna, Austria and Head of The Wiener Institute for Social Science Documentation: WISDOM, Austria, “Unfolding and Expanding Science with the Help of the New Science of Cybernetics (NSC)” Professor Andreas Ninck, Bern University of Applied Sciences, Switzerland, “Action Learning: Doing in order to think - Thinking in order to do” Professor Richard Segall, Arkansas State University, USA, “Dimensionalities of Computation: from Global Supercomputing to Data, Text and Web Mining” Dr. Mark Donald Rahmes, Harris Corporation, USA, "A Biometric for Neurobiology of Influence with Social Informatics Using Game Theory" Dr. Denise K. Comer, Duke University, USA, “Academic Writing for Inter-Disciplinary Communication” Professor Thomas Marlowe, Seton Hall University, USA, “Systemics and Requirements: A Missing Dimension?” Dr. Ronald Styron, University of South Alabama, USA, “Interdisciplinary Education: A Reflection of the Real World.” Dr. Robert Cherinka and Mr. Joseph Prezzama, MITRE Corporation, USA “Trending Approaches in Innovation Utilizing Interdisciplinary Methods” Dr. Marta White, Georgia State University, USA, “The Scholarship of Teaching: Inter-Cultural and Inter-disciplinary Communication for Academic Globalization” Dr. Kostas Demestichas, National Technical University of Athens, Greece, “Flexible next generation communication networks” We also wish to thank all the authors for the quality of their papers, and the Program Committee members and the additional reviewers for their time and their contributions in the respective reviewing processes. We extend our gratitude as well to María Sánchez, Juan Manuel Pineda, Leonisol Callaos, Dalia Sánchez, Keyla Guédez, Bebzabeth García, Marcela Briceño, Louis Barnes, Sean Barnes, and Freddy Callaos for their knowledgeable effort in supporting the organizational process producing the hard copy and CD versions of the proceedings, developing and maintaining the software supporting the interactions of the authors with the reviewing process and the Organizing Committee, as well as for their support in the help desk and in the promotional process. Professor Andrés Tremante, and Professor Nagib Callaos (www.iiis.org/Nagib-Callaos ) IMSCI 2013 General Co-Chairs IMSCI 2013 The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics The 11th International Conference on Education and Information Systems, Technologies and Applications: EISTA 2013 Post-Conference Edition CONTENTS Contents i Education and Information Systems, Technologies and Applications Korman, Thomas; Johnston, Hal (USA): ''Moving an Academic Simulation Closer to a Heavy Construction Industry Tool by Adding an Equipment Management Module'' Mashl, R. Jay; Acs, Bernie; Wiziecki, Edee Norman; Schmidt, J. R.; Polik, William F. (USA): ''Enhancing Chemistry Teaching and Learning through Computational Tools: A Computational Chemistry Cloud Prototype Using WebMO'' Romero Rivera, Manuel; Aguilar Cisneros, Jorge (Mexico): ''Cubecraft Game: A Framework for Mobile Game’s Development'' Schiering, Marjorie S. *; Cerruto, Audra *; Benton, Tara *; McGovern, Beth *; Heilmann, Heidi *; McCarthy, Erin *; Hultman Jakobsson, Ann ** (* USA, ** Sweden): ''The Interactive Book Report: Playing the Pages'' Serumaga-Zake, Philip A. E. *; Arnab, R. ** (* South Africa, ** Botswana): ''A Suggested Statistical Procedure for Estimating the Minimum Sample Size Required for a Complex CrossSectional Study'' 1 6 10 16 23 Society, Cybernetics and Informatics Bonometti, Robert (USA): ''SuperReality: General Implications of “Big Data” Analytics and Artificial Intelligence for Individuals and Households in Society'' 29 Butrime, Edita; Zuzeviciute, Vaiva (Lithuania): ''e-Learning as a Socio-Cultural System (Elements to be Influenced and Influencing Elements)'' 38 Kurtulus, Sema; Kurtulus, Kemal; Ozturk, Selen (Turkey): ''Recent Trends and Prospects of Marketing Publications in Turkey'' 44 Laudares, Sandro; Abreu, João Francisco de (Brazil): ''Geotechnology: A New Approach Supporting Social Inclusion in Betim-MG'' 49 Leszczy ska, Dorota (France): ''Can We Put Forward a Mathematical Model of the Selection of a New Location for a Multinational Company?'' 54 Orantes-Jiménez, Sandra-Dinora; Vázquez-Álvarez, Graciela; Zavala-Galindo, Alejandro (Mexico): ''Trends in Information Security for Mexican Companies, is the Cloud Computing the Answer?'' i 59 Salm Junior, José Francisco; Koller, Karine; Schneider, Viviane; Pacheco, Roberto Carlos dos Santos (Brazil): ''Knowledge Network for Quality of Life'' 63 Tai, David W. S.; Hu, Yang-Chih; Wang, Ray; Zhang, Ren-Cheng; Chen, Jia-Ling (Taiwan): ''The Visual Presentation Model for Improving High School Students' Learning Outcomes'' 68 Tarnittanakorn, Nittana (Thailand): ''The Impacts of Social Responsibility and Social Media on the Success of International Ventures'' 74 White, Marta Szabo (USA): ''Cultural Lens: A Critical Variable in the Microfoundations of Strategic Problem Formulation'' 79 Application of Education Technologies Folley, Duncan; Wilkinson, Stephen; Barnes, Cathy; Scott, Philip Richard; Thorton, Quintan (UK): ''Discreet Event Simulation Used within the Food and Drink Industry'' 85 Hartpence, Bruce; Johnson, Daryl; Mason, Sharon; Stackpole, Bill (USA): ''Natural Selection in Virtualization Environments: A Decade of Lessons from Academia'' 91 Menyhárt, László; Pap, Gáborné (Hungary): ''How Can We Get Our Students to Think While We Help their Work Too? Document Based Development'' 97 Peterson, Patricia (USA): ''Providing Access to a Culturally Diverse Special Education Doctoral Program through Educational Technologies'' 103 Applications of Information and Communication Technologies in Education and Training Guo, Jiayan; Leong, David; Siang, Jonathan; Bahl, Vikram (Singapore): ''A User-Selectable Obscuration Framework to Censor Digital Videos for Children and Adolescents'' Kanthawongs, Penjira; Kanthawongs, Penjuree (Thailand): ''Perceived Usefulness, Perceived Ease of Use, and Attitude Related to e-Mail Usage toward Intention to Use e-Mail Systems of University Students'' Kanthawongs, Penjuree; Kanthawongs, Penjira; Chitcharoena, Chaisak (Thailand): ''Applying the Technology Acceptance Model in a Study of the Factors Affecting Intention to Use Facebook in Education of the Thai University Students'' Long, Cynthia; Ristvey, John (USA): ''Using Virtual Classroom: Learning through Video Analysis to Engage Educators in Meaningful Facilitated, Online Distance Learning'' Miyazaki, Yoshinori; Tanaka, Shosaku; Koyama, Yukie (Japan): ''A Tool Supporting Writing Technical Documents in English Using Corpora: Retrieving Functions by Cosine Similarity and Pattern Matching'' Souza-Concilio, Ilana A.; Anagusko, Claudio K.; Anacleto, Gracia M. C.; Pacheco, Beatriz A. (Brazil): ''CalcPlusWeb: A Computer Game to Stimulate the Reasoning in Mathematics'' ii 107 113 118 124 129 135 Styron, Jennifer L.; Cumbie, Barry (USA): ''Perceptions of Electronic Health Records in Mississippi'' 140 Education and Training Systems and Technologies Barb, Adrian S. (USA): ''Expertise Evaluation Using PathFinder Networks Scaling in Ranking of Satellite Images'' 147 Bialaszewski, Dennis (USA): ''Ebooks, Cost Savings, Creative Commons, and Enhancements to Lectures'' 153 Fernández, Trinidad *; García-Pérez, Grisel **; Santiago, Joaquin * (* Spain, ** Canada): ''A Language Exchange Program: Sustainability Innovation in Language and Culture Engagement'' 159 Hsieh, Ching-Jung (Taiwan): ''Strategies for Improving Creative Ability under the Context of Globalization in Higher Education'' 164 Johnson, Daryl; Stackpole, Bill; Mason, Sharon; Hartpence, Bruce (USA): ''Designing, Constructing and Implementing a Low-Cost Virtualization Cluster for Education'' 170 Trna, Josef (Czech Republic): ''How to Educate and Train Science Teachers in IBSE Experimentation'' 176 Villas-Bôas, Glauco; Monteiro, Maria da Conceição; Costa, Regina Coeli; Nunes, Sheila Torres (Brazil): ''Distance Education in the Service of Health and Sustainability'' 181 Zhu, Qi (USA): ''A Framework for Achieving Web Accessibility for University Web Sites'' 187 Education in Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics Budnik, Mark M. (USA): ''CreativEngineering for 2020'' Van de Vegte, Joyce (Canada): ''Digital Music Math: Technology as a STEM Teaching Tool for Aboriginal Students'' 192 195 Educational Research, Theories, Practice and Methodologies Chebchoub, Zahida (United Arab Emirates): ''Writing is Dead! Long Live Writing! Twitter; An Original Way to Engage ESL Learners'' Duellberg, Donna; Swendsen, Mary Ann; Hansen, Christine (USA): ''Multiple Perspectives Assessing Student Learning in Distance Based Education though Asynchronous Online Discussions'' 201 205 Hendel, Russell Jay (USA): ''Enriching Syllabi, Teaching and Testing Using Two-Step Problems'' 211 Lantz, Agneta; Brage, Christina (Sweden): ''A Re-Conceptualisation of Information Literacy in Accordance with New Social Media Contexts'' 217 iii Putz, Lisa-Maria; Schauer, Oliver (Austria): ''Demands Concerning Educational Media: Integration of Eco-Friendly Transport in Education and Training in Austria'' Styron, Jr., Ronald A. (USA): ''Enhancing Student Learning in STEM Disciplines'' Yeh, Dowming; Wu, Min-Kun (Taiwan): ''Influence of Interpersonal Relationship in Class on the Motivation and Effect of Blended e-Learning'' 223 229 233 E-Learning Aloteawi, Saleh Mohammed (Saudi Arabia): ''Capability of Students (Candidates) to Apply eLearning Knowledge and Skills in Real World Based on Accreditation Requirements'' Comer, Denise (USA): ''MOOCs Offer Students Opportunity to Grow as Writers'' Haggis, Devena; Vasilache, Simona (Japan): ''Facilitating Public Archaeology through eLearning: Use of Information and Communication Technology and the Construction of Virtual Worlds'' Mitrofanova, Ksenia A. (Russian Federation): ''e-Learning for Teaching Humanities in Undergraduate Medical Education'' 239 248 253 258 Innovative Curriculum and Teaching Techniques Barchilon Ben-Av, Mercedes; Ben-Av, Radel (Israel): ''Mathematical Laboratory in Your Smartphone'' 262 Kim, Hyunju; Meghanathan, Natarajan; Moore, Loretta A. (USA): ''Enhancement of an Undergraduate Software Engineering Course by Infusing Security Lecture Modules'' 265 Marlowe, Thomas J. *; Benham, James W. *; Kirova, Vassilka *; Ku, Cyril S. *; Nousala, Susu **; Jastroch, Norbert *** (* USA, ** Finland, *** Germany): ''Introducing Requirements Acquisition and Analysis through a Very Incompletely Specified Problem'' 270 Education and Training Systems and Technologies Rodriguez-Yborra, Maria A. (UK): ''Challenging Academic Performance to Excel: the ‘BE’ Project (Performing Beyond Expectations)'' 276 Education in Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics Yukech, Christine M. (USA): ''Critical Reflection; Practicing Public Scholarly Inquiry while Processing with Science, Technology & Society'' 279 Educational Research, Theories, Practice and Methodologies Amos Sr., Christopher N. (USA): ''Coaching and Sponsoring Extra-Curricular Activities: Does it Make Future Principals Better School Leaders?'' 285 Authors Index 291 iv Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) Moving an Academic Simulation closer to a Heavy Construction Industry Tool by adding an Equipment Management Module Thomas KORMAN Construction Management Department, California Polytechnic State University San Luis Obispo, CA 93407, USA Email: tkorman@calpoly.edu Hal JOHNSTON Construction Management Department, California Polytechnic State University San Luis Obispo, CA 93407, USA Email: hjohnsto@calpoly.edu makes discoveries and experiments with knowledge firsthand, instead of hearing or reading about others' experiences. ABSTRACT It is often difficult in a business setting to provide a "learn by doing" atmosphere where finances are involved. Most businesses allow their employee leeway in making decisions, but not enough so that balance sheets and future business opportunities are affected. Simulations allow students in an educational environment to experience tasks and the results of their decisions, which they will be asked to perform upon graduation. In the construction industry, many employees are hired that do not have the training or coursework at the university level that provides them access to such simulations. New employees are often placed in a position, trained to do the daily tasks, but not enough time is available to provide them with the opportunity to experience the entire operation of the business. The simulation, Construction Industry Simulation (COINS), has many of the same decision and overview tools but in the heavy civil construction sector, a major area key to successful management is equipment management. Decisions regarding renting, leasing, and buying equipment, where to dispatch equipment, and what equipment to have in a company’s fleet, all affect the profit of a project. This paper describes the process for enhancing an academic simulation by integrating an equipment management module. Experiential learning requires no teacher and relates solely to the process of the individual's direct experience. However, though the gaining of knowledge is an inherent process that occurs naturally, for a genuine learning experience to occur, there must exist certain elements. According to David A. Kolb, an American educational theorist, knowledge is continuously gained through both personal and environmental experiences. He states that in order to gain genuine knowledge from an experience, certain abilities are required: • the learner must be willing to be actively involved in the experience; • the learner must be able to reflect on the experience; • the learner must possess and use analytical skills to conceptualize the experience; and • the learner must possess decision making and problem solving skills in order to use the new ideas gained from the experience. Experiential Learning Business Simulations Business simulations, for educational and training purposes, have historically been scenario or numeric based. Most business simulations are used for business acumen training and development. Learning objectives include: strategic thinking, financial analysis, market analysis, operations, teamwork and leadership. The business gaming community seems lately to have adopted the term business simulation game instead of just gaming or just simulation. The word simulation is sometimes considered too mechanistic for educational purposes. Simulation also refers to activities where an optimum for some problem is searched for, while this is not usually the aim of an educational game. On the other hand, the word game can imply time wasting, not taking things too seriously and engaging in an exercise designed purely for fun. The concept of simulation gaming seems to offer the right combination and balance between the two. Simulation gaming is also the term that the educational gaming community has adopted. Keywords: Simulation, Gaming, Construction Education, Open Source, Construction Industry Simulation, Building Industry Game 1. INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND Experiential learning is learning through reflection on doing, which is often contrasted with didactic learning. Experiential learning is related to, but not synonymous with, experiential education, action learning, adventure learning, free choice learning, cooperative learning, and service learning. While there are relationships and connections between all these theories of education, importantly they are also separate terms with separate meanings. Experiential learning focuses on the learning process for the individual (unlike experiential education, which focuses on the transactive process between teacher and learner). An example of experiential learning is going to the zoo and learning through observation and interaction with the zoo environment, as opposed to reading about animals from a book. Thus, one 1 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) 2. CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY SIMULATION (COINS) – AN EDUCATION GAMING SIMULATION FOR CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT Construction Industry Simulation (COINS) is a computer simulation built to simulate the business environment for a construction company. The players, participants, play the role of contractors, competing in a market with variable demand for construction work. The simulation immerses students into the day-to-day operations of a construction company, requiring them to manage specific aspects of the company with the goal of procuring and managing construction work in terms of its planning, scheduling, and resource allocation. Students have a choice between commercial construction company, a heavy construction company, or a company that does both. Players are required to set up a complete business strategy including the following tasks: • examine available information • determine the best portfolio of jobs to bid on • create strategies to improve bonding limits • set strategies to create negotiated work • develop bid prices for desired jobs • monitor their financial position as work progresses • monitor and create strategies to improve company's appraisal metrics • choose and modify their construction methods to meet due dates and reduce costs • interpret their competitors' strategies • respond to changing conditions and situations proposed to the company and driven by the decisions and actions of the company For the commercial building construction sector, each project is made up of nine activities, which are included in a projects schedule. These are: • Excavation • Foundation • Basement • Framing • Closure • Roofing • Siding • Finishing • Mechanical, electrical, and plumbing For the heavy civil construction sector, each project is made up of nine activities, which are included in a projects schedule. These are: • Clear and grubbing • Rough grading • Excavation • Underground utilities (water, sewer, storm drain) • Concrete placing and finishing • Backfilling and compaction • Aggregate base placement and compaction • Paving • Finish grade Every activity has five (5) different construction methods that vary in time and cost. The fifth method is generally use of a subcontractor. All five methods of Activity No. 9 (Mechanical and Electrical) are generally subcontracted. The Estimated Time and Cost Report gives labor and material costs and the amount of time required for every activity using each of the five methods. Heavy construction bids are generally unit price bids while commercial bids are lump sum. Each company acts as a construction firm within a competitive environment that has a fluctuating demand for construction jobs. Firms that perform about average will be asked to negotiate various work. The game may be played for as many periods as time permits, each period representing two months. There can be any number of participating companies in addition to the internally simulated "unknown contractors”. Five different types of jobs are potentially available for bidding on both the heavy and commercial side. Phase 1 - Project Planning and Design Students begin the simulation in Phase 1 by being presented with a list of potential projects to review. Considering market conditions, student teams proceed by selecting a project to plan and then designing a project control system for the project. This is accomplished by selecting methods for each project activity and balancing the schedule and cost considerations. In Phase 1, students compete against their peers as well as the simulation’s virtual companies for award of the project. Award of projects is based on the team’s accuracy and proximity to the simulation’s internal estimate. Teams that are not initially awarded a project for their efforts must continue with the simulation, refining their plans, until their plans are awarded a project. Thus, the COINS simulation enables students to learn from their mistakes. The following types of commercial building construction projects (public and private) are included in the simulation: • Multi-family housing • Educational facilities • Hospitals and medical office buildings • Commercial office buildings • Industrial manufacturing facilities The following types of heavy civil construction projects (public and private) are included in the simulation: • Highways projects • Bridges • Residential site development • Mass excavation • Underground utilities Phase 2 – Construction Engineering and Management When a student team is awarded a project, they enter Phase 2. In Phase 2 student teams must manage their project by monitoring and controlling the project activities, analyzing the schedule and costs in reference to the methods to the activities they selected for each activity. Throughout the duration of their project, students are presented with real-life scenarios which they must respond to, thus measuring, testing, and validating the design of the project control system. Therefore, students are able to utilize their knowledge and hone their skills at controlling the process through modifying their project control system. The simulation provides feedback to the students Each period the simulation generates a list of jobs available for bidding and creates an Estimated Time and Cost Report for each job. Using the this information, each company must decide which jobs to bid on, the bid price, and which of the five methods to use for each of the activities. All jobs will have up to nine activities (Both Heavy and Commercial). 2 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) which they then can use to continuously improve their model throughout the duration of the simulation. ratios are also logged along with changes to the company’s appraisal metrics. • Financial Liquidity • Financial Success • Responsibility • Pace • Ethics • Name Recognition Phase 3 – Project Closeout Phase 3 begins after students have completed each activity for their virtual project. They have the opportunity to evaluate their performance using several predefined metrics, including Schedule Variance, Cost Variance, Cost Performance Index, and Schedule Performance Index. At the end of a period, the firms examine their Progress Reports and decide on the effectiveness of the methods chosen for the various work activities. If they wish, they may change them and specify different methods for the following periods. The choice of methods allows companies to utilize slower but cheaper methods if they fear budget overruns, or faster but more expensive methods if meeting contractual deadlines is the main concern. In addition, overtime may be used to speed up certain activities, greatly increasing the labor costs. Firm must be concerned with the amount of liquidated damages on each project as they vary from project to project. As mentioned above, one of the first activities for the students is to determine what positions will make up their main office overhead. This is reevaluated each period, and hire/fire activity is performed by the team. A report is given to the company telling them how they are handling their personnel and it's requirements. Work scheduling is very important in the selection of the methods so projects can be completed by the contractual deadlines, and the costs reduced as much as possible. Each bid price submitted should cover all the firm's direct and indirect job expenses, its main office overhead costs, and the desired profit. At the end of each period the simulation will determine which company is awarded each available project. The lowest bid will not necessarily win since the computer takes into account several other factors: • Is the firm's cash-on-hand adequate to provide enough liquidity with regard to the bid price? • Is the bid price below a minimum amount, computed by the program? If so, then the bid will be disregarded as irresponsible and be rejected. • Is the bid price higher than the unknown contractors, the presence of this simulated company assures a competitive, uncertain environment with realistic bid prices. • Is the firm within its bond limits? At the conclusion of the simulation, the program provides each participating company with final reports, forecasting the expected results of any on-going projects or their position at that point in time. It also shows the final total worth of the firm. Teams should consider maximization of profit as one of their main objectives, and one of the primary criteria used to evaluate each firm's performance. As the simulation progresses, evaluations of company ratio, and appraisal metrics can be used to determine successful completion of the simulation. 3. EQUIPMENT MANAGEMENT MODULE The developers of COINS have recently completed integrating a new module, the Equipment Management Module (EMM). Prior to this addition, the simulation only allowed teams to allocate personnel resources for each project. With the EMM, each project and each activity of a project will have an equipment requirement. Each method for that activity will have a different number and size requirement. During the work procurement phase, a company does not have to have the equipment required in its fleet but if they get the project, the activity cannot be started or accomplished without the right equipment. If the project is bid with larger or additional numbers of equipment and this is not congruent with the actual fleet composition, the company can proceed but with a time and cost penalty. Companies must monitor their financial situations as the game progresses, forecasting and completing progress payments, and potential needs for loans. In any period, participants have the option to ask for information on weather forecasts, material prices, labor and material availability, and market projections. These requests for consulting services have a cost and are charged against the firm's financial account. Using the information obtained from these reports, companies can determine the best strategy to proceed for each individual job. At the end of each period, teams receive a progress report for the previous two-month period, giving a statement of the firm's work progress on each of its jobs during that time. It shows the amount of work completed as well as the expenses incurred for each activity in every one of the company's projects. The amount of work completed during a period depends not only on the methods selected for the various activities, but also on uncertainty factors during that time such as the weather conditions, labor availability, and the fluctuating cost of materials. This statement above is the driver in front of the module. A need arises from either computer feedback or the student's (company's) decision. A company wants to build its fleet for the future or needs a piece of equipment for a project they just received. The decision is to Buy, Rent, or Lease (type & capacity of equipment). This is where the module begins. A Company will be given capital to accomplish this task at the start of the game. It is the instructor's decision, i.e. $2,000,000, alone with an additional $1 or $2 million to operate the business. They can immediately start buying/leasing equipment, or renting. A company can buy, rent or lease equipment to build their fleet which can also accelerate projects or help them make bid-time decisions. An end-of-period financial report is also provided to the participants showing the expenses incurred during that period. It lists amounts spent on direct construction services, bidding costs, delay fines, taxes incurred, and interest on borrowed money. It also shows payments to the contractor by the owner according to the payment requests and gives total cash-on-hand at the end of the period. Each firm may at any time apply for a loan to improve its financial situation. Loans granted are amortized over a one year time period. Changes in company 3 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) Bidding Projects are scheduled based on their network dependencies. Each of these networks has nine activities with an equipment requirement attached to every activity. Companies will know how the project should be built and what equipment is needed for the activity. The size and number of equipment will determine the speed of project and the cost. Each method will have specific equipment numbers and sizes. During the bidding process, each activity has five (5) different methods that the company team can select. Slower activities are less costly due to the fact that these have smaller equipment and fewer equipment units. 4. ASSESSMENT OF STUDENT LEARNING The simulation has a built-in grading module that can be used to obtain statistic on the various companies for comparison or to use in the classroom for grading the simulation. Each faculty can have their own method of grading. The following on faculty used a criteria for assessing participation and student learning: • Number of jobs bid • Minus the jobs rejected (i.e., not enough bonding capacity, substantially low cost estimate, etc.) • Number of times the number jobs you are the lowest cost • Number of times the company retained earnings • Company’s appraisal metrics Project Management (Equipment Dispatching) Dispatch (sending of equipment to a job site/scheduling equipment to jobsite) is not in this module and instead is connected to the company’s fleet data base. • In and off jobs • Cost of transportation • Availability Using the seven principles of good practice as an evaluation metric, the COINS system performs well. It encourages contact between students and faculty by encouraging frequent studentfaculty contact in and out of classes, which is an important factor in student motivation and involvement. Faculty concern helps students get through rough times and keep on working. Knowing a few faculty members well enhances students' intellectual commitment and encourages them to think about their own values and future plans. It develops reciprocity and cooperation among students. When using the COINS systems, learning is enhanced when it is more like a team effort than a solo race. Good learning, like good work, is collaborative and social, not competitive and isolated. Working with others often increases involvement in learning. Sharing one's own ideas and responding to others' reactions sharpens thinking and deepens understanding. COINS encourages active learning. Learning is not a spectator sport. Students do not learn much just by sitting in classes listening to teachers, memorizing pre-packaged assignments, and spitting out answers. They must talk about what they are learning, write about it, relate it to past experiences and apply it to their daily lives. They must make what they learn part of themselves. COINS gives prompt feedback. Knowing what you know and don't know focuses learning. Students need appropriate feedback on performance to benefit from courses. When getting started, students need help in assessing existing knowledge and competence. In classes, students need frequent opportunities to perform and receive suggestions for improvement. At various points during college, and at the end, students need chances to reflect on what they have learned, what they still need to know, and how to assess themselves. The use of COINS emphasizes time on task. The time plus energy equals learning. There is no substitute for time on task. Learning to use one's time well is critical for students and professionals alike. Students need help in learning effective time management. Allocating realistic amounts of time means effective learning for students and effective teaching for faculty. How an institution defines time expectations for students, faculty, administrators, and other professional staff can establish the basis of high performance for all. Use of COINS communicates high expectations. Expect more and you will get more. High expectations are important for everyone -- for the poorly prepared, for those unwilling to exert themselves, and for the bright and well motivated. Expecting students to perform well becomes a selffulfilling prophecy when teachers and institutions hold high expectations for themselves and make extra efforts. COINS respects diverse talents and ways of learning. There are many roads to learning. People bring different talents and styles of learning to college. Brilliant students in the seminar room may Owning and Operating Costs The equipment in the company's fleet will also need to have a cost associated with the equipment that represents the owning and operating costs for that piece of equipment. Equipment Availability Almost all new equipment is available. Used equipment is what is on the available List. Rental equipment is generally just the most used equipment. These three different areas of equipment must be available to the companies' to buy and rent from. Equipment will move from one of these locations to the company's fleet. In the fleet equipment must be identified as Rented, Owned, or Leased. Two examples of used equipment websites to be used in this simulation are: http://catused.cat.com/en/ and http://www.machinerytrader.com/. Equipment has two major heading, first the categories and second the brand. Fleet Management The major home for equipment will reside in the company's fleet management table. The fleet will grow and shrink based on the needs of the projects, or strategic purchasing of equipment to be fit to a market place, or be more competitive in that market place. • status • new equipment available for purchase or lease • used equipment available for purchase or lease • rental equipment available The question of buy, rent, or lease should look similar to the personnel section. First, a listing of all the equipment, a second page with a description and a clickable buy, rent, or lease; and finally a printable page of the specific piece of equipment. • Equipment Categories • Equipment Name 4 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) be all thumbs in the lab or art studio. Students rich in hands-on experience may not do so well with theory. Students need the opportunity to show their talents and learn in ways that work for them. Then they can be pushed to learn in new ways that do not come so easily. 2011 ASCE International Workshop on Computing in Civil Engineering: June 19-22, 2011, Miami, FL, USA. [9] Korman, Thomas M. and Johnston, Hal “Enhancing Construction Management Education though the use of a Virtual Construction Company Simulation System, ” The 2nd International Symposium on Engineering Education and Educational Technologies: EEET 2010 in the context of The 3rd International Multi-Conference on Engineering and Technological Innovation: IMETI 2010, Orlando, FL, July 2010 [10] Koster - A Theory of Fun for Game Design by Ralph Koster [11] Lacey Duckworth, Dr. Tulio Sulbaran, Dr. Andrew Strelzoff, Professor Hal Johnston, "Application of a Communication Protocol Methodology to Embed a Collaborative Virtual Reality Environment in Building Industry Game" The 2011 International Conference on Software Engineering Research and Practice [12] Lwein, 1951 - Field theory in social science. New York: Harper Collins Kurt Lewin (1951). [13] Pfeiffer, 2005 - Engaging Learning: Designing e-Learning Simulation Games by Clark N. Quinn, forward by Marcia Conner. (Pfeiffer, 2005) [14] Prensky, 2004 - Digital Game-Based Learning by Marc Prensky (McGraw-Hill, 2004) [15] Senge, 1990 - Peter Senge (1990). John Dewey in Experience and Education in a chapter entitled, "The Means and Goals of Education." [16] Schrage – “Serious Play” Michael Schrage's [17] Shank - Lessons in Learning, e-Learning, and Training: Perspectives and Guidance for the Enlightened Trainer by Roger C. Schank [18] Schank, 1994 - What we learn when we learn by doing. Technical Report 60. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University's Institute for the Learning Sciences. Roger C. Schank (1994, October). [19] Watkins - e-Learning Activities: Making Online Learning Interactive by Ryan Watkins [20] Whitney, 2004 - "Performance-Based Simulations: Customizable Tool" by Kellye Whitney. Chief Learning Officer Magazine, October 2004 5. SUMMARY A "learn by doing" atmosphere where finances are involved provides students an educational environment to experience tasks and the results of their decisions. In the construction industry, many employees are hired that do not have the training or coursework at the university level that provides them access to such simulations. New employees are often placed in a position, trained to do the daily tasks, but not enough time is available to provide them with the opportunity to experience the entire operation of the business. The simulation, Construction Industry Simulation (COINS), has many of the same decision and overview tools but in the heavy civil construction sector, a major area key to successful management is equipment management. Decisions regarding renting, leasing, and buying equipment, where to dispatch equipment, and what equipment to have in a company’s fleet, all affect the profit of a project. 8. REFERENCES [1] Aldrich, 2005 - Learning by Doing: A Comprehensive Guide to Simulations, Computer Games, and Pedagogy in e-Learning and Other Educational Experiences by Clark Aldrich. (John Wiley & Sons, 2005) [2] Beck - Got Game by John C. Beck, Mitchell Wade [3] Johnston, Hal, Borland, Jim, and Craig, K., " Building Industry Game (B.I.G.) A Computer Simulation for Construction Management," ASC Proceedings of the 39th Annual Conference, pp 79-90. [Online]. Available: http://ascpro0.ascweb.org/archives/cd/2003/2003pro/200 3/Johnston03.htm [3] Kaye, 2002 - Flash MX for Interactive Simulation: How to Construct & Use Device Simulations by Jonathan Kaye, PhD and David Castillo (Delmar Learning, 2002) Companion CD-ROM with full source code. [4] Kraft, 1994 – “The theory of experiential education, 2nd ed.”. Boulder, CO: Association of Experiential Education. Richard Kraft and Mitchell Sakofs (Eds.) (1994 [5] Kolb 1984 - David Kolb (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. [6] Korman, Thomas M., and Johnston, Hal A., “Development of Use of a Virtual Construction Company Simulation System for Education”, FECS'12 The 2012 International Conference on Frontiers in Education: Computer Science and Computer Engineering, WORLDCOMP'12 The 2012 World Congress in Computer Science, Computer Engineering, and Applied Computing, Las Vegas, NV. July 2012. [7] Korman, Thomas M., “Design and Implementation of Experiential Learning Exercises for Commercial Building Construction Education” Proceedings of the 2012 ASEE PSW Section Conference, Cal Poly - San Luis Obispo, CA, April 2012. [8] Korman, Thomas, and Johnston, Hal, “Enhancing Construction Engineering and Management Education using a COnstruction INdustry Simulation (COINS)”, 5 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) Enhancing Chemistry Teaching And Learning Through Computational Tools: A Computational Chemistry Cloud Prototype Using WebMO R. Jay Mashl, Bernie Acs, and Edee Norman Wiziecki National Center for Supercomputing Applications University of Illinois Urbana, IL 61801, USA J. R. Schmidt Department of Chemistry University of Wisconsin Madison, WI 53706, USA William F. Polik Department of Chemistry Hope College Holland, MI 49422, USA learning, a key component in today's science learning standards, is generally readily possible with computational approaches. Providing computational resources for STEM education under such circumstances presents an important and challenging problem. NCSA has therefore developed a specialized server to provide resources for one of the computational and visualization tools featured in the ICLCS program: the web application WebMO [5]. This application aims to make teacher and student access to authentic, research-grade computational quantum chemistry software more convenient by integrating within its web-based interface a 3D molecular editor, a computational job configuration tool, a job manager, and various visualization tools for displaying molecular properties. The service thus provided is used by ICLCS teachers and their students during workshops and throughout the year and by chemistry undergraduates. ABSTRACT The development of a prototype web service, aimed at delivering computational resources to an educational community, is described. As a proof of concept, the WebMO computational web interface that facilitates the use of quantum chemistry software has been enhanced to run as a “software as a service” (SaaS) cloud-like computing environment. Promotion of the service by The Institute for Chemistry Literacy Through Computational Science (ICLCS)[1] program at the National Center for Supercomputing Applications is part of its multifaceted effort to infuse computational and visualization tools into high-school chemistry classrooms. The development details provided may be of benefit to others in formulating their own software delivery model. INTRODUCTION STATEMENT OF PROBLEM Strengthening teachers' and students' understanding of chemistry is a broad goal of chemistry education. For over six years, the Institute for Chemistry Literacy Through Computational Science (ICLCS) at the National Center for Supercomputing Applications (NCSA) at the University of Illinois has focused on improving the chemistry content, pedagogical skills, computational and visualization tool usage, computational thinking, and technical knowledge of 124 rural high-school chemistry teachers from 119 rural Illinois school districts by conducting intensive, multiyear summer hands-on workshops that are built upon existing, successful curricula and methods, and by involving teachers in year-long content coursework, virtual workshops, and continual online interaction and support via a virtual professional learning environment. Details about the educational research aspects of this program are provided elsewhere[2–4]. With computational approaches having become an integral part of modern science, teachers having experience in computational thinking and tool usage may have an advantage in being able to impart knowledge and experience to students about the computers and the computational world. Even as computer lab and laptop usage is increasing in K-12 education, very few schools, especially rural schools, have the highperformance computational resources needed to run numerically intensive software in the classroom. Moreover, inquiry-based Providing a computational web service to the hundreds of students of ICLCS teachers—and the prospect of expanding service to include potentially thousands of students across many more science classrooms—imposes a challenging set of criteria on the server. We require the server to offer concurrent use and a consistent view of the target application, to be able to withstand short periods of intense activity (likely sign of handson classroom usage), to have a high availability with fault tolerance, and to have scalability of service with nearinstantaneous execution of jobs in the face of an increasing number of users. Below we describe a prototype server design that employs virtual machine technology and well-tested, open-source software to provide a robust centralized web service (i.e., software-as-a-service (SaaS)) deployment of the WebMO application. This configuration can be thought of as a cloud environment without geographical distribution. VIRTUAL MACHINES While in-depth discussion of virtual machines (VMs) is beyond our present scope, we observe that VM and cloud concepts date 6 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) back to the 1950's and 1960's, yet it is only in recent years that these notions have attracted considerable attention. In the commercial sector, there are now several companies that offer services without cost or offer services or raw computing cycles for a fee. In the non-commercial sector, for example, the use of cloud-based environments has become very active within the computer science education community to have students use and manipulate virtual machine images to study operating systems, system administration, networking, clustering, and security [6–13]. Cloud computing technology has emerged as a way provide services with reduced operating expenses and improved reliability [14]. The reduction in cost is in part due to the consolidation of physical assets and human resources needed to provision and maintain those assets. The increase in service reliability is in part due to a reduction in the amount of end-user effort needed to set up computer hardware and to configure software and in part due to increased redundancy on the part of the service provider. It suffices to say that virtual machines have become a proven technology. FIGURE 1: Schematic of the virtual machine enhanced WebMO prototype server. Client sessions (at left) contact the gateway that provides for fault tolerance of services and load balancing of users across a pool of “worker” nodes. Connections may be active (dark) or idle (light). All gateway and resource pool nodes were realized as virtual machines on a large-memory physical machine. PROTOTYPE SERVER SOLUTION automatically transfers the resources attached to the active node to one of the passive nodes, making that the new active node. The capability of the A/P cluster to move resources from failed nodes to fully functioning nodes gives it the “high availability” (HA) cluster designation [16]. The resources that need to be kept running during a failover event are listed in the HA configuration files. Common resources include ldirectord, ipvsadm, drbddisk, mysql, and nfskernel-server. The role of ldirectord is to monitor the health of worker nodes via periodic web requests and to allocate nodes that send a correct response; otherwise, they are deallocated. The virtual server support needed for scalability is provided by ipvsadm. The drbddisk resource refers to the DRBD storage solution, described in the next section. An overview of the prototype's anatomy is shown in Fig 1. Users access the service by navigating their web browsers to a single web location that is the service gateway. The gateway in turn transparently establishes a persistent web connection between the incoming client session and one of the independent “worker” nodes in the dynamically adjustable resource pool. Each worker node in the pool is an instantiation of a virtual machine (VM) image, configured with a single processor, 1 GB RAM, and a minimal GNU/Linux operating system. (Our VMs were constructed using VMware tools[15], but other viable methods exist.) The following services are pre-configured on the VM: a standard web server (Apache), network filesystem (NFS) client, database client (MySQL), and any scripting languages needed by the target application (here, Perl for CGI scripting). The VM image also provides for, or links to, the WebMO server software and underlying software dependencies. In order for these multiple independent servers to see a consistent view of the WebMO user data, we enhanced WebMO to use SQL-like constructed statements for interacting with an external, high-performance database that supports concurrent connections. In order to give our prototype some of the robustness as seen in commercial systems, three types of redundancies are built into the system as follows. Fault-tolerance Storage The HA cluster provide to the nodes in the resource pool a shared, fault-tolerant storage resource in the form of a distributed replicated block device (DRBD)[17]. As seen in Fig. 2, the DRBD consists of logical storage devices of equal capacity that are attached one apiece to the redundant HA nodes. Data written to the storage device attached to the active HA node is mirrored over the network to the one attached to the passive HA node. This disk configuration can be thought of as a redundant array of independent disks (RAID level 1) over a network. The DRBD acts as a single logical device that may be exported via NFS to the worker nodes in the resource pool. The DRBD contains the configuration files for the services running on the HA server (here, NFS and MySQL). The WebMO application files, the database, and user data files are treated as exports of the HA cluster nodes. In our production configuration, the chemistry software called upon by WebMO has been placed directly into the VM image; however, there are alternative possibilities (see Performance Tuning below). High Availability The gateway is based on an active/passive cluster, or A/P cluster, that is comprised of two identically configured, redundant nodes wherein the node designated as the active node accepts and directs network requests for services while the passive node waits to be called into service. A monitoring daemon known as heartbeat, an open source cluster management program, runs on each of the A/P nodes, and each informs the others as to the presence or change in status of nodes or services, such as may be indicated by, e.g., failures in hardware or in the operating system, on the active node. Although there is no limitation as to the number of redundant nodes, two nodes are very common in practice. On receiving indication of failure of any kind on the active node, i.e., a failover event, the heartbeat daemon on the passive node Load Balancing Client sessions are distributed among the nodes in the resource pool. An IP virtual server (IPVS)[18] running on the active node of the gateway maps client sessions to one of the worker nodes determined by ldirectord (see above) to be available. Several kinds of scheduling algorithms are available under 7 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) pool. and by increasing the amount of memory available to the running VM. It is conceivable to provide separate user data and application data networks; such notions have arisen in compute cluster design to separate slow NFS traffic from the much faster, low-latency communications that are desirable for data sharing and processing in distributed systems. SUMMARY We have developed a robust prototype web service that leverages virtual machine technology to deliver a scalable, fault-tolerant, load-balanced resource for on-demand, aroundthe-clock computing by a growing educational community. The resulting computational service is seen to withstand the short periods of intense activity created by student users submitting many relatively short computing tasks in interactive classroom settings. The prototype is versatile and can grow with the needs of its users. For example, access to other computational resources, such as high-performance (HPC) clusters, can be incorporated in a straightforward manner. The principles we use are more generally applicable and may benefit others in formulating their own software delivery model. FIGURE 2. Configuration of distributed replicated block device (DRBD) on the service gateway. IPVS. Our configuration performs software load balancing, and hardware load balancing solutions are generally available. PERFORMANCE TUNING The configuration files for the Linux services were generally used with their default packaged values with a few notable exceptions. With regard to the web and MySQL servers, we used a high-speed threaded version of the Apache server set to a maximum of 150 clients and 75 threads and a MySQL server set to a maximum of 600 simultaneous database connections. At the initial calibration phase of the prototype server, we monitored the network traffic, load balancer performance, and job execution characteristics over several days while student users from high-school classrooms submitted many shortduration jobs. We found the amount time that jobs spent waiting in the internal WebMO job queues was minimal as the size of the resource pool grew to ten (10) nodes. Noting that these worker nodes were hosted on a time-shared, large-memory machine on which many other projects were also running, we placed an artificial constraint against automatic increases in the pool size and designated the worker nodes to receive full priority so that WebMO jobs are performed as quickly as possible. This setup for providing near on-demand service is highly desirable for hands-on learning in the classroom. Subsequent access to the service by several hundreds of local undergraduates in selected chemistry courses did not indicate a need to increase the resource pool size. We attribute this finding partly to the bimodal time-of-day distribution of WebMO usage by high-school vs. undergraduate students. We expect, however, that more nodes will eventually need to be recruited into the resource pool as the number of active users increases or as the volume of submitted jobs increases. Trade-offs between available memory, network bandwidth, and VM image size may exist, but we have not performed a complete systematic study. For example, the underlying quantum chemistry software on which WebMO depends may be made available to the nodes in the resource pool in a number of ways. Placing the software on the DRBD is convenient but may subject user data traffic to bandwidth needs upon executing new jobs. Similarly, providing this the chemistry software through centralized application servers may also reduce the effective user data transfer rate. Installing the software on the VM image itself, as we have done, does not diminish the network bandwidth available for user data transfers, but it does reduce slightly the amount of memory available to computations, an effect that can be alleviated by using a largememory server for instantiating the virtual nodes in the resource ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We thank Dr. Shawn Sendlinger for promoting our service at computational chemistry workshops, Dr. Jeff Moore for testing our server in conjunction with online undergraduate organic chemistry courses, the ICLCS teacher participants who used our service in classes throughout the school year, and all others who have contributed to the testing of our service. Portions of this work were supported by the National Science Foundation under Award No. NSF EHR 06-34423. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this publication are those of one or more authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation or those of the authors' respective institutions. REFERENCES [1] ICLCS project (http:// iclcs.illinois.edu). [2] Sendlinger, S. C., Decoste, D. J., Dunning, T. H., Dummitt, D. A., Jakobsson, E., Mattson, and D. R., Wiziecki, E. N. 2008. Transforming chemistry education through computational science. Computing in Science & Engineering. 10: 34–39. doi: 10.1109/MCSE.2008.124 [3] Destefano, L., Dummitt, D. and Wiziecki, E.N. 2010. Assessing Institutional Transformation and Sustainability: Lessons Learned from the ICLCS Project. Paper presented at the 2010 Math and Science Partnership Learning Network Conference, Washington D.C. [4] Zeng, Y., Wiziecki, E. N., and Mattson, D. 2011. Facilitating teaching practice changes through science teachers' vicarious experiences in an online learning community. Paper presented at the 17th Annual Sloan Consortium International Conference on Online Learning, Lake Buena Vista, Florida. 8 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) [5] WebMO project, 2013. WebMO, LLC. http://www.webmo.net/demo/index.html [11] Du, W., Teng, Z., and Wang, R. 2007. SEED: a suite of instructional laboratories for computer SEcurity EDucation. In Proceedings of the 38th SIGCSE technical symposium on Computer science education (SIGCSE '07). ACM, New York, NY, USA, 486–490. DOI=10.1145/1227310.1227474 http://doi.acm.org/10.1145/1227310.1227474 [6] Gephart, N., and Kuperman, B. A. 2010. Design of a virtual computer lab environment for hands-on information security exercises. J. Comput. Small Coll. 26, 1 (October 2010), 32–39. http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm? id=1858449.1858457 [12] Krishna, K., Sun, W., Rana, P., Li, T., and Sekar, R. 2005. V-NetLab: a cost-effective platform to support course projects in computer security. In Proceedings of the 9th Annual Colloquium for Information Systems Security Education. CISSE 05. (Atlanta, GA, June 6–9, 2005). [7] Wang, X., Hembroff, G. C., and Yedica, R. 2010. Using VMware VCenter lab manager in undergraduate education for system administration and network security. In Proceedings of the 2010 ACM conference on Information technology education (SIGITE '10). ACM, New York, NY, USA, 43–52. DOI=10.1145/1867651.1867665 http://doi.acm.org/10.1145/1867651.1867665 [13] Stockman, M., Nyland, J., and Weed, W. 2005. Centrallystored and delivered virtual machines in the networking/system administration lab. SIGITE Newsl. 2, 2 (June 2005), 4‒6. DOI=10.1145/1072968.1072969 http://doi.acm.org/10.1145/1072968.1072969 [8] Anderson, B. R., Joines, A. K., and Daniels, T. E. 2009. Xen worlds: leveraging virtualization in distance education. In Proceedings of the 14th annual ACM SIGCSE conference on Innovation and technology in computer science education (ITiCSE '09). ACM, New York, NY, USA, 293– 297. DOI=10.1145/1562877.1562967 http://doi.acm.org/10.1145/1562877.1562967 [14] Mell, P., and Grance, T. 2009. Effectively and securely using the cloud computing paradigm. National Institute of Standards and Technology, Information Technology Laboratory. [15] VMware virutal machines (http:// www . vmware . com). [9] Stewart, K. E., Humphries, J. W., and Andel. T. R. 2009. Developing a virtualization platform for courses in networking, systems administration and cyber security education. In Proceedings of the 2009 Spring Simulation Multiconference (SpringSim '09). Society for Computer Simulation International, San Diego, CA, USA, Article 65, 7 pages. http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm? id=1639809.1639877 [16] Linux High Availability Cluster project (http:// linuxha.org). [17] DRBD project (http:// www.drbd.org). [18] IPVS project (http:// www . linuxvirtualserver . org / software / ipvs.html). [10] Gaspar, A., Langevin, S., Armitage, W.D., and Rideout, M. 2008. March of the (virtual) machines: past, present, and future milestones in the adoption of virtualization in computing education. J. Comput. Sci. Coll. 23, 5 (May 2008), 123–132. 9 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) Cubecraft Game: A Framework for Mobile Game’s Development Manuel Romero Rivera, Jorge Aguilar Cisneros Universidad Popular Autónoma del Estado de Puebla 21 sur 1103 Col. Santiago Puebla, Pue., México. C.P. 72410 manuel.romero@upaep.edu.mx, jorge.aguilar@upaep.mx show and share their games, in this way we are going to encourage socialization and collaboration among them.. ABSTRACT A video game is a software system destined to entertainment. It can be played in different devices as computers, consoles, mobile devices, and so on, integrating audio and video that allows enjoy experiences that, in many cases, would be difficult to do in the reality. Although the video games now are more than informatics products; it is also a business, information and formation tool, an object of investigation and even a social phenomenon [1]. KEYWORDS Framework, Video game Mobile Devices, Android. Development, 1. INTRODUCTION Over the past 30 years, video games have become an important part of contemporary global entertainment. Today they are a huge business worth billions of dollars [10]. Furthermore, video games have great positive in addition to their entertainment value and there has been considerable success when games are designed to address a specific problem or to teach a certain skill [11]. We think is important to play video games but is more important to build our own video games. There are some frameworks used to make video games for different operating systems (Android, iOS and so on) and for different electrical devices (computers, mobile, and so on), but all the time we need new frameworks to help people to develop by themselves their own video games even though They do not know anything about software code. This is the reason that we do a proposal to build a new framework called Cubecraf. It was oriented for kids in elementary school, between 8 to 12 years old. We hope our framework allow them to develop video games for Android mobile devices. They can build their own video games and storage it into their cell phones without write any line of code only dragging and dropping cubes in our framework. There are a big quantity of tool and framework to allow developing video games, for example, commercial: Abyssal Engine, Alamo, Cafu Engine, and so on, free an open source: 3D rad, Adventure Game Studio, Blender, and so on, Freeware: Real Library, BYOND, Defold, and so on. Anyhow, we want to build a new framework with the paradigm drag and drop because we want to build a framework to our Mexican kids, we want to hear their requirements about our framework, in this sense we developed a We also propose design and develop a website where students will be allow to 10 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) survey where we asked about our framework and our outcomes show us: Cubecraf is easy to use and attractive, user do not have problems to interact with it. components to develop a software application [3]. Usually it is formed by support systems, compilers, code’s libraries and a friendly user interface that help to use the entire component in an easy and fast way [4]. 2. PROBLEMATIC Nowadays, the video games are a ludic phenomenon very important into the childhood and adolescent culture. For example, in a research made with teenager in ages between 14 and 18 years, the percent of persons who play video games were 59%. In other words, a framework could be considered as a generic, incomplete and customizable software application, that the user can add the correct pieces to create the application. Nowadays, there are a lot of frameworks for games development, but they are focused to different purposes. In this paper, we search information of the most used frameworks, based in their advantage and disadvantage. This analysis are going to be used for establish the basis of our framework. Perhaps, these persons could have been asked themselves, at least one time: How a video game is made? , What I have to know? or how do I start?. Perhaps an important quantity of them have tried to make a video game without a successful result, however, others, perhaps, have created their first game with hard working, but there is always questions without answers and a lot to learn [2]. The first framework analyzed was Kodu. This is a visual software tool specialized for Xbox and PC video games, generates by a conceptual idea. This tool is designed to be accessible to kids. When we talk about video games development, we used to think that just one special person can creates it, but it is a big mistake, because create a video game needs a very different people like designers, musicians, writers, etc. Now, Kodu is used in countries as Malaysia and Singapore as an educative tool, because it teaches the way to develop games. The last reports of these schools show that it is a tool that helps to improve the stories creation, helps the kids solving difficult problems using the “one step at the time” methodology, teach concepts as “Cause-Effect” and shows that software development is a way that kids can demonstrate their creativity[5]. Once the team is complete, the Software Engineering needs to have a specific knowledge about develop and manage an industrial project software development, only in this way a game software development could be successful. 3. STATE OF THE ART Other framework investigated was Scratch, it was developed in the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and actually it have been translated about 50 A framework is a software structure, made by customizable and interchangeable 11 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) languages and it has more than two millions downloads. It success is contributed to the ease for develop animations, games, online news, books reports, greetings cards, and so on [6]. platform for software distribution. The use of PHP4, Ajax and MySQL are based in the compatibility this technologies has with most of website providers. Looking for a framework, that could be a direct competition of Scratch; we found the Greenfoot frameworks. Greenfoot is educational integrated software for software development’s taught and learns to people without previous knowledge. This framework is designed for an audience of minimum age of 14 years and is very common in university introductory courses [7]. The technologies used are shown in figure 1, Cubecraf was developed in C# then it can use source code developed for Android (Java+XML) or Symbian (J2ME). Talking specifically about mobiles’ game development, the most used framework is AndEngine. This framework was launched to public at early 2010 by Nicolas Gramlich, based in the availability of power and engines for the 2D games development supported by Android platform [8]. Fig. 1. Technologies used to develop Cubecraft 4. CUBECRAF DEVELOPMENT 4.2 User’s Interface We create a framework that allows developing video games for mobile devices with Android or Symbian Operative Systems. The objective of Cubecraft is that elementary school’s students can create games just joining cubes. This section shows our framework proposal. We used some practices established in HCI (Human-Computer Interaction) patterns. These patterns are “General Graphic User Interfaces”, “2D Graphics User Interfaces”, and “use of metaphor” [9]. From “General Graphic User Interfaces”, we use a Shield practice; this way the user cannot accidentally select a function that has irreversible effects. This practice is used for the error’s administration and is usually implemented as a windows or alert where the user is informed about the execution of these processes. This practice shows to user if a task has finished or it still in execution. 4.1 System Architecture The project is divided in two parts, the framework developed in C# .NET and a website developed with PHP4, Ajax and MySQL. We choose a .NET platform because is a set of new technologies that Microsoft have been work in the last years with the objective to make a simple and powerful 12 ion Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) We take from “2D Graphics User Interfaces” two practices: Breadcrumbs and Unidirectional input devices. The breadcrumbs practice offers in the user interface, a navigation track from the start window to the window the user wants, and the Unidirectional Input Devices allows the user use the mouse or the keyboard access to the options and make it use easier. The second area is the Work cubes, in this section, we identified two areas: Cubes and My Cubes. In the first area, is shown as a list, here we show the system cubes. In the second area are shown the cubes the user could add to the framework. The third area is the workspace. In this area the user can connect cubes to make the game’s functionality. We took from “Use of Metaphor” the combination of communicative codes as visual and verbal, the objective was to get an optimal redundancy in the process of communication with the user. The fourth and last area is the user’s help console; this area is divided in two sections: A User’s functionality help and Error Console. The User’s functionality help updates every time the user add a cube to the workspace, showing the name of the cube and the kind of cube used. The Error Console, lets the user know the errors o potential problem warnings that do not allow the game to compile or do not perform the actions. Every time an error occurs, the user can identified if it is an error or a warning with the icon showed in the left of the error. For an error, we use a red icon with a cross and for the warnings a yellow icon with an admiration mark. Fig. 2. Cubecraft Interface Cubecraft creates its own workspace in the “Documents” folder. Inside this folder the system creates the files of every project creating a specific folder for everyone. Taking the good practices last mentioned, we design the user interface. The window on the left, allows the user interact with Cubecraft and to develop their video game (fig. 2). We can see four areas: The Option Menu, the Work Cubes, the Workspace and the User Help Console. Inside every project’s folder, there are another two folders and a file with .CUB extension. The folders are “Entregables” and “SRC”, the Entregables folder have the application compiled and ready to be download to a mobile device, the extension of this file is defined by the Operative System selected in the project’s creation. In the Menu area, there are a menu bars and quick access that allow the user make some actions for example: create a new project, open an existing project, save a project, and so on. The SRC folder contains all the classes generated by the framework used to 13 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) compile the game. As the Entregables’ folder the extensions of the files inside this folder are defined by the Operative System selected. the parameter’s fields based in the type of data received. The file generated in the project’s root folder contains all the configuration information, this file is detected by the framework when the user wants to open it. For safety and integrity of the data, the user must avoid modifying or deleting it, because it may cause the project not run and loses the job done. The website is designed as a way where users can upload their games and discuss their experiences with others developers. In the website, inexperienced users can find important information as user’s manual, API’s documentation, and so on. 4.3 Website As a safety measure, all the actions the user can do in this website, including the use of the Online Score System, must be done as a register user. The user can create their account using a registration form or using a social network as Facebook, Twitter or Google+. Fig. 3.Functionality cubes The functionality cubes represent an action which can be executed in a game. We chose Cubes because they are ease to manipulate and generate depth effects using two-dimensional images. The perspective used in the cubes (isometric view), can generate an effect of assembly between two or more cubes (figure 3). 5. FUTURE WORK As future work, we are going to test the system with students in ages between 8 to 12 years in different schools of the city, applying a survey that could give us a feedback about the usability and acceptance. Also, the survey is going to help us in search of new requirements and functions the final users want to have in their game’s development. After this first survey we are going to modify our framework and will be to apply one more time our survey. This second survey will give new feedback about the viability of the system and if the modifications we did based in the first survey get better the system or we have to update something. They handle three colors, based on traffic light colors. Those colors were chosen because their use in the daily life of people is very common. Every cube needs the user sets some parameters to work. Usually the root cubes just needs an identification name, while other cubes need more parameters for complete their setting. The cubes have a button in the front with the label “Configurar”. When this button is pressed, shows a window that read the parameters specified in the function’s DLL and configures Once the framework fulfill all the requirements and modifications, We are going to distribute Cubecraft game. 14 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) Your First Android Game. Addison-Wesley Professional. 6. CONCLUSIONS Although there is an important quantity of frameworks for the PC or Mobile app development, we want to build one to specific requirements or our Mexican kids. This framework could have a high impact in the way the professors taught the principles of software development to their students. [9] Fakhreddine, K. Alemzadeth, M. Saleh, J. & Arab, M. Human-Computer Interaction: Overview on State of the Art. Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering. [10] Martin Adolph, (2011) Trends in Video Games and Gaming, ITU-T Technology Wath Report. Regarding the kids skills, this framework could be an extra tool for their parents, teachers and them to improve unconsciously their skills that can be used in the school or later in their jobs. [11] Mark Griffiths, (2002), The educational benefits of videogames, Education and Health, Vol. 20, No. 3 REFERENCES [1] García, F. (2005). Videojuegos: Un análisis desde el punto de vista educativo. [2] Bondon, P. A., & Felmer, L. R. (2008). Usuarios habituales de videojuegos: Una aproximación inicial. SciELO. [Eli] [3] Gutiérrez, J. (2006). ¿Qué es un framework web? [4] Maxxes System (2010). What is a Software Framework? [5] Knowledge Bank: Next Generation Research. (2010). The impact of Web 2.0 Technologies in the Classroom. Sydney, Australia: Research and Innovation Department of Educational Early Childhood Development [6] Maloney, J. Resnick M. Rusk, B. & Eastmond, E. (2010). The Scratch Programming Language and Environment. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. [7] Kolling, M. (2010). The Greenfoot Programming Environment. University of Kent. [8] Rogers, R. (2011). Learning Android Game Programming: A hands-on Guide to Building 15 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) The Interactive Book Report: Playing the Pages Dr. Marjorie S. Schiering Division of Education, Molloy College Rockville Centre, New York 11572, USA Dr. Audra Cerruto and Tara Benton Lexington School for the Deaf, NYC, USA Beth McGovern and Heidi Heilmann Our Lady of Victory School Floral Park, L.I. NY. USA Erin McCarthy at Thiells Elementary School in Rockland County, NY.USA Ann Hultman Jakobsson: Edboskolan in Trangsund, Sweden Key words: Interactive, educational games, reciprocal thinking, project-performance-evidence based learning York. It came attached to a philosophy of education that became known as A Model for Academic and Social Cognition (Schiering, [16] © 2003a; Schiering, Bogner, Buli-Holmberg, © [19] 2011). This model connects Common Social/Societal Realities, Belief and Value Systems stemming from the Cognitive Collective/ Thinking and Feelings (Schiering, © [14] 1999; [15] 2002; [20] 2012) to address knowing one’s students. Specifically, the methods of instruction related to form a Sociology-of-the-World (SOW) interconnected with the external factors that affect our lives on a daily basis from the time we’re born are addressed. These external factors include one’s religion, economic status, academic standing, and the political situations that govern us. These four factors move inwardly and outwardly to influence person’s behaviours and life-goals through reflection on experiences we’ve had. The IBR serves as such an experience; one from which we learn that it shapes beliefs and values one holds about the learning situation. Abstract The purpose of this qualitative attitudinal study was to initially teach by involving student learners in “play,” as a means to provide instruction. “The Interactive Book Report (IBR)” (Schiering, © 2003) teaching and learning method was used in the study. It is a new and comprehensive, as well as interdisciplinary process for teaching and learning, Three classrooms in the USA and based in the greater New York area and one classroom in mid-Sweden comprised the subjects of the study. Ultimately, following the classes’ designing, creating, identifying specific cognitive skills associated with the playable pages of the IBR, students shared their work with other classes and had an international exchange of ideas, on the IBR topic of ecosystems and sustainability; how to keep our planet’s varied environments safe. The schools included in this study were at the first, third and fifth grade levels. Respectively, these schools were a special NYC needs one, a Rockland County elementary one, and a Long Island K-9 parochial institution. The study was initiated through the funding-of-IBR-supplies from the Lego Children’s Fund and the IBR inventor /professor from Molloy College. The New York State Environmental Conservation Department sponsored a Recycle Poster Contest and all “study” schools in the New York area participated. For the making of the IBRs the special needs school was tremendously involved in the poster contest with submitted posters being highly interactive. The subsequent attitudinal study was with 74students from the students in grades three, five and the mid-Sweden school third-fourth grades. The responses on the attitudinal study were in the 95% range for finding the IBR method of Playing-to-learn” most likeable. Dr. Schiering, acting as a participant, observer, and instructor visited each school, almost weekly, from January to June as the posters and IBRs were constructed. Dunn and Dunn, in their Learning Style Model [4] (1992) refer to it being important to realize the varied ways students learn. One model aspect involves perceptual preferences. The IBR addresses all modalities in the creation and later manipulation of the interactive instructional resources. Combining this portion of “style” with knowing “who” one is as a learner, the idea of the IBR method, a self corrective means of teaching any discipline, joins learning styles with the aforementioned academic and social cognition model, and the IBR method; three-in-one. Considering the rationale for this project, overall, it’s what Molloy College technology professor Rickey Moroney {9} (2013) said when discussing the IBR with her teacher candidates. “The first way we learn as babies and children is through play (gaming) which can be and often is creative and imaginative. Let's play house, school, shop, teacher and etceteras. These ‘play’ or ‘role-play’ activities are also preparing and equipping us for future life experiences. When you create (produce, perform, or present) you take ownership of what you have learned. This makes the learning that takes place more authentic and a learning experience that the learner takes with them IBR History, Learning Styles, and Rationale “The first experience with The Interactive Book Report took place in the mid-1990s in a fifth-grade classroom at Stony Point Elementary School in Rockland County, New 16 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) (remembers and incorporates into their existence) going forward.” “This IBR book is something that’s natural when realizing we learn through play by addressing ‘style’ perceptual preferences of learners, regardless of their age or grade levels. And, these ‘play’ and ‘style’ experiences we have impact on us by causing formation of memories. We retain what impressed us! Being involved and engaged in something helps us to recall it. Consider the IBR at the ‘cutting-edge’ of project and performance based teaching and learning to promote thinking and overall creative cognition. The IBR may also be used for differentiation of instruction and alternative means of assessment” (Schiering, {17} 2003b). educational and interactive games/instructional resources. This learning tool provides evidence-based and experiential learning that is intended to facilitate the learners’ ability to grasp and retain concepts in varied disciplines being presented” (Schiering, {18} 2003c). Our goal for this study was for the students to learn about the ecosystem and sustainability topic and teach themselves and others in an engaging, creative, and thoughtful manner. However, first it was important, we co-authors believed, to examine the acquisition of memory. This was to better understand why material is retained. The question of why one remembers is given attention for comprehension of the importance of recalling and reflecting on past situations that may lead to decision making and problemsolving. What causes one to remember some things and not others? Is this due to the style-of-delivery and the listener’s or doer’s interest in the content material? Is it because of the emotion that is associated with the memory? Does one of these take precedence over the other? First, it seems important to know about memory, which is the ability of the brain to reflect on and recall past experiences. Gazzaniga{5}(1998;10) stated, “Evolutionary theory has generated the notion that we are a collection of adaptations – brain devices that allow us to do specific things…Many systems throughout the brain contribute to a single cognitive function.” Then, understanding how the memory works imposes a major dynamic when referencing the connections of hearing and seeing a specific science discrepant event and thinking about how this was possible and plausible when it seemingly defies inductive or deductive reasoning. “The most fundamental things scientists have learned about memory is that we do not store memories whole and therefore do not retrieve them that way either. When we remember something, we actually reconstruct it by combining the elements of the original experience” Brandt {1} (1999:238). Neuroscientist Antonio Demasio {3} (1994: 84), explains that a memory “...is recalled in the form of images at many brain sites.” Introduction The Lego Children’s Fund provided funding for supplies to have students create the Recycling topic posters and IBRs on ecosystems and sustainability. Educator, Tara Benton {2} (2013), a third-grade teacher at the aforementioned special needs school, was the first to begin this project with school psychologist, Dr. Audra Cerruto {2} (2013). Working collaboratively with Molloy College’s Dr. Schiering, many of Tara’s ideas served as the impetus for the classes’ active engagement in learning. Tara, working with her students, created learning interactive instructional resources and Smart Board activities to later share with the other projectparticipating classes. The activities in the IBR addressed varied cognitive and meta-cognitive skills and the Reciprocal Thinking Chart, (Schiering, {14} 1999) was introduced to participating teachers to realize what specific thinking skills were developed in students by “playing” the IBR pages. (See Teaching and Learning: A Model for Academic Cognition, 2011; Pp. 211-217: Rowman and Littlefield) The authors believe that the educational process crosses an indiscriminate and interdisciplinary continuum that forms connections while correlating diverse populations and learning preferences. These are activated through learning style perceptual preferences involving auditory, visual, tactual, and kinesthetic modalities. Conceptualizing the cogent attention to instructional methods of the IBR that facilitate the student-learners cognitive and meta-cognitive skills and processes; the authors examine the influence of educational gaming on the individual’s thinking processes. Some of these include comparing and contrasting, prioritizing, decision-making, problem solving, evaluating, reflecting, analyzing, recalling, inventing, and self actualizing. The use of one’s memory then applies to the ability to comprehend in three formats which include: 1). attention; one’s ability to focus on a specific stimulus without being distracted; 2). Orientation; the ability to be aware of self and certain realities and facts of the present, and 3). Problem-solving: the ability to understand a problem, generate solutions and evaluate the generated solutions (HHH and Schiering, {8} 2004. Overall, memory is created by playing the pages of the IBR, as students are engaged in the learning process. Explaining the IBR and Reciprocal Thinking With Memory Acquisition The Reciprocal Thinking chart (Schiering, {17} 2003) provides a listing of the cognitive and meta-cognitive skills developed by playing the IBR pages. “The IBR is a compilation and consolidation of interactive instructional resources developed by students. The IBR synthesizes the material into a binder of 17 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) concept of recycling is everywhere, but what do the blue and green containers actually mean? In order to teach the concept and value of recycling and sustainability to these young children, a dynamic approach that envelops their senses, and captures their curiosity and enthusiasm for learning was utilized. As a result, hands-on learning with tactile and kinaesthetic instructional resources, known as “educational games” was employed throughout this study; ‘style’ was evidenced. Table 1: Reciprocal Thinking Phases: Cognition and Meta-cognition Chart RECIPROCAL THINKING PHASES COGNITION and META-COGNITION Regardless of one’s cultural mores, geographical location, grade level, gender, or age; There are common social and societal realities that are influenced by the terms in “Reciprocal Thinking” and affect our belief systems. PHASE TWO: CRITICAL and CREATIVE THINKING PHASE ONE: BASIC AWARENESS and ACKNOWLEDGING 1 Recognizing Realizing Classifying Comparing Contrasting Our thoughts, ideas, opinions, judgments, and feelings impact ‘who’ we are as learners, and ‘how’ we learn. Co-joined, these form the “Cognitive Collective.” 2 Prioritizing Communicating Inferring Predicting Generalizing Sequencing Initial Deciding Initial Problem-solving Order of Activities Initially, the programmed learning sequence book, Ecosystems: Now, There’s a Niche for You (Schiering, © {13}1996), served as the introduction to the aforementioned topic. Several IBRs were shown and educational games, made by teacher candidates in EDU. 506A (Integrated ELA and Reading) at Molloy College were there for these student learners to ‘play’. The first topic to be introduced was ecosystems. Vocabulary words were extensive and overwhelming to the second, third, and fourth grade students who are hearing impaired. As a result, the use of interactive puzzles/Task Cards relating to varied “environments” were created with the students with vibrant illustrations to portray the ecosystem. This vocabulary was infused into the day-to-day discussions in the classroom, creatively, by teacher Tara Benton {2} (2013). “Words were posted on the ‘word wall’, practiced and applied in a science journal, and ‘played’ with through games. Mastery of the vocabulary words was not the goal. Rather, the application of the concept of sustainability and the importance of recycling for our environment was the focus. This was reinforced through the use of authentic literature.” PHASE THREE: META-COGNITIVE PROCESSES 3 What are Evaluating, Organizing Critiquing, Collaborating Tolerating, Advanced Deciding Risk-taking, Inventing, Analyzing Synthesizing Advanced Problem-solving Recalling, Reflecting you thinking? ? Self-actualizing (©Schiering, 1998; Buli-Holmberg, 2006; Bogner, 2007) Schiering, © 1999 Methodology: School One Dr, Cerruto {2} (2013) explains that from her perspective, as the school’s psychologist, she found that in the midst of this tenuous time for teaching and learning with an increasing emphasis on testing, test preparation, and implementing unproven academic standards, her colleagues and she question the impact on our students. Will our students be able to sustain their enthusiasm for learning despite the hours spent confined to learning and performing within the limitations of the testing movement? As a school that services students with a hearing loss that is severe enough to adversely impact the development of language and the learning process, we are challenged to make every learning experience meaningful. By striving to make learning useful, it is our hope that students will internalize and apply the information to build a rewarding life. So, will state tests capture the dynamic process of learning that is occurring in our classrooms each day, month, and year? Are there other tools available to demonstrate the complex teaching and learning process that brings into the individual application of what’s presented and retention of it?” School One: The Challenge The class listened to Something from Nothing, (Gilman, {6} 1993). This picture book relates how a grandfather makes his grandson a blanket and then, when it’s “tattered and torn,” sequentially, makes seven small pieces of clothing for the child to wear. When there was nothing left of the original fabric, it was discovered that there was enough “material,” content wise, to write a story about this process of recycling and reusing the original blanket. Each student used a paper-blanket to transform the items in the book using scissors. This hands-on experiential task provided the students with the opportunity to see the dynamic and creative process of sustainability of the paper blanket. The first challenges were to build prior knowledge, to develop vocabulary skills, to apply information to personal experiences, and to act on student knowledge in meaningful ways. But how does one do that with children whose sensory limitations may have affected their experiences and exposure to content that their “typically” functioning peers may have learned vicariously through their personal and educational experiences so easily? The The next step in this study found the teachers placing recyclable items around their respective classrooms. The student learners, then dressed in teacher-provided white shirts, which served as “lab-coats,” went on an “Ecologist” scavenger-hunt. Finding the ‘hidden’ items around the classroom, the children in each class made of list of these objects and discussed how every one of them might be reduced, recycled and/or renewed. Their ideas 18 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) were charted. The concept of the 3R’s was applied to real objects in their world. This activity involved the students’ physical and mental participation. page outside and inside the binder that represents the topic or theme of the IBR, the next inside page has a Table of Contents. Then, there’s a Welcome page that invites the students to “play” the pages. This is followed by the Reciprocal Thinking Chart and an Identification of skills one, as well, Next, the interactive pages for a thematic unit have a minimum of five self-corrective educational games with a cover page explaining how each activity is played. For a review-of-literature or Theme IBR this same process is followed and: interactive instructional resources relating to reading, English Language Arts (reading writing, listening or speaking activity), social studies, math, and science are provided along with two “creative pages.” A closing page thanking the students for playing-the-pages is oftentimes accompanied by a congratulatory “certificate of completion.” Benton, the special need’s children’s teacher, created an interactive Smart Board activity on the topic of what materials could be recycled based on whether they were biodegradable or non-biodegradable. After introducing these terms, there was a slide with a pile of dirt where there were scattered such items as an aluminium soda and plastic bottle, piece of paper, plastic bag, metal thermos, toothpick, glass pitcher, and other items. When the child went up to the Board, he/she would say, before touching the item, whether it was biodegradable or not. If the item disappeared upon touching it the student knew it was biodegradable and wouldn’t be recycled. But, if the item went around in circles it was not biodegradable and would be able to be reused in some fashion. Students made a list of how these items may be used again. (Tara Benton shared her Smart Board activity with the other schools doing this project.) Methodology: School Two: Beth McGovern and Heidi Heilmann Our Lady of Victory School on Long Island, New York was the second school to become involved in the Lego Children’s Fund grant “Ecosystem and Sustainability” endeavour. The fifth-grade teachers Beth McGovern (Science and Math) and Heidi Heilmann (ELA and Social Studies) {12} (2013): are veteran teachers. Considering the grade level, the students have had more experiences than the third graders in the other three schools. However, like the other students in this project they were extremely enthusiastic about the creation of educational games. They were all for discussion about how things should be done and celebrating a sharing of ideas and became engrossed in “creative cognition” (Schiering, {20} 2012). Additionally, as all of the aforementioned activities took place the students’ teacher created a student’s science notebook. Students, in written format, maintained how three items put in plastic tubs filled with dirt would respond over time to the environment. One tub had paper in it and the other two a piece of apple and hearing-aid battery, respectively. The children drew pictures of the objects when first put into the soil and then at weekly intervals for the duration of the IBR project. The goal was to realize how the first two items were biodegradable, but the last one maintained its shape and size with all internal components not affected. Thoroughly understanding the basic concepts of the 3R’s, interactive activities were developed by the students to promote mastery. This class of six students created FlipChutes and Pic-a-Dot cards for each other. Task Cards were also made. Interestingly, students “played” interactively with the materials. Then, the students designed their own posters based on the topic of the 3R’s for the aforementioned Environmental Conservation contest. They were encouraged to incorporate the interactive activities into their posters. Once again, the students created educational gaming materials, applying their knowledge in different and creative ways, on a poster board that took on new dimensions. The flat board took on a three- dimensional aspect when the students built educational games, complete with manipulative, into the board. The importance of the message regarding the 3R’s took on a new dimension when the audience, usually passive observers, played interactive games to learn about sustainability. Following the making of posters, the students began the process of creating an IBR on Ecosystems and Sustainability. Inside the IBR is a set of educational games placed in a page protectors or pouches. Following a decorative cover The student learners in these fifth-grade classes worked primarily in small-group format. They were the first to do creative writing by imagining themselves as a metal, glass, plastic or paper recycle-able item. This creative writing assignment included possibly giving the item a personal name, like “Tom,” and then explaining how he/she was used on an everyday basis. The writing sequence that followed was to relate how this item was, at some point, discarded, and what happened next, later, then, and lastly. Story writers then role played this story as it was read to the class by a narrator. One student group wrote how the reused/recycle- item was a “half-gallon milk container” in a refrigerator in a store. Bought by a young girl’s mother, the milk container in the story was named, Ruth. She was used on cereal each morning for a few days. Then, the girl’s mother went to “throw out the empty cardboard container” when the girl stopped her by saying, “Wait, don’t throw that out, my teacher said that if you clean this out, thoroughly, that it can be used for a project we’re doing tomorrow. We’re making Flip-chutes.” The mother responded, “What’s 19 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) that?” The girl answered, “Oh, it’s an educational game and we make openings in the top and bottom and then chutes for cards to be put in the top slot. The card has a question on it like a math problem. And, when the card comes out the bottom opening the answer appears. Wait till we make it and I’ll bring it home to show you. Actually, you don’t have to wait to see what it looks like, because here’s a picture of a Flip-Chute. (The student then produced a picture perfectly drawn of the recycled milk container as a Flip Chute.) [See Teaching and Learning: A Model for Academic Cognition, 2011; P. 211: Rowman and Littlefield) working on with Dr. S have been beneficial for various reasons. The use of these interactive instructional resources has helped many of my struggling learners feel successful. These games are a great way for students to see curriculum material in a new or different way. It also helps to make the facts or information more meaningful and exciting to them. This in turn helps the students to retain the information. In addition, many of the games require the students to be creative by using their imaginations. All of this gets the students exited about learning. The games that they have made are also tools that the students will be able to carry over into other subjects and curriculum areas. I can see many opportunities for the students to create games to practice their math facts or a game based around a story we have read in class. The games can also be easily adapted for students to study and quiz themselves about any of our various science or social studies units. Heilmann related that she thought the students’ writing, overall, was amazing and both teachers complimented everyone on their creative stories. One student wrote by herself about the recycled item being a Christmas tree and being used as a “holiday symbol” Then, the tree was taken to a shredder to be used as mulch for plants. The story’s end was especially loved with this thought of the tree, “I may not be used now for the purpose I was intended, but I’m helping our environment and that’s a good thing.” In addition to the education benefits, I have seen some very strong social benefits as well. I feel that these games have provided a way for my students to work collaboratively with their classmates.... in ways I’ve not observed so much this school year. I have seen many of them share and work together to make decisions and solve problems through the creation of these games. I have also seen students work with classmates that they do not usually get to work with while in the normal classroom setting. It has been an experience that I feel has helped to bond my students together as a classroom community, realize their creativity and thinking skill development.” In a discussion with teacher, Beth McGovern, she commented about being truly impressed with the high level of collaboration the students have had during the times we’ve met. “They are really ‘getting along’ and sharing ideas and acting on them so well. I am really impressed with their creativity and use of imagination. And, I think they are going to use these educational games for a long time to come; beyond this year. And, some of the children who have had difficulty sharing ideas, well I’m looking at one right now who is really producing work when previously there was little involvement or effort. It’s really nice to see them participating so much.” Reading over Erin’s observations the Model for Academic and Social Cognition mentioned at the start of this article comes into focus most profoundly. The idea of “social literacy” has been provided by sharing common social and societal realities, which forms belief and value systems that, in this case, bring a classroom full of eight and nine-year-olds to unity of purpose. Furthermore, “There is no competition,” explains Ms. McCarthy, “but rather working together for learning. The result is that within a year’s time the children will be actually teaching other children in the school when they use the IBR. Subsequently, school community is realized. Perhaps a sense of pride ensues...one that has children saying things like this, ‘I think the IBR was very fun and I learned a lot of recycle stuff.” Or, “I felt happy when doing the games,” and “I like doing this, because we shared.” Methodology: School Three: Erin McCarthy: “At Thiells Elementary School in Rockland County, New York, McCarthy relates {16} (2013) that her third-grade class followed the same procedures as the second school in this article. This was with respect to the introduction to ecosystems, laminating the Task Cards they created, doing creative writing as if a recyclable object from that objects point of view, sharing the stories, going on an Ecologist Scavenger Hunt, doing teacher Tara Benton’s Smart Board activity, making posters and sharing ideas about how sustainability and the 3Rs work for people in their school and surrounding area. Methodology: School Four: Ann Hultman Jakobsson The third-graders exhibited high interest each Friday when Dr. Schiering came to visit the class and instruct on ecosystems and educational games with “style” in the mix. The educational games that my students have been Ann Hultman Jakobsson {7} (2013) at Edbskolan in Sweden writes, “When the students first got the package from the United States with student-made educational 20 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) games, they were very excited. They wanted to start making their own games right away. After reading the book Something from Nothing, which the students also really appreciated, we repeated what we had learned during the year about sustainable development and ecosystems. We talked about what activities we had done to learn about these subjects and then we talked about some English words for what we had learned. easily made the second and third game. This is proof that they learned the process by taking part of it and then being imaginative and creating on their own. I can also see that a couple of students were not benefited by working with the instructional games. These are students that mostly wanted to write answers in a book and that have a hard time focusing on the subject. My guess is that they will be helped by playing the games, and that it is the making of the games that did not suite them. Some groups are already done with their games and they have started to make another game on a different subject. They are making games about the historic times, the years between Before the Common Era and 1000 years after it for review of what we have learned this year, and these educational games, for an IBR, are definitely something we will keep on doing. Because the students started to read English as a school subject this year, and because the vocabulary in this subject area is quite difficult, even in their native language, the students started to search for information and write questions in Swedish. They choose in what area they wanted to make a game and then they wrote their own questions by reading about the area in books and/or on the internet. Even to write questions with multiple choice answers turned out to be a challenge and we had some good learning experiences while doing this. The students worked in groups and their next assignment was to translate the Swedish questions and answers into English. They used Google translate for this, as they sat in groups and discussed the suggestions for translation they got from this source. Follow-up was meeting with me for right translation. Conclusions: Perhaps the best way to address the conclusion of this project, other than showing the Attitudinal Chart at the end of this article, would be to share the comments from Beth McGovern and Heidi Heilmann {12} (2013): “This IBR collaboration was a great learning experience for us as teachers, but was especially wonderful for our classes. They were thrilled to be involved in this unique collaboration between a veteran college professor, elementary school teachers, and themselves. Collaboration is the operative! The most popular games the students made were done in small groups and were the Flip Chute, Pic-a-Dot and Electro-board, all learning-“style” related activities. They wrote the final version of the questions. I found I have a very creative group of students and they were really enthusiastic about making the educational games for the IBR. I have templates the students followed for these games on a CD that had been made by Lena Boström, the principal of my school. Creatively, one group made a board game, and they also thought of making extra inventions on their game that weren’t in the templates. They made it so that both the rules and the question cards stayed on the board at all times by an elastic band. Every day at least one or two students came and asked if we were going to work on the IBR method project. Even students that usually do not get inspired by school work came up to me and asked if we could “play.” We spent time together, creating interactive educational materials for a unit on Environmental/Ecology awareness. The activities were exciting and fun! Our students were very creative, truly enjoying their improvisational performances. One particular activity involving Dr. Schiering, was inviting students to 'act out' their creative writing stories about the life of a recycled item. Most importantly, aside from the cognitive development and social interaction, we observed students who were quiet in class, becoming 100% engaged! One child, in particular, who is struggling with English as a second language, really blossomed. We all learned that the interactive educational games could certainly be integrated and carried-over into all curriculum areas and meet our new Common Core learning standards.” There have been a lot of challenges, especially since they had to read and write in a foreign language. Despite that, the students have been working eagerly, they have been very creative and they have had fun with looking forward to exchanging their IBR with classes in the USA. Everyone has participated and done something and they are very proud about this, and how it broadened their English vocabulary. The students have learned a lot about sustainable development and ecosystems. What they haven´t learned yet I´m sure they will learn while trying out their friends games. Another thing that is very obvious is that once the students had made their first game they As the lead author, reviewing these pages of comments by the IBR project participating teachers, it’s rather clear that they, as well as myself, and the student learners, partook most enthusiastically in the making of instructional resources. In three classes, the interactive posters, and in a different three, the IBRs were produced. Sharing these within and between schools and nations, creating and maintaining classroom community, and bonding were at an all time high level. This occurred as children in these third and fifth grades joined together with their teachers creatively expressing Molloy College’s interest in sustainability, because of the Lego Children’s Fund grant 21 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) provision of materials for the IBR, and came to fully comprehend the importance of having ecosystems that are sustainable and keeping them that way for future generations. At some point each of us has said, “This has truly been a worthwhile experience.” 6. Gilman, P. (1993). Something from Nothing. Scholastic Inc. New York. 7. Hultman Jakobsson, A. (2013). International Exchange of IBR Pejoratives. Trangsund, Sweden The Chart that follows, Pizzo’s Semantic Differential Scale {12} (1981), shows attitudes regarding learning when using educational games such as those in the IBR. 8. HHH and Schiering, M. (2000). Memory: The Core of Cognition: Rehabilitating Stroke Victims. In Helen Hayes Rehabilitation Hospital Publication for Rehabilitation Practices (Ed.). Haverstraw, NY. Jakobsson Hultman, A. (2013). International Exchange of IBR Pejoratives. Table 2: IBR with Pizzo’s Semantic Differential Scale 9. Moroney, R. (2013). Conversations on “Learning through Play” Molloy College, Rockville Centere, NY.. Helpful 46 24 3 1 0 Not Helpful Clear-minded 40 17 12 2 3 Confused 10. McCarthy, E. (2013). Conversations on Using the IBR. Thiells Elementary School. Thiells, NY. Energetic 43 15 11 4 1 Tired 11. Pizzo, J. (1981). Semantic Differential Scale. Dissertation Abstracts International. 42. 2475A. Calm 46 12 11 2 3 Nervous Strong 46 17 9 0 1 Weak Relaxed 39 12 13 6 3 Tense Wonderful 55 14 3 1 1 Terrible Steady 42 21 5 1 3 Shaky Confident 43 19 6 1 5 Uncertain Good 58 13 1 2 0 Bad Peaceful 33 26 6 2 17 Frustrating Sharp/Exciting 45 20 6 2 1 Dull/Boring Successful 59 11 3 0 1 Unsuccessful 12. McGovern, E. and Heilmann, H. Conversations on Using the IBR in a fifth-grade interdisciplinary classroom. Our Lady of victory School. Floral Park, NY. Piz 13. Schiering, M. (1996). Ecosystems, Now There’s a Niche for You. St. John’s University Press. Queens, NY. 14. Schiering, M. (1999). The Effects of Learning Style Instructional Resources on Fifth-grade Suburban Students Metacognition, Achievement, Attitudes and Ability to Teach Themselves. (St. John’s University, Dissertation). Queens, NY. 15. Schiering, M. (2002) Pedagogy: A Matter of Sharing One’s Experiential Past for Today’s Learning. Academic Exchange Quarterly, 6 (1), 27-31. 1 16. Schiering, M.. (2003a). The “How” and “Who” of Teaching and Learning. In Raynor & Armstrong (Ed.) Bridging Theory & Practice: Proceeding of The Eighth Annual Learning Styles Conference. Hull, England: ELSIN. 17. Schiering, M. (2003b). Reciprocal Thinking Chart. In Molloy College Course Syllabi (Ed.) Integrated Reading and Language Arts for the Diverse Learner in the Inclusion Classroom. EDU. 506A Curriculum. Molloy College. Rockville Centre, NY. Course References 1. Brandt, R. (1999). ‘Educators need to know about the human brain’, Phi Delta KAPPAN, 81, (3), 235-238. 18. Schiering, M., (2003c). The Interactive Book Report. EDU. 506A Syllabus: Integrated ELA and Reading for the diverse Learner in the Inclusion Classroom. Molloy college. Rockville Centre, NY 2. Cerruto, A., Benton, T. (2013). Conversations on Using the IBR. Lexington School for the Deaf. Queens, NY. 3. Demasio, AR. (1994). Desartes’ Error. New York: Groset/Putnam. 4. Dunn R., Dunn, K. (1992). Teaching Elementary Students Through Their Individual Learning Styles. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. 5. Gazzaniga, MS. (1998). The Mind’s Past. CA: University of California Press. 19. Schiering, M., Bogner, D., Buli-Holmberg, J. (2011). Teaching and Lerning: A Model for Academic and Social Cognition. Lanham, MD. Rowman and Littlefield Publishers. 20. Schiering, M. (2012). Creative Cognition. IBREA: Brain World: humanity’s New Frontier magazine. Vol. (3). Pp. 40-43. NYC. 22 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) (Diamantopoulos & Schlegelmilch, 2000; Cochran, 1965), size ofthe population, level of significance, budget and practical constraints (Terre Blanche, et. al., 2009). Various methods and procedures of estimating the required sample size for a complexcross-sectional study (CCSS) have been suggested in literature (for e.g., M iaoulis & M ichener, 1976; Kish, 1965; Cochran, 1965; Anderson, et. al., 2010). There is no single rule that can be applied to determine the required sample size for all surveys (Keppel, 1991; Kirk, 1995; Cohen, 1988; Kraemer & Thiemann, 1987; SerumagaZake & Arnab, 2008). Published sample size tables and computer software programs such as O’Brien & Muller (1993) and Power & Precision (1997) exist but the sample sizes reflect the number ofobtained responses, and not necessarily the number of interviews planned (Cohen, 1988; Gatsonis & Sampson, 1989). A Suggested Statistical Procedure for Estimating the Minimum Sample Size Required for a Complex Cross-Sectional Study Philip AE Serumaga-Zake UNISA, School of Business Leadership (SBL), South Africa R Arnab University of Botswana, Botswana ABSTRACT Based on the relationships among the power of a hypothesis test, effect size, standarddeviation, level ofsignificance andsample size, this paper suggests a suitable statistical procedure for estimating the minimum sample size that is requiredfor a complexcross sectional study. Keywords: Sample size, effect size, level of significance, standard deviation, power analysis, LSD, Turkey and Bonferroni multiple comparison procedures In a CCSS, when more than two population group means of an independent variable (IV) are compared, the probability that some comparisons may unnecessarily be found statistically significant simply because too manycomparisons were performedis high (i.e., inflation oftype Ierror) (Curren-Everett, 2000). For example, ifthere are no differences among the population groups but six comparisons are performed, the chance that some mean difference reaches the level of statistical significance ( ) is much greater than , which would call for adjustment of the sample size (say, by using the Bonferroni adj ustment) (Dallal, 2004; Jaccard and W an, 1996; Holm, 1979; Holland and Copenhaver, 1988). Each of the m individual comparisons should be performed at the adjusted / m level of significance. Equivalently, you can multiplythe unadjusted P values of the estimates by the 1. INTRODUCTION Usually researchers in fields such as social sciences ask statisticians about the right sample sizes for their studies. Statisticians often suggest taking as large a sample as possible - resources permitting. The decision cannot always be made satisfactorily for lack of the necessary information. Sample size affects the sampling error of a parameter estimate such that the larger the sample, the smaller the sampling error and the more precise the inferences made from the sample will be. There are manyfactors that affect sample size (see M iaoulis & M ichener, 1976; Israel, 1992; Cooper & Schindler, 2001; Stoker (in Schnetler, 1989); M iaoulis & M ichener, 1976; Kish, 1965). These include:purpose ofthe study, sampling design, accuracy of estimation, dispersion 23 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) were createdbyresampling the dataset with the simple random sampling (SRS) without replacement procedure. For a given sample size, the underlying overall differences between group means were tested for statistical significance - using the LSD, Turkey and Bonferroni multiple comparison procedures. The powers ofthe pairwise t-test and ANOVA F-test were then calculatedfor the group means with the smallest significant difference (SSD), using their corresponding group sizes, a common standard deviation and the level of significance of = 0.05. The assumptions of normality, independent observations and groups, and homogeneity of variances were satisfied. The power ofthe t-test was calculated as 1 - b = Pr ob[t £ tc | d ] , where tc is the number oftests and compare the results to the nominal level ofsignificance. Also, ifyou are dealing with more than one IV, you should reduce by dividing it by the number ofIVs. For correlated IVs, the reduction may unfortunately be more than necessary (depending on the level ofcorrelation). Power analysis can overcome this challenge by ensuring that the sample size is large enough that the smallest effect (which say, is of scientific or economic importance) will be detected with a reasonable degree ofcertainty (Nemec, 1991). A sample is too small if its results are not precise enough to make appreciable contribution to decisions and it is too large if its results are more precise than warranted by their likely uses or if the nonsampling errors overwhelm precision, which imply a waste of resources (Kish, 1965; Cochran, 1965). n1n2 , the 2(n1 + n2 ) noncentrality parameter (where d =m 2 - m1 ); and that ofthe ANOVA F-test was calculated as 1 - b = Pr ob[ F ³ Fc | l ] , where Fc is the SS H critical F-value, l = 2 1 is the noncentrality critical Based on the relationships among the power of a hypothesis test, effect size (i.e., the presumed underlying difference between the two group means to be detected (d) - should they be unequal), the within group standard deviation ( ), level of statistical significance ( ) and sample size, this paper suggests a suitable statistical procedure that can be usedtoestimate the minimum sample size required for a CCSS. The remaining part ofthe paper is structuredas follows. Section 2 provides the methodology, section 3 discusses the results and section 4 presents the suggestedprocedure. t-value andd = d s parameter, SSH1 is the between sums ofsquares ofthe observations replaced by their expected values under H 1 , ands 2 is the error variance. The GLM POW ER procedure of SAS was employed(see Castelloe, 2004). 3. RESULTS1 Table 1 (Appendix) and figures 1 and 2 below show the marital status and Turkey multiple comparison procedure results. In the table, 1 = married (civil), 2 = married (traditional), 3 = living together, 4 = widower/widow, 5 = divorced and 6 = never married. Significant 2. METHODOLOGY T- and ANOVA F- tests were performed to determine the effects of gender, race, marital status andeducation on people’searnings using secondary data extracted from the Stats SA’s 1999 OHS dataset computer files. Nine independent random samples ofsizes:40, 80, 160, 320, 640, 1280, 2560, 5120 and 10240 1 The tables andgraphs for gender, race andeducation are not shown for brevityofthe paper 24 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) differences are written in bold. As expected, effect size generally decreases with increasing sample sizes (figure 1). According to figure 2, the Power ofthe F-test decreases at the sample size of n=80 and then increases with sample size, whereas that of the t-test fluctuates; it decreases at the sample sizes of:160 (LSD), 1280 (Turkey and Bonferroni), 2560 and 10240 (Turkey andBonferroni) but it increases at other sample sizes. For gender, the power values stayed more or less the same because gender hadonlytwosame population groups (i.e., male and female) to be compared throughout. For race, marital status and education, the values fluctuated with increasing sample sizes because these IVs had more than two population groups to be compared. In these cases, the effect size changed according to the population groups being compared, that is, the groups with SSDs, standard deviation and sample size. For example, according to the table, at the sample size of40, population groups:“married (civil)” and “widower/ widow” have the SSD (1.94), so this was the applicable effect size, whereas it is .64 for population groups “married (civil)” and “never married” in the case ofthe sample size of80, which was applicable. The group means that gave the SSDs changed for the different procedures and sample sizes. For example, in the table, at the sample size of160, the SSD is .91 for “married (civil)” and “married (traditional)”; whereas at the sample size of 320,the meansof“married (civil)” and “never married” have t he SSD (of.84). The power of the hypothesis test was therefore calculated for the means of “married (civil)” and “married (traditional)” for the sample size of160 but for the means of “married (civil)” and “never married” for the sample size of320. The results for gender demonstrated that generally the larger the sample size the higher the power as expected. For the other IVs, they indicated that the power of a hypothesis test fluctuates with increasing sample sizes, andthat the shape andgradient ofthe power curve differ among the IVs. This can be explained by the fact that these IVs have more than one pair of group means tobe comparedandthe variability within groups differs from group to group. For gender, the Power ofthe F-test of.80 (which some authors normally recommend) was reached at the sample size ofaround 320. For the others, it was reached between the sample sizes of80 and 160. The results also indicated that, for IVs with more than one pair ofgroup means to be compared, the larger the sample size the more and the smaller the statistically significant (mean) differences will be regardless ofthe multiple comparison procedure used. For example, using the LSD procedure, 25 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) First, set the effect size (which say, is scientificallyor economicallyimportant) for the pair of group means with the smallest difference, d and the power say, at .90 for a particular IV. Second, for a given pooled standard deviation, S, and adjusted level of significance (i.e., a divided by the number of comparisons to be made for that IV to cater for the inflation of a ), calculate the subsample size, n = n1 = n2 , using formula: only two mean differences, namely, between “married (civil)” and “never married”, and between “married (civil)” and “widower/ widow” were significant with the sample size of40 but they were eight with the sample size of 10240; all except those between “divorced/separate” and “married (t raditional)”, and between “married (traditional)” and “never married” were significant. The power ofthe ttest did not necessarily increase with sample size; rather it stayedmore or less the same until such a time when almost all the mean differences became statistically significant. After this point, the power began to increase almost steadilyto1.00. For example, for marital status, the power did not rise to 1.00 until the sample size of 2560 was reached (for all procedures). This is the point when the last SSD (i.e., between the group means of “widower/widow” and “living t ogether”) became statistically significant, and with a larger sample size (5120), it rose to1.00. 2(t1-a / 2 + t1- b )2 2 D , where D = m2 - m1 sp = d with sp respectively ta / 2 and tb as the upper 100a / 2 percentage point and100b percentage point of the t-distribution, and s p as the pooled sample standard deviation. The calculated subsample size will be allocated to the smaller ofthe two population groups. Third, proportionally calculate the relative subsample sizes for the other population groups (or levels ofthe IV), andaddup all the subsample sizes toobtain the minimum sample size required for that IV. Do this for all the main IVs. Then, the required minimum sample size for the study will be the largest (minimum) sample size ofall calculated sample sizes. The population standarddeviation can be estimatedfrom: · A previous similar study. The estimate may needadjustment for time changes. · A pilot survey(Cochran, 1965). · A rule-of-thumb (i.e., one-sixth ofthe range based on six standard deviations within 99.73 percent confidence) (Green, 1991). · Judgment or best guess: Use Range (largest–smallest value) and divide it by 4 to estimate it (Anderson, et. al., 2010). · Guesswork about the structure of the population assisted by some mathematical result (Cochran, 1965). For example, ifwe assume a Poisson distribution, S 2 = Y . In conclusion, based on the data used in this study, it was found that any underlying population mean difference, so longer as it is not absolutely zero, can be found statistically significant depending on the sample size used. Simply put, in CCSSs, for a given standard deviation and level ofsignificance, the larger the sample size you use the higher the power of the hypothesis test, the more significant mean differences andthe smaller the significant mean differences you will get. It was also demonstrated that of the three multiple comparison procedures, the Bonferroni and Turkey procedures tend to be conservative and the LSD procedure tends tobe liberal. 4. THE SUGGESTED PROCEDURE Basedon the results ofthis study, the following statistical procedure is suggestedtoestimate the required minimum sample size for a CCSS. 26 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) [13]G. Keppel, Design and analysis:A researcher’s handbook (3rd ed.). Orlando, FL:AcademicPress, 1991. [14]R. Kirk, Experimental design procedures for the behavioural sciences (3rd ed.), PacificGrove, CA:Brooks/Cole, 1995. [15]L. Kish, Survey sampling, New York: John W ileyandSons, Inc., 1965. [16]J.C. Kraemer & S. Thiemann, How many subjects?BeverlyHills, CA, Sage, 1987. [17]G. M iaoulis & R.D. M ichener, An introduction to sampling. Dubuque, Iowa:Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company, 1976. [18]A.F.L. Nemec, Power analysis handbook for the design and analysis of forestry trials, Handbook No.2, October 1991, editedbyBergerud, W ., Biometrics Information Handbook Series, M inistryof Forests, Victoria, British Columbia. [19]R.G. O’brien & K.E. M uller, Unified power analysis for t-tests through multivariate Hypotheses. In Lynne K. Edwards (Ed.) AppliedAnalysis of variance in behavioural science. New York:M arcel Dekker, 1993. [20]J. Schnetler, Survey methods and practice, Revisededition, Human Science Research Council, Pretoria, 1989. [21]P.A.E. Serumaga-Zake & R. Arnab, “The role ofsample size in testing a hypothesis in complexcross-sectional studies:A M onte Carlosimulation study”,Journal of Studies of Economics and Econometrics, 32 (2), 2008, pp. 63-68. [22]M . Terre Blanche, K. Durrheim & D. Painter, Research in practice, UCT. Press, 2009. 5. REFERENCES [1] D.R. Anderson, D.J. Sweeney& T.A. W illiams, Statistics for business and economics (2nd ed.), South-W estern, U.K, 2010. [2] J.M . Castelloe, Sample size computations and power analysis with the SAS system, 2004. [3]W .G. Cochran, Sampling techniques (2nd ed.), John W iley& Sons, Inc., New York, 1965. [4]J. Cohen, Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Earlbaum Associates, 1988. [5]D.R. Cooper & P.S. Schindler, Research methods, Boston:M cGraw-Hill International Edition, 2001. [6]D. Curren-Everett, “M ultiple comparisons: philosophies andillustrations”, Am J Physiology,Regulatory Integrative and Comparative Physiology 279, 2000. [7]G.E. Dallal, The little handbook of statistical practice, Tufts University, Boston, 2004. [8]A. Diamantopoulos & B.B. Schlegelmilch, Taking the fear out of data analysis, South-W estern, U.K., 2000. [9]S.B. Green, “How manysubjects does it take todoa regression analysis?” Multivariate Behavioural Research, Vol. 26, 1991, pp. 499-510. [10]B.S. Holland& M . Copenhaver, “Improvedbonferroni-type multiple testing procedures”, Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 104, 1988, pp. 145-149. [11]S. Holm, “A simple sequentiallyrej ective multiple test procedure”,Scandanavian Journal of Statistics, Vol. 6, 1979, pp. 6570. [12]J. Jaccard& C.K. W an, LISREL approaches to interaction effects in multiple regression, ThousandOaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1996. 27 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) Appendix Table 1:Mean difference for marital status (Turkey) Means 1 -5 1 -2 1 -6 1 -3 1 -4 5 -2 5 -6 5 -3 5 -4 2 -6 2 -3 2 -4 6 -3 6 -4 3 -4 F-ratio F-ratio (marital) R-Sq 80 . 80 .28 . 64 . 645 .26 -.52 -.16 -.15 -.54 .36 .37 -.01 .00 -.38 -.38 1.71 160 .82 . 91 . 96 . 97 .90 .09 .14 .16 .09 .04 .06 -.01 .02 -.05 -.07 12.11 320 .53 . 90 . 84 . 85 . 88 .37 .31 .32 .35 -.06 -.05 -.02 .01 .04 .03 12.30 .47 .91 4.37 6.83 10.31 8.83 0.25 .52 .34 .39 .28 0.62 640 .50 . 72 . 72 . 89 . 90 .22 .22 .39 .41 -.00 .17 .18 .17 .18 .01 30.62 Sample size 1280 2560 . 53 . 55 . 39 . 59 . 46 . 53 . 81 . 73 . 84 . 69 -.14 .04 -.07 -.02 .28 .18 .31 .13 .07 -.06 .14 . 42 .45 .10 . 35 . 20 .38 .16 .03 -.04 37.75 104.82 40 .84 .23 .62 1. 94 -.62 -.23 1.10 .39 1.71 1.32 4.11 28 5120 . 43 . 45 . 49 . 69 . 67 .02 .06 . 25 .23 .04 . 23 .21 . 20 .17 -.02 174.85 10240 . 45 . 51 . 54 . 74 . 70 .06 .10 . 30 . 25 .04 . 24 . 20 . 20 . 16 -.04 382.96 165.93 33.13 76.98 .35 .31 .33 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) SuperReality: General Implications of “Big Data” Analytics and Artificial Intelligence for Individuals and Households in Society Robert Bonometti Byrd School of Business, Shenandoah University Winchester, VA 22601, USA Keywords: Big data, SuperReality, Artificial Intelligence, Augmented reality, Internet of Things. ABSTRACT The main premise of this paper is that “Big Data” and artificial intelligence (AI) technologies will engender revolutionary, if not indeed disruptive, technological transformations that will dramatically affect the way individual people live and work in our society. Much scholarly research and attention has been paid over many years to studies of the impact of “Big Data” and AI on businesses and other organizations, such as vertical industry segments like health care and banking as well as specialized domains such as military operations. The present work examines the potential applications and ramifications of these emerging technological changes on individuals and households within society, and uses the term-of-art “SuperReality” to describe the new ontological paradigm. This term is intended to suggest an environment in which individuals and households achieve historically unprecedented capabilities for capturing highly detailed data and information about their activities, storing and processing these resources, and obtaining timely notifications and alerts regarding events and required actions. A notional model is presented for this new “SuperReality” paradigm which captures its underlying integrated infrastructure and the layers of applications and services that comprise it. Opportunities for entrepreneurial business developments supporting commercialization of these nascent technological capabilities is also discussed. The present work is intended to help initiate the academic discussion and exploration of SuperReality, and is clearly an early stage treatment of this topic as opposed to a more definitive and finalized rendering which will require considerable future refinements and consensus-building dialogues. INTRODUCTION AND TERM-OF-ART Computer systems have radically transformed government agencies, businesses, and indeed the lives of people throughout society over the past half century. Rather than attaining an innovation plateau, the rate and degree of change in fact is accelerating. Personal computing (a la desktops) brought powerful capabilities to vast numbers of people to store, manipulate, manage, and analyze diverse realms of data and information. Simultaneous adoptions within businesses as well as in households engendered a mutually reinforcing technological revolution. The power and utility of the computing platform was dramatically expanded by the proliferation of networking. From local and wide area networks supporting organizations, to homebased personal networks, to the explosive growth of the public Internet, the historical role of computers as “computational engines” was transformed into a multi-purpose platform in which rich multimedia based interactions among people became at least as important, if not more so, than the original computational basis. In recent years, continued explosive growth and change has centered around mobility, miniaturization from desktop form factors to handheld devices, expansion of narrow-band network connectivity into ubiquitous broadband infrastructure, emergence of social media and networking on a global level, and, most recently, cloud-based architectures enabling both applications and data to be hosted remotely and thereby achieve the goal of always accessible information anywhere and at any time. The next great wave of change is already welling-up, and will be centered on the AI-powered third generation Semantic Web. 29 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) Large scale generic organizational applications based on emerging technological capabilities have already appeared, such as real-time targeted micromarketing capabilities and distributed sensor networks for supply chain management. The multitude of application prospects are truly diverse and exciting, and much research and attention has been duly focused on these developments. LITERATURE REVIEW The notion of SuperReality in large scale applications is not new, and in fact the author discussed similar ideas several decades ago in the context of future military systems and capabilities – a large, formal organizational perspective (see for example Bonometti [1]). Notwithstanding extant literature that discusses various aspects of SuperReality for large formal organizations (although that term-of-art itself is not used), there is a dearth of literature addressing the implications for individuals and households. A major purpose for this paper is to help stimulate the academic discussion and literature development for this perspective. It is the thesis of this paper that, akin to the simultaneous advancements in information systems affecting large organizations and individual households over the past two decades, the next wave that is already appearing in formal organizations today will also have profound and far reaching implications for individuals and households. High power multi-core processors, massive data storage, home-based servers, diverse sensor devices, speech recognition, AI software applications, and ubiquitous networking have all become economically accessible to individuals and households. On top of this foundational infrastructure, an explosion of AI-powered applications and services will usher in a new era of unprecedented granularity and precision in how people manage their personal affairs. We adopt the term-of-art “SuperReality” to describe the novel paradigm that will emerge. This term is intended to suggest an ontological environment in which individuals and households achieve historically unprecedented capabilities for capturing highly detailed data and information about their activities, storing and processing these resources, and obtaining timely notifications and alerts regarding events and required actions. Given the paucity of literature addressing SuperReality for individuals and households, our literature review will briefly highlight references to related underlying topics such as “Big Data” and analytics, augmented reality and AI technology impacts for individuals. The author provides a literature overview of “Big Data”, business intelligence and analytics, and cloud computing in a recent companion paper to the present work (see Bonometti [3] and references therein). Weathington [16] presents an excellent discussion regarding how “Big Data” is defined, and notes that various versions of this definition are found among industry players. A Wall Street Journal article (Skeldon [12]) provides a readable introduction and overview of augmented reality, noting emerging business opportunities in this technology arena. Many introductory overviews to AI (artificial intelligence) can be found in the literature and popular press; for example, the author presented a layman’s overview of AI in conjunction with the 50th anniversary of the birth of that discipline (Bonometti, [2]), and Bloomberg BusinessWeek presented a set of articles on AI in September 2010 including an excellent overview article by Morgenthaler [9]. SuperReality encompasses the more widely discussed arena known as augmented reality, but it extends beyond that realm. The term-of-art “augmented reality” typically is used to describe the fusion of rich information elements onto the fabric of real-world imagery. On the other hand, SuperReality will involve the collection, management and analysis of real-world data, often sensor derived or input via spoken language, on scales that have heretofore been impossible. Again, our focus in this paper will not be on large formal organization domains such as distributed networks of weather or traffic sensors and the application and services that they will support, but rather on how individuals and households will participate in this exciting future paradigm. An informative and enlightening infographic (IBM [7]) presents statistics regarding big data in large formal organizational contexts, including that 2.7 zettabytes of data are estimated to exist today, with structured and unstructured data growing at a rate of 60% annually, with unstructured data alone growing 80%. An excellent overview of cloud computing 30 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) model is intended to reflect that preferred approach, with many vendors competing to provide interoperable elements of the overall SuperReality infrastructure. In particular, existing devices such as smartphones and tablet computers should be leveraged to avoid high initial costs for individuals and households to implement a SuperReality framework. Figure 1 presents an illustrative diagram depicting the notional model for SuperReality based on a basic app domain taxonomy and the underlying technological infrastructure. We first address the taxonomic considerations and then return to an explanatory discussion of the notional model for SuperReality. and big data is presented in a recent McKinsey Quarterly Report, emphasizing advantages to businesses derived from these technologies (Bughin, et. al. [4]). Rowe and Parasuraman [11] present and discuss results of an extensive survey of 99 organizations emphasizing the integrative power of big data and related analytical capabilities to enhance customer interactions and to improve the profitability of marketing efforts. Another excellent current overview of big data technologies and their implications is presented by Talend [14]. Cohen et. al. [5] present a discussion of big data analytics and consider non-traditional methodologies, and Hayes [6] provides a general overview of cloud computing. A March 2012 research report by Nucleus Research [10] discusses analytics deployment in 60 companies and notes that the return on investment can exceed 1200% provided that the deployment aims to enhance organizational strategy. Stodder [13] discusses the relationships between “Big Data” and analytics for businesses. Table 1 presents a simplified application domain taxonomy. Note that this notional framework is intended to be illustrative and not a complete, finalized taxonomy for applications. This simplified illustrative taxonomy uses four major application domains: Household Management, Health Care and Informatics, Personal Management, and Procurement Management. Each of these domains is expanded into several layers of subset application areas (again, a notional illustrative rendering not intended as a definitive and finalized version). A recent interview with Stephen Wolfram by Tucker [15] discussed Wolfram’s personal daily life computational log spanning about 20 years. Wolfram has noted that such a data log serves as “an adjunct to my personal memory, but also to be able to do automatic computational history—explaining how and why things happened—and then making projections and predictions. … It got me thinking about lots of different ways that I could improve my life and times with data.” Tucker noted that “Only very recently, a growing number of people are routinely collecting data about themselves all the time. The drivers for this trend seem to be better and lighter computers that make personal record keeping much easier.” Table 1 arrays the application domains against a framework of input, storage, processing and output modalities. We next briefly describe these four dimensions, beginning with data and information capture. The dimension of input modes span speech, sensor, and manual/other. The advent of SuperReality functionality is critically dependent on routine, nearly effortless information capture via sensors and spoken language interfaces. Speech input of data will be a highly significant modality with critical impact on usability, convenience, and large scale adoptability of SuperReality by people and households. Until recently, the main humancomputer interface for data input into information systems has been the keyboard and the mouse. The more natural, efficient and productive input modality is of course natural spoken language. With advances in AI speech recognition and processing technologies, the limitations of the keyboard/mouse interface are beginning to give way to natural spoken language interfaces. This trend is especially evident in today’s latest generation of mobile devices which, by virtue of their small-size form factors, have been particularly limited by keyboard and mouse/touch screen interfaces. Further, increasingly powerful semantic processing A NOTIONAL MODEL A taxonomy for SuperReality application domains needs to be developed, and a proposed framework is presented here in conjunction with a vertical infrastructure description for the technologies, systems and processes that will underlie the application domains. While complete “stovepipe” proprietary systems from a single vendor (or consortium) are possible, perhaps the best implementation modality would be a diverse set of various products (hardware and software) that conform to basic interface standards and specifications developed by industry. The notional 31 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) Figure 1 Notional Model for SuperReality Intelligent Data/Web/Text Mining Bots Place‐Time Analysis Expert Systems Predictive Analytics Natural Language Processing AI Tools & Services Home Server Infrastructure C L O U D Web/Cloud Repositories Operational DB’s Data Warehouse Web Home LAN (Wired and Wireless) Network Connectivity UI Location Services Awareness Platforms iOS SmartPhone Security Device/Platform Detection & Optimization OS X WinPhone Android Tablet PDAs (iPod etc) Input/Output Modes (Gesture, Audio, Visual, etc) Windows Laptops etc Linux Desktops Sensors, Actuators, Alarms MOBILITY Devices High System Human‐Computer Interfaces Figure 2 Interactions and Interdependencies in the Application Domains Household Management Personal Management Time Management Expendable Supplies Food Procurement Management Health Care Management 32 Unix (HD)‐TVs Low Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) Table 1 Notional Application Domain Taxonomy Data Collection Methodology Data Storage Processing Manually Spoken Speech Sensor Manual/Other Home Server Cloud RealTime Bot Initiated Announcements Application Domain Household Management ‐ Time and Events ‐‐ Calenders: Personal and Integrated ‐‐‐ Schedule Optimization and Conflict Resolution ‐‐ Event Documentation ‐ Services and Vendors ‐‐ Recurring: Water, electric, cable, etc. ‐‐ Infrequent: Roofer, landscaper, etc. ‐ Financial ‐‐ Budget ‐‐ Revenues and Expenditures ‐‐ Investments ‐‐‐ Capital Investments/Procurements (Cars, major appliances, etc.) ‐‐‐ Financial Investments (College, retirement, etc.) ‐ Foodstuffs, Staples, Supplies and Inventory ‐‐ Item Locations and QoH ‐ Systems Maintenance ‐‐ HVAC System ‐‐ Security ‐‐ Fire Prevention, Detection, Suppression ‐ Vehicles ‐‐ Fuel ‐‐ Maintenance ‐‐‐ Owner ‐‐‐ Shop ‐‐ Critical Care (Recalls, etc.) ‐‐ Inspections Health Care and Informatics ‐ Routine data collection ‐‐ Consumables (foods, etc.) ‐‐ Medications ‐ Indicators and Observables (Conditions, mood, etc.) ‐ Critical Care ‐‐ RealTime Monitors (Blood pressure, etc.) Personal Management ‐ Fitness and Exercise ‐ To‐Do Lists ‐‐ Scheduling and Sequencing Optimization ‐ Creativity ‐ Relationships Management (Family, friends, coworkers, etc.) ‐‐ Events (Birthdays, anniversaries, etc.) ‐‐ Facts (Peferences, addresses, etc.) ‐ Reputation and Identity Management Procurement Management ‐ Expendibles (Major such as heating oil and minor such as cleaning spplies) ‐‐ Sourcing (identify low cost vendor, etc.) ‐‐ Order quantity ‐ Capital Expenses X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X Outputs Electronic Messaging Alarms Documentation (eMail, tweet, etc.) X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X Table 2 SuperReality Benefits Matrix Efficiencies Money Time Resource Utilization Application Domain Household Management Health Care and Informatics Personal Management Procurement Management X X X X X X X X X X 33 Attention to Detail Safety Security Routine Critical X X X X X X X X X Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) track revenues and expenditures today by manually entering data, but this chore is tedious, error prone, and suffers from almost always being less than 100% inclusive (i.e., capturing small purchase data is problematic). With a spoken language interface on one’s mobile device, together with other software on that device that captures even small transaction data (purchases paid for and recorded automatically by that device), the prospect of achieving allinclusive capture of expenditure data can be effortlessly achieved. Another example is seen in the management of household inventory, and again, while software exists for one to manually enter major items and possessions, systems to capture and process low cost expendables and supplies is not user-friendly today. The combination of natural spoken language data inputs and sensor generated inputs (such as “smart refrigerators” that maintain state information about their contents) will provide transparent and nearly effortless information capture that lies at the heart of a SuperReality capability. capabilities are producing devices that can interact with humans who communicate verbally in naturally spoken phrases (as opposed to restrictive stylized commands and key words). Perhaps the best current example of this interface is the Siri system on iPhones. Whereas that system is used today primarily to perform search and information retrieval functions as well as limited “data entry” (calendar entries, reminder notes, etc.), the advent of SuperReality capabilities can be expected to dramatically expand the use of natural spoken language to perform “data entry” related to a comprehensive and integrated set of personal and household activities. Despite recent poor reviews regarding the quality and accuracy of Siri and other voice recognition technologies (see for example Manjoo [8]), these systems have significantly improved in recent years and can be expected to progressively achieve higher and higher performance levels. A natural spoken language data/information entry interface is critically important as an enabling technology for SuperReality. Small mobile devices will be used to capture data and information in unstructured formats while individuals are going about their normal activities and performing household tasks. The burden of manually recording such information in notes that must be transcribed and parsed for entry into an information processing system will be effectively eliminated. A user would simply engage (“one click interface”) the information capturing function on their mobile device of choice, and the system will perform appropriate semantic and syntactic processing to ensure that the information is properly categorized, structured as necessary, and processed. Synchronization of data entries with the home server could take place either synchronously via a suitable local area wireless system, or asynchronously by temporary storage in the mobile device and subsequent transfer by Bluetooth or other means to the server. The storage dimension in Table 1 simply spans two modalities: storage of all data and information for household and personal management activities on one’s home-based server, and cloud based storage for ubiquitous access and data back-up. There are many issues involved with this dimension, such as security of sensitive personal data on cloud-based resources, but these issues are beyond the scope of the present paper and are suitable for future work. The processing dimension in Table 1 reflects the three modes that SuperReality data will be processed: automatically in realtime, automatically by event triggered software such as bots, and by manual user initiation. The latter mode would be appropriate for aperiodic activities, such as conducting an audit of household inventory. The fourth dimension shown in Table 1 represents the output modalities of a SuperReality system. These modes span routine archiving via electronic documentation, user interaction and feedback via spoken interfaces (speech generation on a mobile device, for example) and other messaging systems including instant messaging and eMail, and multimode alarm alert capabilities for critical events such as a carbon monoxide leak detected by a household sensor or a medical condition alert (blood pressure, glucose level, etc.) via health care sensors for a home-bound patient. The importance of the natural spoken language interface for capturing inputs to the system should not be understated. Whereas some household management software applications exist today, they generally require manual data inputs and are typically narrowly focused applications as opposed to broadly integrated modules spanning all aspects of personal and household management. For example, one can prepare a household budget and 34 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) Whereas most all households today have Web access and many have cloud based services of one sort or another, the home based server and high capacity storage infrastructure suggested by this model is today not present. To fully implement a SuperReality environment, an always-on, sufficiently powerful home server would be required. This engine would host the applications, tools and services that together constitute the SuperReality data storage and processing environment. Table 2 presents a benefits matrix showing the advantages achieved at the level of the four illustrative application domains. The interactions and interdependencies inherent in the application domains is suggested by Figure 2. This figure again represents a greatly simplified notional illustration of these interdependencies as opposed to a complete and definitive mapping which of course would depend on the detailed and finalized application taxonomy itself. As one simple example, managing food would involve interactions among the Household Management, Health Care, and Procurement domains. The final tier encompasses the specialized applications, tools and services that are the heart of a SuperReality implementation. As previously discussed, a natural language processing engine is an essential part of the infrastructure. Tools and services supporting SuperReality capabilities include AI expert systems, predictive and place-time analytics, data mining capabilities including coverage of unstructured data such as text, messages, Web pages, etc. Autonomous bots (software robots) would also be present to provide event-driven actions; for example, a bot might constantly monitor data flows from critical care health sensors for a home-bound patient and take action as needed in the event of mild or severe departure from acceptable readings, by sounding an alarm within the home and/or contacting a physician or 911 emergency services. Having outlined the concepts underlying the notional model for SuperReality, we now return to discuss the model itself as presented in Figure 1. The model is vertically segmented into four major tiers: System human-computer interfaces, Network connectivity, Home-based servers and home/cloud data storage, and AI services and tools that implement the SuperReality framework. We next briefly describe these tiers. The lowest tier in the vertical stack is the system human-computer interface. This tier is further segmented into devices (smartphones, laptops, desktops, etc. as well as sensors, actuators and alarms). On top of this hardware layer are various operating system environments (iOS, Android, Windows, etc.). The top sub-layer represents the user interface (UI) services that are important to SuperReality capabilities. These include input and output modalities (audio including speech, visual, gesture inputs, etc.) as well as services such as location awareness, security, and device detection and optimization. Having examined a notional model for SuperReality, we next briefly address some of the implementation challenges and opportunities that it will create. IMPLEMENTATION CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES The next major layer is network connectivity, including home based wired and wireless local area networks and Internet/Web connectivity. Other connectivity modes not shown in the illustration would include Bluetooth and cabled interfaces. As noted above, the preferred architectural implementation for SuperReality would be based on components and modules supplied by many competing vendors that all adhere to requisite interface specifications and standards. Perhaps the biggest challenge to be faced would be development of industry consensus on these standards and specifications. Many (perhaps most) individuals and households already have these lower two layers extant in the homes. The upper two layers of the model however will undoubtedly require additional hardware and software infrastructure to enable a rich SupreReality framework in most households. With the exception of some needed hardware developments (mostly sensors and actuators), most of the development effort for SuperReality capabilities will center on software products. The The third tier is the home based server and storage tier and a parallel cloud/Web based component. 35 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) good news is that many independent software developers and vendors will be able to participate in this nascent sub-industry, but the challenge to them will be the highly sophisticated nature of the AI software that must be created and tested. Quality assurance will be very important especially for those elements of a SuperReality framework that provide critical functionality to households and individuals such as security system integration, safety systems such as fire and explosive gas detection, and critical health monitoring systems. REFERENCES [1] Bonometti, R. “Future MILSATCOM Systems: A Far-Term Vision of Capabilities and Characteristics.” Proceedings of the 1991 IEEE Military Communications Conference (MILCOM '91 Classified Volume), November 1991. [2] Bonometti, R. “‘Artificial Intelligence’ Isn’t Science Fiction. » The SUN Newspaper. [3] Bonometti, R. “Technology Considerations for Competing in the ‘Big Data’-Social-Mobile-Cloud Marketing Space.” Competition Forum. Vol. 10, No. 2, 2012, pp. 209 – 214. [4] Bughin, J., Chui, M. and Manyika, J. Clouds, big data, and smart assets: Ten tech-enabled business trends to watch. McKinsey Quarterly Report. Retrieved July 2012 from http://www.itglobalservices.de/files/100810/McK_Clouds_big_data_an d_smart assets.pdf. [5] Cohen, J., Dolan, B., Dunlap, M., Hellerstein, J., and Welton, C. “MAD skills: New analysis practices for big data.” Proceedings of the VLDB Endowment. 2 (2), 1481 – 1492. [6] Hayes, B. “Cloud computing.” Communications of the ACM. 51 (7), 9 - 11. [7] IBM. Infographic: Driving marketing effectiveness by managing the flood of big data. Retrieved July 2012 from http://analyzingmedia.com/2012/infographic-bigflood-of-big-data-in-digital-marketing/. [8] Manjoo,F. “Siri, Step Aside, Google Voice Has Arrived.” The Washington Post, November 25, 2012, p. G2. [9] Morgenthaler, G. “AI’s Time Has Arrived.” Bloomberg BusinessWeek. September 21, 2010. Retrieved January 2012 from http://www.businessweek.com/stories/2010-0921/ais-time-has-arrivedbusinessweek-businessnews-stock-market-and-financial-advice. [10] Nucleus Research. The Stages of an Analytic Enterprise. Retrieved Sept 2012 from http://nucleusresearch.com/research/notes-andreports/the-stages-of-an-analytic-enterprise/. [11] Rowe, N. and Parasuraman, K. Extracting big value from big data in digital media. On-Demand Aberdeen Group Webinar. Retrieved July 2012 from http://aberdeen.reg.meetingstream.com/big_data_digital_media/. [12] Skeldon, P. “Even Better Than The Real Thing.” The Wall Street Journal. February 14, 2011. Retrieved May 2011 from Modular design of the various products and services by multiple vendors has the additional benefit of enabling phased system implementations. Few households would have the resources to procure and implement a comprehensive SuperReality system at one time. Interoperable products and services present the preferred implementation scheme where households can procure and set-up basic elements of an overall system, and add to that baseline over time. For example, integration of safety and security systems into the SuperReality framework might be a starting point for many households, which then can add hardware and software resources over time to grow the capabilities of their implementations. SUMMARY AND FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS This paper has presented initial considerations regarding the development and implementation of SuperReality systems. As stressed multiple times in this paper, the present effort is admittedly an early stage attempt to stimulate further scholarly and industry research into the promising aspects of SuperReality. Considerable further research and developmental efforts are clearly needed, including refinement of the apps domain taxonomy and the notional model. Most importantly, development of standards and specifications are essential to attain an interoperable framework of modular products and services from many competing vendors that will enable households to create affordable initial SuperReality systems and then grow and expand the capabilities and functionality of their implementations. 36 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) http://online.wsj.com/article/SB1000142405274870 4739504576067780550250202.html. [13] Stodder, D. Big Data and Business Intelligence: How They Come Together. Webinar presentation downloaded Sept 2012 from http://tdwi.org/webcasts/2012/07/big-data-andbusiness-intelligence-how-they-come-together.aspx. [14] Talend Corporation. Big data for the masses. Retrieved July 2012 from http://www.talend.com. [15] Tucker, P. “Science and a New Kind of Prediction: An Interview with Stephen Wolfram.” The Futurist. Vol. 47, No. 1, January-February 2013. Retrieved February 2013 from http://www.wfs.org/futurist/january-february-2013vol-47-no-1/science-and-new-kind-predictioninterview-stephen-wolfram. [16] Weathington, J. Big Data Defined. Blog September 4, 2012 downloaded Sept 2012 from http://www.techrepublic.com/blog/big-dataanalytics/big-data-defined/101. 37 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) E-learning as a socio-cultural system (elements to be influenced and influencing elements) Edita BUTRIME Lithuanian University of Health Sciences A. Mickeviciaus str. 58, LT 44307, Kaunas, Lithuania Vaiva ZUZEVICIUTE Vytautas Magnus university K. Donelaicio str. 58, LT-44248, Kaunas, Lithuania 2008; Mickus, Vidziunas, 2009; Rutkauskiene, Gudoniene, 2010; Davidson, Waddington, 2010). Different authors make similar conclusions, that ICT is capable of forming that latest cultural and technological environment, where learning turns to be different; respectively, lecturers’ and students’ behavior norms change as well. Nowadays, ICT can be considered as ‘an engine’ of lecturers’ didactical source of working ideas as well as ‘an engine’ for the implementation of such ideas. ABSTRACT This paper is based on theoretical and empirical researchthat was aimed at presenting e-learning as a socio-cultural system phenomenon in university studies with the emphasis on elements to be influenced and, also, on influencing elements. Methods of critical literature analysis and empirical qualitative and quantitative studies were employed for this extensive study (covering 2006-2013), however, in this paper just few aspects are analyzed, and just two of the methods applied (and data they resulted in) are presented. The core objective is to help participants to become active members in the process, to overcome fears and evolve: from a recipient, user, into an active agent of the process. Both teachers and students should be encouraged and supported in order to become active, creative and creating participants of contemporary e-learning. Study revealed, that just a small fraction of opportunities available today is being used by university community members (teachers, and, surprisingly, students)). Keywords: e-learning, educational perspective. 1. socio-cultural system, Rapid development of modern ICT creates presumptions for lecturers and students to change roles in particular situations. Students are sometimes better at the application of ICT. Consequently, they can aid lecturers in the development of corresponding skills. In modern university, there co-exists both traditional and qualitatively new e-learning culture that is enriched with versatile ICT. This paper is analyzing e-learning as a study process, where ICT is applied for efficient development and quality. The very concept of e-learning is multidimensional due to a continuous change of its contents and development, and due to emerging new generation ICT. E-learning concept is a rather general one, including all learning forms and methods, taken that the study process is based on ICT and encompasses also blended learning. elements INTRODUCTION Rapid and continuous development of ICT results in changes in social and modern learning process. Knowledge also develops and turns to be more and more meaningful in a modern developing society. ‘In such a social world, the top-range good is the latest information, knowledge and skills’ (Long-life learning memorandum, 2001, 6p.). Consequently, nowadays a human is a significant person, and his/her ability is not only to generate new knowledge, but to apply already acquired knowledge in a new context innovatively and effectively. The application of ICT in modern study processis valuable in terms of the following approach. Grounding of the research problem. Business world is rapidly implementing and applying constantly developing ICT; however, according to A.L.Davidson and D.Waddington (2010), universities are technology „resistant institutions“ that are forced to accept new paradigms by the society. Innovation acceptance policy of universities plays a significant role, i.e. it may slow down or speed-up the process. One of the key obstacles related to successful implementation of ICT in many European universities is the fact that the administration does not support or set relevant priorities to ICT. It may be assumed, that such a situation is due to the fact that, historically, sometimes university administration did not take care of ICT and elearning issues, as this was not considered to be an important field of activities (Rutkauskiene et al, 2006). ‘Information technologies have made a radical impact on the nature of economics – there has arisen a global ‘knowledgebased economics’, focusinges on ideas and not on the physical power, as well as on modern technologies and not on the exploitation of cheap workforce. Lithuania is also gradually migrating towards knowledge-based economy. In order to have competitive knowledge-based economics, long-life learning turns to be a necessity’ (Security strategy for long-life learning, 2004, 4 p.). Analyzing the failure of the first e-learning institutions, that operated in the EU and USA) since the tenth decade of the last century, J.Bang (2006), makes a conclusion that many of these initiatives could not survive without governmental support. The author states, that the future belongs to blended learning, as during the study process student and lecturer need to communicate and share the responsibility. J.Bang (2006) foresees the following perspectives that could secure the success of blend learning as a form of e-learning: In the world aiming to become a knowledge society the latest information is the most valued commodity, knowledge and skills. Different scientists analyze the application of ICT in the study process in terms of various aspects, and, also, they emphasize ICT meaning and topicality (Kemmis, Atkin, Wright, 1977; Gage, Berliner, 1998; Chye, Tan, Goh, 2004; Baltrusaitis, 2007; Jasutiene, Dagiene, 2007; Aceto, Dondi, 1. 38 Learning activities have to be integrated with learning sources as well as with lecturers’ consultations, and there has to be a possibility to adapt the also activities for cultural needs. The success of the Open University Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) 2. 3. in the UK is related to the implementation of a socialconstructive approach towards learning. This Lecturers get back to a position of being responsible for the organization of learning process. They should select relevant learning sources and organize educational activities that are necessary for the achievement of the defined study aims. university transformed the learning concept from obtaining knowledge to the creation of knowledge. This paper approaches the problem based on three main theoretical approaches: connectivism, theory of systems, and approaches to culture. It is our belief that a phenomenon as complex as learning, especially, involving ICT, should be analysed in the intersection of these three major theoretical perspectives, though we will readily agree that also other perspectives may prove to be very useful in highlighting the issue. Technologies, used forturning learning into elearning, should supplement the learning process with the following issues – interaction, communication, cooperation and creation. Only in such case they will be successful and comply with the expectations of the knowledge society. Further on, the above mentioned three theoretical perspectives are shortly described together with arguments why these perspectives are useful for better understanding of e-learning process. Here it is important to note, that in this paper e-learning is conceptualized as the most general concept. This concept, as we present it, covers all forms of teaching and learning (together), provided that learning is based on ICT at least to some extent. One of the drawbacks of e-learning is the fact that there is no social interaction (Heinze, Procter, 2004). Humans value direct immediate (traditional) communication more in almost all life situations (and, certainly, in the learning process). According to J.R.Edvards (1992), the individuals provide each other with emotional, systematic and informative support during immediate traditional communication. Essentially, virtual communication is different, and, as a result, it may satisfy individuals’ needs only partially (Martins et al., 2004; Barker et al., 2006; Duoba, 2009). Consequently, traditional and real communication remains very significant for the participants of a study process. Connectivism. Analysis of the modern study paradigms (teaching and learning at universities, including research) and the paradigm-based teaching and learning theories led to the conclusion that the context of learning is based on modern collective intelligence philosophy is best described by the sociocultural cognitivism, and the process itself is described by connectivism (Vygotsky, 1978; Hung, Der-Thang, 2001; Siemens 2004). Therefre, the object of this study is e-learning as a socio-cultural system phenomenon in university studies with the emphasis on elements to be influenced and, also, on influencing elements. The aim of the study presented is to reveal e-learning as a phenomenon of a socio-cultural (emphasis on elements to be influenced and influencing elements) system in university studies. As many authors note (Wentling et al. 2000; Downes, 2007; De Praetere, 2008; Targamadze, Petrauskiene, 2008; American Society for Training & Development, 2010), the study process, when ICT is applied to increase efficiency and quality, can be named as e-learning. The term e-learning is multidimensional, because its content is constantly changing with the improvement and development of the next generation of ICT. Methods of critical literature analysis and empirical qualitative and quantitative studies were employed for this extensive study (covering 2006-2013), however, in this paper just few aspects are analyzed, and just two of the methods applied (and data they resulted in) are presented. Contents analysis was employed in order to analyze quantitative data, and suitable procedures of statistical analysis were applied for the analysis of qualitative data. Theory of systems says, that system can be comprised of at least two (or many more) elements, provided there is an interconnection between them, and the changes of one of the elements inevitably changes other elements, and, therefore, the system itself. Moreover, a system may be open and act as an agent in the environment, having an impact there and an enduring impact from the environment (Scedrovitskij, 1995; Kvedaravicius, 2006). 2. E-LEARNING AS A SOCIO-CULTURAL SYSTEM (ELEMENTS TO BE INFLUENCED AND INFLUENCING ELEMENTS) Approaches to culture. Analysis of e-learning as a socio-cultural system is based on an approach to culture which highlights the meaning of the created artifact or the activity of its creation to any person) (Kavolis, 1995). Nowadays, for the first time in history, information and scientific knowledge is becoming the main product of economic activity, i.e. the artefact (Ausra, 2005). Culture is such a complex phenomenon, that each model must be regarded only as a starting point, a guideline helping to understanding how people act. The cultural model, suggested by Schein (1992), where the role of ICT as a technology component, is clearly visible in the structure of culture as a system; and Parsons’ (1998) dynamic function of culture that explains change were chosen as a starting point for the analysis. The analysis of contemporary context in which universities operate revealed, that, today, the society status changes. The socalled "knowledge society" is only a symbol, which denotes the fact, that the structure of the society that we used to know is changing under our very eye. Society becomes a multi-social society, in which different society models are functional at the same time, starting from the agrarian, industrial, informational, and, going to knowledge society and other models. The traditional education system (primary, secondary, higher education, vocational training and informal education) remains essentially unchanged in its structure, management and the concept despite the changing conditions of life and is basically not adjusted to new social needs (Augustinaitis, 2004). The change of ICT philosophy towards collective intelligence, crowdsource philosophy, typical to the second Internnet generation is emphasized. The breakthrough of this collectiveintelligence related philosophy brings confusion to the already well-established life of university (and other organizations), to its activities, communication, information processing. According to various authors (Mamardasvili, 1958; Scedrovitskij, 1995; Castells, 2005; Kvedaravicius, 2006), it may be stated that the socio-cultural system of e-learning is a system in which ICT is created artificially by humans, and the influencing on the development and structure of the system is used to increase the efficiency of e-learning. According to L. Vygotsky (1978), a human and the environment cannot interact directly. People interact with the environment by means of intermediary artifacts - meanings, tools, or symbols formed by 39 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) Moderate influence can be applied to this element from an educational perspective. Based on the above analysis, we hereby conclude that elearning as a sociocultural system is comprised of a set of elements. These elements, however, according to the theory of systems, belong to different levels in terms of their influence from an educational point of view. Some of these elements are influenced to a great extent by technological changes, however, some of them can be influenced only if certain educational measures are applied. On one hand, amount of information increases rapidly in all spheres, but on the other hand, taking into account interaction without geographic boundaries, the ideas and new knowledge are being ranked very quickly into a group of productive and meaningful, and a group of incorrect or unproductive concepts. Productive and meaningful ideas are being further developed with ever increasing advancements in science and technologies. Contents (information) culture. When analyzing the interaction of teachers and students with information and knowledge societies, ICT applications act as intermediary artifacts. Participants (teachers, students, ICT professionals) The core thesis of this paper is the following: e-learning as a sociocultural system can be developed in a balanced way, provided that all the elements are developed in a balanced way. Extreme development of one of the elements (in our case ICT), may rather harm and not benefit the whole system. Overemphasis on technologies may disregard other elements: students, and, especially, university teachers are lagging behind and not using the e-learning system to its potential, or using just a very small fraction (Zuzeviciute, Butrime, 2010; Butrime, 2011). The table below presents the arguments on the elements that can be influenced, if educational measures are applied for the benefit of a balanced and sustainable development of the whole system. Table 1 Elements of e-learning as a socio-cultural system to be influenced and influencing elements from the educational perspective Technologies (ICT) Elements Influence from the educational perspective Relative strength of the influence from educational perspective As this study revealed, the decision to get involved into elearning is based on cultural considerations and personal conscious decision to undertake a certain role (user; active creative participant) in further development of learning environments According to the theoretical analysis, relative strength can be rated as follows (Table 1): first (strongest) - participants (from educational point of view, influence is possible because participants – teacher and students – are the members of university community. It is possible to install ICT infrastructure that meets the needs of a certain community. But, however, the core objective is to help participants to become active members in the process, to overcome fears and evolve: from a recipient, user, into an active agent of the process. Both teachers and students should be encouraged and supported in order to become active, creative and creating participants of contemporary e-learning. Study revealed that just a small fraction of opportunities available today is being used by university community members (teachers, and, surprisingly, students)). Second element that can be influenced from an educational perspective: interaction processes (processing, optimizing, dosage of information delivery, and its duplication if needed). From educational point of view, it is important to facilitate collaboration between teachers and students and ICT professionals in order to develop meaningful learning environments and curriculum). Third element - contents (information) (influence from the educational point of view is possible: teachers, students, researchers, can upload their ideas, discoveries, critical remarks, formulate questions, ask for help, offer their own materials that may serve as open educational recourse). Fourth identified element- technologies (ICT) (cooperation with educators in order to develop learningfriendly environments). Only relatively weak influence can be applied to this element from educational perspective. ICT (infrastructure, software, hardware) is being developed and produced by the whole research-economic sector and global alliances Moderate influence can be applied to this element from educational perspective. Processes, interactions Strong influence can be applied to this element from educational perspective. Interaction in any case summons feedback, but if a specific message is being sent to a number of recipients, there is no guarantee that all recipients will actually receive it. There is always a certain degree of risk that interaction will not happen. As it was analyzed earlier, the change of one of the elements of the system or special investment in one of the elements may have an impact on the whole system (in our case, on e-learning as a sociocultural system). Though the study analyses attitudes 40 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) on e-learning held by both teachers and students, this paper concentrates on presenting the teacher perspective. Special educational measures, enabling teachers to use ICT applications more effectively in higher education studies is of crucial importance, because with huge investments for other elements of the system (e.g., ICT applications), the system is at risk of imbalance. Too many opportunities may prevent some university teachers of using them, because in many cases support and facilitation is needed to generate meaning for applying technologies in teaching and learning processes. 3. D9 Biomedical sciences, appllies collective intelligence technologies Question “What would help you to use ITC in your work more frequently and more efficiently? (in cases) Possible answers were "1-would help most", 2 – would help a lot"," 3 – would help ". Answers in the Figure 1 are sorted starting with the answer "1 – would help most" in decreasing order. According to results, it is evident, that university teachers need educational support in mastering contemporary ICT applications, and, also, PROCEDURE AND PROFILE OF RESPONDENTS Both quantitative and qualitative studies were organized to reveal the role of a university teacher in implementing ICT in the process of university education, as we have a belief, based on arguments above, that university teacher is a key element in ensuring balanced and sustainable development of e-learning system as a socio-cultural system in higher education. Questionnaire. In 2010, 157 university teachers were asked to share their ideas on various e-learning aspects. They represented different fields, except information sciences (purposefully so). Interviews. University teachers from different fields (but, purposefully so, not from computer sciences) were asked to share their ideas in interviews in 2009-2010. Interviews were recorded after informants’ consent, and, later, the texts were transcribed and content analysis was applied in order to identify categories and sub-categories of ideas. Profile of teachers involved in interviews with a pupose to identify what educational measures are needed in order to participate in e-learning to a greater extent Gen der Scientific Degree D1 W Dr. D2 D3 M M Habil.dr. Dr. Pedago gical status Assoc prof. Prof. Assoc prof. Age Comments 49 Social sciences, appllies collective intelligence technologies Biomedical sciences, applies some elements of ICT for 23 years Biomedical sciences. appllies collective intelligence Biomedical sciences Biomedical sciences Biomedical sciences, applies some elements of ICT for 12 years Biomedical sciences. Biomedical sciences 53 41 D4 M Habil.dr. Prof. 48 D5 M Habil.dr. Prof. 46 D6 M Habil.dr. Prof. 65 D7 M Habil.dr. Prof. 47 D8 M Dr. Assoc prof. 55 Phd student Lecture r The teacher training courses in the field of e-teaching development Table 2 Cod e M 33 46 Comfortable portable PDA with useful software f.ex. iPhone/iPad with ( a dictaphone, messages, a telephone, Internet access, bar code reader) 38 Possibility to work with free (open source) software meant for teaching (learning) 36 55 50 49 58 68 43 Bigger administrative support 27 40 77 Accessibility of specialized literature on the topic of ICT at University 24 49 68 Information about the innovations of ITC distributed via e-mail 21 58 67 Expansion of the structure of distance learning at University 20 More general information on the topic of ITC 19 69 55 53 73 Encouragement of the innovators of positive experience 10 45 85 The discussion and dissemination of the examples of 10 positive experience 44 84 A Blog offering discussions on e-teaching (learning) 9 37 90 Virtual discussion forum for University lecturers 9 41 92 0 0 0 1 1 1 1- would help most 2- would help a lot 3- would help Fig.1. Answers to the question “What would help you to use ITC in your work more frequently and more efficiently? they need support of the university administration. Teachers state that the means which would help most to use ICT in their work more frequently and more efficiently are the following: teacher training courses in the field of e-teaching development (46 respondents), new modern computer technology (38 respondents), open source software (36 respondents), bigger administrative support (27 respondents) and wider variety of specialized literature on the topic of ICT (27 respondents). Even if rather many answers, showing the need for PDA with appropriate software, were given (38 respondents), however, the graph clearly illustrates that university teachers in most cases are in need of educational, administrative and peer support, rather than in need for more sophisticated tools, applicable for e-learning. 41 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) Majority of the university teachers are aware of collective inteligence ICT tools, but these tools are regularly used by much smaller numbers. Kruscal-Walis criterion was calculated in the analysis of the use of the ICT tools based on collective intelligence by different age groups of the teachers. The difference in the use of ICT tools based on collective intelligence in various age groups of teachers was statistically significant (p <0.05) for the following tools: e-mail (p = 0.001), Flickr (P = 0.001), YahooGroups (p = 0.002), Tags (P = 0.002), blogs (p = 0.006), Wikis (P = 0.006), Gmail (p = 0.028), Googlegroups (p = 0.028), RSS (P = 0.034), Netlog (p = 0.035). For such tools as Hotmail, Windows Life and SlideShare p = .000. This means that the use of these tools in different teacher age groups differs substantially. Participants (students and teachers); Technologies (ICT); Processes, interactions; Contents (information). The knowledge society is the overarching system. Quantitative study (answers to a questionnaire) revealed that university teachers in most cases are in need of educational, administrative and peer support, rather than merely in need of more sophisticated tools, applicable for e-learning. Qualitative study allowed to identify the factors that the university teachers consider to be of most importance in developing e-learning system in a balanced way: - Initiative, according to university teachers, mostly comes from teachers themselves (enthusiasts), - Positive motivation from more experienced colleagues was mentioned as a crucial factor, - Reciprocal e-communication “students – teachers” was identified as a crucial factor. These results were strengthened also by data from interviews. Results from interviews. Interviews revealed that university teachers tend to learn and search for information independently, although they state that professional development courses in the field of e-learning development would help them use ICT at work more often and effectively. There is a small number of teachers who seek to implement ICT based on innovative ideas in the process of studies, i.e. enthusiasts. Regarding the development aspects of subculture based on the collective intelligence ICT technologies in e-learning as a socio-cultural system, the following activities of teachers were identified: 1. 2. 3. The study seems to indicate that elements of e-learning as a sociocultural system are influenced by different agents. Some of the (ICT provisions) are developed by global research and development and economy alliances, and however, other elements: in our case, university teachers, need additional educational and administrative support in order to participate in the developments on equal terms. If university teachers are not supported in the process, the whole system of e-learning might be distorted: with ample ICT provisions on the one hand, and with unqualified and discouraged teachers (some) on the other, e-learning may not be serving for the best benefit of university community members, contribute to quality of studies, and, as a consequence, foster sustainable advancement of knowledge society, because, as Várnagy, 2011, emphasises, in the end we want sustainable, democratic ssociety that is worthliving for and is rewarding to live in. University teacher is an element of elearning system that needs educational, administrative, institutional support in the process. Initiative, according to university teachers, mostly comes from teachers themselves (enthusiasts), Positive motivation from more experienced colleagues was mentioned as a crucial factor, Reciprocal e-communication „students – teachers“ was identified as a crucial factor. Positive and negative aspects of activities related to the application of ICT in the study process by teachers were identified. Traditional auditorium (face-to-face) learning is very important for teachers and it is not possible to replace it with completely virtual learning (social relationship with a student and possibility to respond to students’ needs in a fast way and change methods during the process are particularly meaningful). All the teachers, who participated in the research, were in favour of blended learning. 4. 5. [1] CONCLUSIONS [2] ICT achievements enable to introduce e-learning as an integral part of university studies. The main topic (e-learning as a sociocultural system) in this paper is analysed based on three main theoretical approaches: connectivism, theory of systems, and approaches to culture. A phenomenon as complex as learning, especially, involving ICT, should be analyzed in the intersection of at least these three major theoretical perspectives, though there are also other perspectives which may prove to be very useful in highlighting the complex issue. [3] [4] E-learning is conceptualized as the most general concept. This concept, as we define it, covers all forms of teaching and learning (together), provided that learning incorporates ICT to some extent. Traditional forms of studies (lecture preparation and delivery, students’ participation, discussion, feedback and evaluation) and methods may be easily be transformed into an e-learning socio-cultural system enriched with ICT. In other words, there is a possibility to conceptualize and analyze e-learning as a socio-cultural system comprised of a lot of objects. the key elements being: [5] 42 REFERENCES A Memorandum on Lifelong Learning. EC, Brussels. 2001. Kemmis, S., Atkin, R. & Wright, E. 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Internulturelles Lernen in Osmitteleuropa: Geschichte-Theorie-Methoden-Praxis.Wien Verein zur Förderung der Europäischen Akademie für Lebensforschung, Integration und Zivilgesellschaft – EALIZ, 2011, pp. 61-64. Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) Recent Trends and Prospects of Marketing Publications in Turkey Sema KURTULUS (PhD) Faculty of Business Administration, Istanbul University Marketing Department Istanbul, Turkey Kemal KURTULUS (PhD) Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Zirve University Business Department Gaziantep, Turkey Selen OZTURK Faculty of Business Administration, Istanbul University Marketing Department Istanbul, Turkey methodological issues by underlying critical aspects in each step of a basic research process and how it’s changed year by year. ABSTRACT The objective of this study is to examine methodological issues and recent developments in marketing publications. Content analysis method is used to evaluate marketing publications in terms of methodological frame namely research type, research modeling, hypotheses development, sampling, measurement and data analyses. This study aims to provide directions and recommendations for the future of marketing discipline. Turkish National Marketing Congresses’ Proceedings between 2007 and 2012 are the basis for this study. Major problems are determined to be the lack of diversity in research methods, research modeling, hypotheses development, problems related to sampling process, the choice of data analyses techniques and interpretation of results. 2. CONTENT CATEGORIES To investigate recent trends in research methodology in marketing publications, 213 papers published in National Marketing Congresses’s Proceedings between 2008 and 2012 are examined. In former studies [10] [11] [12] content categories were broadly classified as consumer behavior, retailing, marketing management, tourism management, product and brand management, marketing strategies, international marketing, logistics management, marketing ethics, marketing communication, social marketing, services marketing, sales management and marketing research. Keywords: Research Methodology, Marketing Trends, Marketing Publications, Turkish National Marketing Congresses, Content Analysis. 100% 90% 80% Percentage of studies 1. INTRODUCTION The purpose of this study is to investigate recent trends in research subjects and methodology in marketing publications in Turkey and to discuss on prospects and further contributions. In this study, content analysis is used to evaluate 213 marketing papers published in proceedings of 13th [1], 14th [2], 15th [3], 16th [4] and 17th Turkish National Marketing Congresses [5] based on their methodological framework in an aim for understanding, determining and analyzing the development of the marketing discipline through discussing on ongoing problems and prospects. 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% 2008 The review and discussion of research methodology used in marketing publications has been going on for last years [6] [7] [8]. The results of reviews and evaluations led to different critical points during this time of period. Kurtulus and Dundar [6] evaluated 41 papers, Kurtulus and Kurtulus [8] evaluated 236 marketing publications by using similar methodological criteria, that is a basic research process in marketing area [9] such as content categories, research type, research modeling, research hypotheses, sampling, measurement, data collection and data analyses. 2009 2010 2011 2012 Consumer Behavior Marketing Mix (4p) Marketing Strategies International Marketing Retailing Figure 1: Trends in research topics by year In this study, for the classification of 213 papers, content categories are combined and summarized into five areas according to their interrelations. In this study, marketing publications in Turkey are evaluated in terms of research type, modeling, hypotheses, sampling, measurement, data collection and analyses to examine Figure 1 shows that consumer behavior is the most popular research topic in ongoing years (40.4% in total). Marketing mix 44 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) (4p) with 21.1% (including marketing communication, product and brand management, services marketing, logistics management and sales management) and marketing strategies with 20.7% (including categories such as marketing management, marketing research, social marketing and marketing ethics) are more studied by the academia in Turkey in total of five years. increasing reliance on two methods, experiments and modeling. Also they found that 85% of empirical studies investigated heavily rely on a limited set of quantitative methods which are basically experiments, modeling and surveys. Percentage of studies 100% International marketing and retailing categories which constitute 11.3% and 6.6% respectively had experienced a decline as in the number of studies performed in the last year. There are no certain directions of trends as seen in Figure 1. 80% 60% 40% 20% 0% 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 3. RESEARCH METHOD Quantitative Research For methods diversification, marketing papers are first coded according to their research type, whether the paper is theoretical or involves research. Besides research based studies are classified as quantitative research or qualitative research. Figure 3: Trends in research types by year 4. RESEARCH MODELING AND HYPOTHESES The trend in research methods is shown in Figure 2. There seems to be an excessive domination by research based papers (192 out of 213 publications, 90.1% in total) especially seen in the last two years. Research models usage in publications between 2007 and 2012 are presented in Figure 4. In total of 192 research based publications, 36.5% of those used descriptive-predictive model, 35.9% used causal model and only 27.6% used exploratory model. There seems to be a certain decrease in researches based on descriptive model after the year 2009 and increase in the number of studies investigating causal models. Besides the main subject of marketing congresses changes according to recent trends, new concepts and technologies used in marketing; there is still need for further contributions to existing literature in theory. One explanation is that ongoing situation may result from researchers who may be discouraged in theory generation in favor of increasingly marginal knowledge gains due to a narrower focus on methods appropriate for theory testing [13]. 100% Percentage of studies 90% 100% Percentage of studies Qualitative Research 80% 60% 40% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 20% 10% 0% 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 0% 2008 Research based 2009 2010 2011 2012 Theory based Exploratory Model Descriptive - Predictive Model Figure 2: Trend in research methods Causal Model Research based papers which are based on quantitative or qualitative research is shown in Figure 3. There is obviously a higher reliance on quantitative research techniques (82.8% in total). Figure 4: Trends in research models Besides, whatever research model preferred in those publications, research design and model development seems to be a critical issue. Also, in nearly none of the studies, researchers used both qualitative and quantitative techniques for a single research purpose in an adequate way. In total, 39.1% of marketing publications has appropriate research designs whether sufficient or not. Figure 5 shows that number of studies which have used research design seems to be stable in years. Although the gap between research types seems to be decreasing compared to previous years [6] [8] and even last year [12], some researchers argue about the lack of diversity. On the other hand, 30.7% of marketing publications did not use research designs almost the same as the ones with 30.2% which have no design usage indeed must be. Accordingly it is observed that in predictive and causal researches, there is lack of design usage especially in 2009 and 2010. Davis et al. [13] performed an extensive content analysis of articles published in five leading marketing journals (Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Journal of Consumer Research, Journal of Marketing, Journal of Marketing Research, and Marketing Science) between 1990 and 2009. Results reveal an obvious downward trend in methods diversity resulting from 45 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) size determination throughout the whole data gathering process [14]. Because it is one of the indicators of the quality of inferences made by the researcher that stem from underlying findings [15]. For sampling process in research methodology, the publications are classified according to sampling method (probability vs. nonprobability techniques) and sample size. 100% 90% Percentage of studies 80% 70% 60% Because there is not a significant change in two broader classifications between years as seen in Figure 7, sampling methods are evaluated in terms of nonprobability sampling with 97.8% in total (including convenience, snowball and judgmental sampling used in total of 182 papers) and probability sampling with 2.2% (including simple random, systematic and cluster sampling) in this study. 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 100% 80% Percentage of studies Design used No design used No design used although must be used 60% 40% 20% Figure 5: Trends in research design usage 0% 2008 In almost half of the studies (94 papers out of 192, nearly 49%) in total of five years, researchers have developed research hypotheses and tested these hypotheses. In 32.8% of the papers there are no hypotheses developed. Although researchers have preferred to use descriptive-predictive and causal models according to their specific research objectives, not in all studies hypotheses may be formulated. 2010 Nonprobability Sampling 2011 2012 Probability Sampling Figure 7: Trend in sampling methods diversity In each year, convenience sampling is the most widely used method in marketing publications (nearly 90% in total). Besides, census is used in seven studies instead of sampling. In the study of Kolbe and Burnett [16] which was a content analysis research, it was found that the majority of samples used are also classified as convenience samples. On the other hand, systematic sampling are found more frequently among other probability samples such as proportionate, simple random and stratified sampling in their study. In Figure 5, trends in hypotheses usage show that researchers that used a research design also developed hypotheses, which may be the same as in some studies suffer from both lack of design usage and lack of hypotheses development. From Figure 5 and Figure 6 there can be seen a resembling trend to a certain degree except the last two years. In most of the studies sample size is determined by researchers arbitrarily. Figure 8 shows trends in sample sizes with an obvious increase in sample sizes that are less than 200 respondents in years (38.6% in total of 189 papers). Also samples size of 201 - 400 (32.3%) and 401 - 600 respondents (16.4%) dominates others in which larger samples are used. 100% 90% Percentage of studies 2009 80% 70% 60% 50% 100% 40% 90% 30% 80% Percentage of studies 20% 10% 0% 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 Hypotheses developed No hypotheses developed No hypotheses developed but must be 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% Figure 6: Trends in hypotheses usage 0% 2008 5. SAMPLING AND MEASUREMENT Researchers must carefully manage sampling process along with each critical step such as population definition, sampling frame determination, sampling technique selection and sample 2009 2010 2011 200 or less 201 - 400 401 - 600 601 or more Figure 8: Trends in sample size 46 2012 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) Measurement is also important in accurately representing the concept of interest and is instrumental in the selection of the appropriate method of analysis. There are two types of scales that are non-metric measurement scales and metric measurement scales. Nonmetric measurements can be made by nominal and ordinal scale whereas metric measurements can be made by interval and ratio scales [17]. Whereas nominal scales are simplest to use and the ratio scales are the most complex [18]. The choice of particular scaling techniques in a given situation should be based on theoretical and practical considerations of a researcher. As a general rule, the scaling technique used should be the one that yield the highest level of information available, considering multiple measures to be obtained [14]. According to our investigation, the most widely used scale is the Likert Scale. Semantic differential is the other alternative attitude scale that is used in most of the marketing papers. ANOVA, Correlation, Analytic Hierarchy Process, Metaanalysis and Content analysis) and analyses using nonmetric data (Chi-Square, Kolmogorov-Smirnov, Kruskal-Wallis, Mann Whitney U and Wilcoxon tests). As seen in Figure 9, multivariate analyses using interdependence techniques such as factor analysis contribute to 39.3% in total. Other quantitative methods (30.2%) and analyses using dependence techniques (23.0%) follow these analyses. Nonparametric analysis contributes to nearly 7.5% in total. Structural equation modeling (SEM) is an advanced technique which is classified under analyses using dependence techniques. In this study, SEM equals to 6.6% with 24 in total of 361 data analyses techniques. Between 2008 and 2012, the trend for SEM is seen as follows; 4.5% (3 in 67), 6.3% (4 in 63), 12.3% (9 in 73), 7.4% (4 in 54), 3.8% (4 in 104). There is a certain downward trend beginning with the year 2010 which is the highest in this period with 12.3%, although it turns upward again in 2012 relatively. 6. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSES According to research results, in terms of data collection, questionnaires are mostly used in quantitative researches whereas focus groups, in-depth interviews and case studies are mostly used in qualitative researches. Mail surveys and internet surveys are also frequently used as recent data collection instruments. The purpose of data analyses refers to obtaining feasible and meaningful information from the collected data [19]. The critical issue in data analyses is the determination of appropriate statistical procedure. Scale of measurement, the research design and the assumptions underlying the test statistic all determine the type of a statistical method to be used. There seems to be heavier reliance on quantitative data analyses techniques such as factor, regression, variance analyses and ttest with respect to nonparametric techniques. That result seems to be similar to other studies [13] in which the findings referred to ongoing trend for quantitative analyses varying in amount and diversity rather than qualitative techniques. In Figure 9, there can be seen a somewhat regular trend for all techniques except the ones classified as "other quantitative methods". Especially in 2011 and 2012, there is an increased diversity among research techniques that related to content analysis method, such as bibliometrics, semiotics and discourse analysis, netnographics etc. in some degree. This can mean a positive trend related to increased diversity in qualitative techniques. 100% 90% Percentage of studies 80% 70% 7. CONCLUSION 60% This study is done in an aim for providing a basis for further improvements in terms of marketing research methodology. It is important to note that the results are limited to the marketing publications investigated based on recent subjects and trends in marketing research in Turkey and further discuss on problems and prospects. 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% The findings demonstrate that there are substantial amount of problems related to sampling method selection and choices of data analyses techniques. As a general outcome, there seem to be a higher reliance on quantitative research techniques. Also, only in a few studies, researchers have preferred to use both qualitative and quantitative methods accordingly. 0% 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 Analyses Using Dependence Techniques Analyses Using Interdependence Techniques Other Quantitative Methods For broader purpose as breadth and depth of understanding research objectives and hypotheses, sometimes both qualitative and quantitative techniques could be used jointly. This refers to the term "mixed methods research" in which a researcher combines elements of qualitative and quantitative research methods such as using qualitative and quantitative viewpoints, data collection, analyses or inference techniques [20]. Analyses Using Nonmetric Data Figure 9: Trend in data analyses techniques The trend for data analyses methods used in marketing publications can be seen in Figure 9. The results are based on total of 361 data analyses techniques. According to this interpretation, methods are classified into four categories which are analyses using dependence techniques (Structural equation modeling and path analyses, Regression, Discriminant, Conjoint analysis, Logistic regression and MANOVA), analyses using interdependence techniques (Factor and Cluster analysis, Multidimensional scaling), other quantitative methods (t-test, The findings of this study are substantially similar with previous researches in research type diversity. Harrison [21] examined the uses of mixed research designs in 2072 articles published in the Journal of Business Research between 1990 and 2010 with content analysis method. According to research findings, 47 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) [11] K. Kurtulus, S. Kurtulus, “Recent Trends in Marketing Research in Turkey”, 6th International Conference on Social and Organizational Informatics and Cybernetics, Orlando, Florida, 29 June-2 July 2010, Vol. 2, pp. 92-96. researchers recognize benefits of mixing qualitative and quantitative research, however usage rate seems insufficient. Technological developments give direction to inevitable changes in marketing research. Traditional consumer research through structured and unstructured personal communication, mail and telephone surveys are undergoing transformation by increased mobility. Consumer research is shifting towards Internet surveys and mobile phone inquiries [22]. The findings of this research also demonstrate that the use of Internet surveys have begun to be used more frequently among current studies. [12] S. Kurtulus, K. Kurtulus, S. Ozturk, “Research Methodology in Marketing Publications in Turkey: Review and Evaluation”, 6th International MultiConference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics, Orlando, Florida, 17-20 June 2012, pp. 212-216. All periods had some popular patterns in data analysis. However, it is suggested that data analyses must be selected accordance with research purposes, research design, scales of measurement and the assumptions underlying the test statistics. [13] D.F. Davis, S.L. Golicic, C.N. Boerstler, S. Choi, H. Oh, "Does marketing research suffer from methods myopia?", Journal of Business Research (2012), doi:10.1016/j. jbusres.2012.02.020 8. REFERENCES [14] N.K. Malhotra, Marketing Research, An Applied Orientation, Pearson Education Inc., 6th Edition, 2010. [1] 13th Turkish National Marketing Congress Proceedings Book Pazarlamada Yeni Yaklaşımlar- New Approaches in Marketing, 25th- 29th September 2008, Nevşehir Turkey, pp. 1-713. [15] A.J. Onwuegbuzie, K.M.T. Collins, “A Typology of Mixed Sampling Designs in Social Science Research”, The Qualitative Report, Vol. 12, No. 2, June 2007, pp. 281-316. [2] 14th Turkish National Marketing Congress Proceedings Book: Küreselden Yerele...Glokal Pazarlama- From Global to Local...Glocal Marketing, 14th- 17th October 2009, Yozgat Turkey, pp. 1-553. [3] 15th Turkish National Marketing Congress Proceedings Book: Bilgi ve İletişim Çağında Pazarlama ve TüketiciMarketing and Consumer in the Age of Information and Communication, 26th- 29th October 2010, Izmir Turkey, pp. 1-694. [16] R.H. Kolbe, M.S. Burnett, “Content Analysis Research: An Examination of Applications with Directives for Improving Research Reliability and Objectivity”, Journal of Consumer Research, Vol.18, September 1991, pp. 243-250. [4] [5] [17] J.F. Hair, W.C. Black, B.J. Babin, R.E. Anderson, Multivariate Data Analysis - A Global Perspective, Pearson Education Inc., USA, 7th Edition, 2010. [18] N.K. Malhotra, M. Peterson, “Marketing Research in the New Millennium: Emerging Issues and Trends”, Marketing Intelligence and Planning, Vol.19/4, 2001, pp. 216-235. 16th Turkish National Marketing Congress Proceedings Book: Pazarlamada Geleceğe Yolculuk: “Mobil Pazarlama”- A journey into the Future of Marketing: "Mobile Marketing", 22th- 25th November 2011, Istanbul Turkey, pp. 1-451 [19] G.A. Churchill, Marketing Research Method Foundations, 7th edition, Harcourt Brace College Publishers, Dryden Press, 1999. 17th Turkish National Marketing Congress Proceedings Book: Pazarlamada Kültür ve Eğitim ParadigmasıCulture and Education Paradigm in Marketing, 18th - 21th October 2012, Balıkesir Turkey, pp. 1-830. [20] R.B. Johnson, A.J. Onwuegbuzie, L.A. Turner, "Toward a Definition of Mixed Methods Research", Journal of Mixed Methods Research, 1(2), 2007, pp. 112-133. [6] K. Kurtulus, S. Dundar, “Türkiye’de Pazarlama Araştırmalarında Kalite Nasıl Arttırılabilir?”, 1st Turkish National Marketing Congress, 27-29 October 1995, İstanbul. [21] R.L. Harrison, "Using Mixed Methods Designs in the Journal of Business Research, 1990–2010", Journal of Business Research (2012), doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2012. 01.006 [7] K. Kurtulus, S. Kurtulus, E. Yaras, “Bilimsel Araştırmaların Değerlendirilmesi Konusunda Bir Öneri”, Pazarlama Dünyası, August 2000, pp. 4-6. [22] S. Salai, R.K. Žnideršić, "Marketing Research in the Contemporary Consumer Environment", Management Information Systems, Vol. 6, No: 4, 2011, pp. 15-22. [8] S. Kurtulus, K. Kurtulus, “Prospects, Problems of Marketing Research and Data Mining in Turkey”, Enformatika, Vol.11, January 2006. [9] A. Parasuraman, D. Grewal, R. Krishan, Marketing Research, South-Western College Publication, 2nd edition, 2006. [10] K. Kurtulus, S. Kurtulus, Z. Bozbay, “Research Methodology in Marketing Publications: Review and Evaluation”, 5th International Conference on Social and Organizational Informatics and Cybernetics, Orlando, Florida, 10-13 July, 2009. 48 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) Geotechnology: A New Approach Supporting Social Inclusion in BetimMG Sandro LAUDARES Computation Department,Pontifical Catholic University ofM inas Gerais Belo Horizonte,M G,Cep: 30. 535-901,Brasil and João Francisco de ABREU Geography Department,Pontifical Catholic University ofM inas Gerais Belo Horizonte,M G,Cep: 30. 535-901,Brasil neighborhoods where they live and allows the visual presentation of these points integrated into digital maps of the city using information retrieval in large databases . The project "Meu lugar éaqui", implemented by the municipality of Betim – MG seeks to contextualize nature and cultural features of the studied areas of the city to write the history of the region using technology elements, such as GIS, to map important points and provide such information on the W eb. ABSTRACT Internet influence on geotechnology keeps growing and accelerating the development of innovative products.The possibilities of geotechnology in public administration are huge but in Brasil there are very few social inclusion projects aware of this technology and advantages. Normally the adoption of new technologies demands training and more dedication of the staff and these leads to unavoidable delays. This paper presents a practical experience tried in fundamental education schools of the city of Betim-MG where were offered to the students - from nine to twelve years old - small courses using smartphones to collect data and make digital maps so that the students can map their own neighborhood and perceive how to locate themselves and deal with new technology to find places and events. They also learned digital cartography basics and GPS – Geographic Positioning System – general concepts. The name of the projectis“M yplaceishere”and t he main goal of this project was to stimulate the students to access, produce, and propagate knowledge about the neighborhood where they live. The comprehension of geographic features of the place they live and their role in the city. The use of smartphones helped to keep the students interested and participative. 2. M OTIVATION In Brasil, the poorest have difficulty in using information and communication technologies in working situations and in their social life, thus creating a space for social exclusion and precarious citizenship. GIS applications available through the Internet became viable and low-cost to public institutions, providing the public administrator a logical representation and graphical geographically referenced information. Additionally, one can use the facilities of these applications to educate and include the students in their place of residence and know the difficulties in their neighborhood, so that these students will be responsible for recording and georeferencing information of their region. Geovisualization systems through the Internet can be used as management tools, planning and urban education, enabling to direct the efforts of public administrators from the content registered by schoolś children. Keywords: geotechnology;digital inclusion; geovisualization;GIS– Geographic Information Systems; education. 3. M ETHODOLOGY The Municipality of Betim-MG develops many programs that seek to provide assistance to youth development. And through these programs we could glimpse methods of support for the implementation of this project. At the municipal level, in 2009 it was planned with local community and made partnership with other school projects. The project was called "My place is here" and in 2009three schools were selected for a pilot project. The proposed objectives were: 1. INTRODUCTION This paper presents an experience of using geotechnology as a means of facilitating digital inclusion of adolescents in the city of Betim – MG, Brasil. The results show the feasibility of actions related to the use of new technologies related to GIS – Geographic Information Systems in public education, making it possible to spread the use of instruments and techniques such as georeferencing and geovisualization through the internet. The use of GPS – Global Positioning Systems - devices enables students of municipal schools to identify landmarks in the •Encourage students to access,produce and reframe the knowledge about their neighborhood and their city; 49 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) • To collect and dissemi nate t he history of t he neighborhood: spaces, places, people and events; • Know and understand t he organizat ion of t he geographic area of the neighborhood and its insertion in the city; • Create a technological environment for digital recording and interaction of all project participants. From these objectives a sequence of steps were implemented in order to systematize and disseminate the knowledge produced in graphical and digital media to contribute to strengthening the feeling of belonging to the city and valuation of the district of those children. To this end, we organized workshops on Environmental Perception;Video and Photography;Digital Maps and GPS. For all workshops are conducted field activities in the neighborhoods of the participating schools. After the workshops, a technical team is responsible for keeping track of the activities recording and indexing them in a database which will be used in the future to show students from other schools. A website was developed and all the workshops and knowledge acquired during the project will be shared through the internet. 4. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND Digital Inclusion The Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs)are part of everyday life in modern society. In all areas ICTs are gaining ground. Since the use of a mobile device to a news report on a newscast, as a means of traffic information or as tools that streamlines access to them. Every moment one sees releases of computers, technology, software, Internet applications and various technologies ranging involving anyone in everywhere of the world. The so-called "digital age" becomes relevant factor and becomes point of debate between society, schools, state, businesses, churches, industries, community leaders, etc. Terms such as digital inclusion and exclusion become part of government programs as a way to analyze and find ways to keep up with the rapid growth of ICT. Cazeloto (2008)[3]makes a critical analysis of digital inclusion programs that attempt to minimize the digital divide as a way of trying to avoid a "human tragedy". The result of a widening gap between the rich and poor caused by the threat of deprivation to computational resources. Despite an apparent pessimistic view on the subject, Cazeloto is not opposed to programs, but tries to highlight the role and limit that the inclusion should take. It is undeniable the contribution that ICT and digital inclusion programs have brought to society, but can these not be seen as an answer to social inclusion. The computer has been seen as a tool to support that inclusion. If used well, ICTs can bring exponential benefits to society. Kenski (2003) identifies the need to broaden digital inclusion: Communication technologies evolve constantly and very quickly. Every moment new differentiated products and sophisticated - mobile phones, fax, software, videos, multimedia computer, internet, interactive TV, virtual reality, video games are created. [...] The democratization of access to these technological products - and the consequent possibility of using them to obtain information - is a major challenge for today's society and demand efforts and changes in economic and educational spheres broadly. (Kenski, 2003, p. 26)[5]. Marco Silva on "Internet in school and inclusion" [10], cites Pierre Lèvy [7]identifying cyberculture lifestyles and behaviors assimilated and transmitted on historical experience and everyday marked by computer technology, mediating communication and information via Internet. This culture of cyberspace can not be ignored since the companies are moving towards computerization and use of technologies in virtually all areas of life. In order to face the technological advances increasingly, society will tend to use the technologies and include up digitally. The Internet has provided the quickest access to information in the last decade. Producing pages, blogs, social networks and thousands of W eb applications have raged the great W orld W ide W eb. According to JoséArmando Valente [12], using the Internet, and more specifically the W eb as source of information is not very different from what happens with the old tutorials. Valente certifies that the Internet has become increasingly interesting and creative, thus enabling a large and diverse subjects search. But stresses that if the student does not have a goal to surf the W eb, it can get lost in the midst of such information and redirects to numerous web pages and without a proper guidance given by a teacher can pass a long period of time busy but without producing knowledge of all topics visited. According to a survey of the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE) in 2006 [4] the municipal public education was the most concentrated network aimed at digital inclusion - 61.8% of the municipalities were surveyed. In the Survey of Basic Municipal Information of 2006, 5,564 municipalities were investigated in the topic Education, which, in addition to concern for the middle and high school, there was also the education of Young Adults. Regarding the Digital Inclusion, it was identified that half of the municipalities have policies for digital inclusion - totaling 52.9% and - such a policy includes t he creat ion of “telecentros“ that offer access to Internet and computing courses. The concern with digital inclusion was present in 33 municipalities with 50 over 500thousand inhabitants (91.7%), higher than the Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) several other services were launched integrating a package of immense possibilities for users and developers. Google allows the visualization of interactive digital maps through Google Maps service, accessed www.google.com.br/ maps . This service allows the inclusion of custom maps in to websites, blogs and web applications. Thus, more and more Brazilian sites include Google maps in their content with many different purposes: from simple location of commercial establishments to use on mobile devices with different functions location and generating routes. The project "My place is here," presented here uses Google Maps as a tool for geovisualization of information referenced by the students. national average rate (52.9%). Among the major regions, the highlight was the South (59.4%), followed by the Southeast (57.9%)and Midwest (52.6%). The North and Northeast were below the national average, with 35.6% and 48.4%, respectively. Among the municipalities with plan or policy of digital inclusion, 45.7% opted for the creation of telecenters, and 40.7% have provided computers with internet access for use by the general public [4]. Geotechnology and Digital Inclusion Geotechnology can play an important role in digital inclusion actions to the extent that the instruments provided stimulate people' s curiosity. Learning becomes much more interesting when the students can view the computer known information such as "the roof of their house" or the location of the school, the supermarket, the health center and many other places. 5. "M Y PLACE IS HERE": DIGITAL INCLUSION THROUGH GEOTECHNOLOGY IN BETIM -M G The geographical territory has variables that can be decisive in the municipal government. W here to build a new health center?W here to invest?W hich streets are in need to fix?W here are the opportunities for a better service to the citizen?These are questions asked daily by entrepreneurs and public administrators. The geotechnology thus appears as a concept to analysis and applications build to be used in management and planning, allowing a better distribution of resources and targeting efforts. The visualization of the results can be implemented in the form of thematic maps on the Internet, using software components that implement various clustering methods. The main goal of this project was to include the students and make them aware of their neighborhood history and culture through geotechnology W orkshops were held in themes such as Environmental Perception, Video and Photography, Digital Maps and GPS. Below are some pictures of the workshops held in the schools. Environmental perception Students draw how they perceive the environment where they live and study. Are encouraged to draw themes as the way from home to school, the facade of the school and where they like to visit nearby school. Geovisualization, according MacEachren & Kraak (2001), involves visualization, cartography, image analysis, information visualization, exploratory data analysis and GIS to provide theories, methods and techniques for visual exploration, analysis, synthesis and presentation of spatial data. According toTobon (2002, p. 3), visualization in the context of Information Technology can be defined as follows: "Visualization is a technique for data analysis that relies on the human ability to recognize patterns in flexible computing environments that support interactive exploration of data on screen. Visualization is particularly useful and appropriate when little is known about the data set to learn about its features, making discoveries and forming hypotheses about relations between its attributes. "[11]. Figure 1: Drawing done by students According to Ramos (2005), "Visualization is a concept derived from scientific visualization, and can also be defined as geographical visualization, or geovisualization." [9]. The objective of exploratory geovisualization would provide patterns and relationships between data for the user to create the maps you need, you can make use of location addresses, generate routes, travel planning, location, and so on. Google has become a reference in recent years. After the development and launch of its search engine, 51 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) REFERENCE NEIGHBORHOOD? OF YOUR Figure 2: Students of the school: Gino Joséde Souza Video and Photography Figure 4: Exercise performed by the students in the workshop of Digital Maps Students use mobile "smartphones" and digital cameras and record places of interest such as landmarks, their school and neighborhood streets. Through this workshop is held automated georeferencing of images and the students check the results in real time using components of geovisualization systems, mobile computing and positioning and navigation systems. 6. CONCLUSIONS Geovisualization systems via the Internet has become a viable and cost-effective management alternative for private and public administration. The results of this study demonstrate that geotechnology can and should be used to enable digital inclusion in public or private schools. However, it is not enough the use of GPS devices and geovisualization isolated. It is necessary to integrate these instruments to a methodology that enables an active and constant participation of students in workshops. In addition, to master new technologies, their texts and contexts is a need for the effective exercise of full citizenship. It was observed that the people involved in this project have developed computer skills, reading, text production and that will make them citizens integrated, participatory and transformers of the societies where they live and socialize. Therefore, one can conclude that it is highly productive using geotechnology as instrument for achieving digital inclusion. The spatial characterization also demonstrated the importance of graphical representations in dealing with the dynamics of the city, reinforcing the role of geovisualization in the representation and communication of urban spatial information. From the results achieved, arise naturally needs and projects for further development, in order to update the methodology, incorporating new workshops and new practices to work. The Municipality of BetimMG, through the Division of Planning and GIS information continues to develop new practices to improve and complement the project workshops. Figure 3: Student in workshop on video and photography Digital M aps and GPS Initially students identify the boundaries of the school district. Then navigate through all the streets of their neighborhood through Google Maps. Finally, they perform exercises including questions like: · FIND YOUR SCHOOL ON THE MAP. · W HAT ARE THE STREETS NEXT TO YOUR SCHOOL? · W HICH ARE THE POINTS OF REFERENCE OF YOUR NEIGHBORHOOD? · W HAT ARE THE GEOGRAPHICAL COORDINATES OF POINTS OF 52 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) 7. REFERENCES [1] Secretaria Nacional da Juventude. Programa Nacional de Inclusão de Jovens: Educação, Qualificação e Ação Comunitária (ProJovem). BRASÍLIA, 2009. [2] CASTELLS, Manuel. A galáxia Internet: reflexões sobre Internet,negócios e sociedade. Available at: <http://www.eprofe.net/ tecnologia/galaxia_internet.pdf>. Access in: October, 2009. [3]CAZELOTO, Edilson. Inclusão Digital: uma visão crítica. São Paulo: Editora Senac São Paulo, 2008. [4] INSTITUTO BRASILEIRO DE GEOGRAFIA E ESTATÍSTICA. Perfis dos municípios brasileiros 2006. Available at <http://www.ibge.gov.br/home/presidencia/ noticias/ noticia_visualiza.php?id_noticia=1006&id_pagina=1> Access in November, 2009. [5] KENSKI, Vani Moreira. Tecnologias e ensino presencial e a distância. Campinas: Papirus, 2003. [6] LÉVI, Pierre. A Inteligência Coletiva: por uma antropologia do ciberespaço. 5.ed. São Paulo, 2007. Cap. 2, p. 44. [7]LÉVI, Pierre. Cibercultura. São Paulo: Editora 34, 1999, p.169. [8]MACEACHREN, A. M.;KRAAK, M.J. Research Challenges in Geovisualisation. Cartography and Geographic Information Science,2001, vol. 28 (1), pp. 1-11. [9] RAMOS, Cristiane da Silva. Visualização Cartográfica e cartografia multimídia: conceitos e tecnologia. São Paulo: Editora UNESP, 2005. [10]SILVA, Marco. Internet na escola e inclusão. In: SEED. Integração das tecnologias na educação. Brasília: Ministério da Educação, Seed, 2005, p. 63 [11] TOBÓN, C. Usability Testing for Improving Interactive GeoVisualization Techniques. CASA – Centre for Advanced Spatial Analysis. W orking Paper Series, 2002. [12] VALENTE, José Armando. Pesquisa, comunicação e aprendizagem com o computador: O papel do computador no processo ensino-aprendizagem. In: SEED. Integração das tecnologias na educação. Brasília: Ministério da Educação, Seed, 2005. 53 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) Can We Put Forward a Mathematical Model of the Selection of a New Location for a Multinational Company? Dorota Leszczyńska IPAG Business School 4, bd Carabacel F 06000 Nice, France d.leszczynska@ipag.fr company derives from the general concept of space and spatiality, applied to this issue of localization by Colovic and Mayrhofer (2008). Originating from this statement, the question which has prompted our reflection can be expressed in the following words: what is the influence of geographically embedded knowledge on the location performance of a multinational company? Abstract Research works haven’t yet shed much light on the performance of the location choice of multinational companies. The aim of this publication is to highlight the link between geographically embedded knowledge, the location of a multinational company and its consequential performance. We put forward a conceptual approach allowing to formulate the bases of a mathematical modelisation. A case-study is carried out within the perfume cluster in Grasse region, France. Our research has led us to highlight some types of managerial behaviours which will ensure the location performance within a cluster. In this publication, based on Min and Melachrinoudis’s research work (1996) regarding the optimization of a location choice made by a multinational company for its production units, we shall first put forward a conceptual approach of embedded knowledge impact on the location performance of a multinational company. Then we shall formulate the bases of a mathematical modelization, and put our theoretical reflections to the test, confronting them with a casestudy carried out within a cluster. We shall examine the case of a regional industrial cluster concerned with the expansion project of multinational chemical companies. This research aims at showing the influence of certain types of embedded knowledge, such as sensorial or tacit knowledge, on the efficiency of the location choice of a multinational company. The mathematical model actually shows that, when the multinational company is not capable of integrating such knowledge into its structure, the local business relationship breaks off. We shall then be able to submit our views to a discussion, and to underline the fact that there is indeed a link between geographic knowledge and the success of the location of a multinational company within a cluster. Keywords : mathematical modelisation, tacit knowledge, French perfume cluster, location, Introduction As the issue of international management has not been extensively documented by French writers, the trend of research concerning organizational approach based on knowledge (Eisenhardt and Santos, 2002) has gradually emerged as the main perspective aiming at explaining the movements of multinational companies. For instance, Gupta and Govindarajan (1991) conceptualize multinational firms as being networks for transactions, functioning via knowledge flows. An implantation on a new site gives a multinational company the opportunity to have access to external resources. It may take place via a corporate alliance or an acquisition. Firstly, new implantations provide multinational companies with an access to their partners’ knowledge, as they combine their own amount of knowledge with that of their partners. (Inkpen and Tsang, 2008). In this perspective, the geographical location of a multinational company is a key-concern of research in international management (Porter, 1994; Dunning, 1998). Secondly, research work concerning organisational approach based on knowledge has focused on the study of contexts in which knowledge flows are highlighted. In this perspective, a good deal of research work has been undertaken in order to elaborate the theory of clusters, based on knowledge. (Maskell, 2001). A cluster has therefore been conceptualized as a site in which the creation of embedded knowledge is stimulated, as a consequence of the geographic and organizational closeness of local companies. (Rallet and Torre, 2005, p. 50). This research work has shown the assets of clusters, which influence the choice of multinational companies as far as their location is concerned. (Rugman, 2005). As a matter of fact, the innovative capacities of clusters have a direct influence on their competitive performance. (Porter, 2000). 1. Location of a multinational company and knowledge: an ingenious link? A widespread type of learning takes place through a transfer of knowledge flows. For a long time, it has been generally assumed that this was a one-way transfer, from multinational companies towards local businesses. (Lin, 2005). Nowadays, as competition between multinational companies has become harder and harder, their location choice has become a major strategic issue (Gimeno and al, 2005). Referring to Spicer’s new terminology (2006), we shall therefore consider knowledge transfer of a convergent type, that is to say, from local to international level. 1.1. Learning and location As they look for new sources of external knowledge flows, multinational companies select some specific geographical sites for their implantation. Davenport and Prusak (1998) define a knowledge flow as being a fluid combination of experiments, a running exchange of essential values, of contextual information, and of shrewd expert evaluations. A knowledge flow offers a structure which allows the assessment and the incorporation of new experiments and information. As the major part of an organisation’s knowledge is deeply rooted in expertise and the However, the significant indicators in order to predict the longterm efficiency of a new location contemplated by a multinational company are still unknown (Goerzen and Asmussen, 2007). Our conceptual representation of the localization of a multinational 54 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) individual experience of its members, the capacity of a multinational company to search for and discover new knowledge depends on its ability to effectively control, incorporate and absorb its acquired knowledge within its existing knowledge databank. (Hamel, 1991). The newly acquired databank provides a key-stone for an effective development and for the renewal of the organizational structure, and therefore represents a major competitive asset. Within multinational companies, learning implies the creation, transfer and integration of knowledge flows. 2. The efficiency resulting from the location choice made by a multinational company The validity of the location choice made by a multinational company can be assessed in reference to its long-term performance, that is to say, by its long-lasting ability to take advantage of knowledge flows in correlation with its objectives, while, at the same time, obtaining profitable results. We therefore put forward a mathematical model determining the long-term financial result of this location choice. We shall then present a case-study as an illustration, in order to submit our point of view to discussion and present possible fields for future research work. Porter (1994, p. 37) underlines the fact that competitive advantage is determined by an appropriately located innovation process, and underscores the crucial importance of the location choice made by the multinational company. Most costs and risks are consequently linked to obstacles raised by distance. A recent research work, which also takes into account the language barrier, shows the distinct influence of each of these types of distances and their immediate result on the effective transmission of explicit and tacit knowledge (Ambos and Ambos, 2009). 2.1. Mathematical model The aim of this mathematical modelization is to put forward a mathematical tool to determine the long-term financial result of a multinational business in search of a possible new location. We shall refer to a model of progressive increase of complexity, which, in the first place, implies to take into consideration the simplifying hypothesis of linearity. The aim of the following suggested model is to provide a key allowing the best possible selection of a new implantation. The location of a multinational company within a cluster is dependent on knowledge transfers between the companies belonging to the cluster and this multinational company. A knowledge transfer from the cluster to the multinational company leads to interactions between the newly transferred knowledge and the pre-existing knowledge within the multinational company, and this fact generates profits in terms of productivity and financial result. Indeed, the consequential performance achieved by the multinational company is the difference between the financial result and the expense caused by the knowledge transfer. However, the gain in performance for the multinational company may result in an increased competition between the multinational company and the cluster, and the effect of this may be a drop in the financial results and a loss of performance for the companies of the cluster. The knowledge to be transferred is selected so as to maximize the global performance, that is to say the total amount of performance achieved by both the multinational companies and the companies in the cluster, deriving from all the transfers which were carried out as the new implantation was under way. In order to ensure the stability of the new location, the performance of the multinational company and of each company in the cluster must be positive, which means that the knowledge transfers should globally by profitable to all partners. Obviously the necessity of stability lessens the performance of the implantation under way, but it also avoids a rupture of the partnership, and therefore, it ensures a longterm knowledge learning until the ultimate stage of tacit knowledge is reached, generating more and more performance. However, statements of account are regularly made to compare reality with expectations, and to adjust orientations if necessary. 1.2. Organisational knowledge Organisational knowledge not only exists in written documents, but it is also present in the organization routines, tasks, processes, practices, norms and values. The usual distinction between tacit and explicit knowledge derives from the articulate or implicit nature of the considered knowledge. Tacit knowledge is inarticulate, it is essentially personal by nature; such a knowledge is difficult to communicate to others (Polanyi, 1958) and to negotiate at its true value on the external market. It is often strongly implanted in the cognitive processes of individuals, or it is deep-rooted in the routine, specific culture and values of the organization. (Bell and al, 2009). On the contrary, explicit knowledge can be codified and transmitted much more easily. However, the distinction between tacit and explicit knowledge should not be considered as a dichotomy but rather as a spectrum with both types of knowledge – tacit and explicit – at the extremes. (Inkpen and Dinur, 1998). While explicit knowledge provides the guidelines, tacit knowledge makes the organization explicit routines meaningful. (Dhanaraj and al, 2004). Therefore, when it is learnt, tacit knowledge helps companies to acquire a certain degree of explicit knowledge. The consideration of transfer speed in an organization as far as knowledge flows are concerned (a notion first mentioned by Davenport and Prusak, 1998) is undoubtedly useful in order to evaluate how long these transfers will take, and how much they will cost. In their research work, Inkpen and Wang (2006) have observed that tacit knowledge is difficult to assess, and, consequently, that a company in a phase of learning often keeps on concentrating on its explicit knowledge which is easier to transmit (and which is less valuable). Other elements may impact the learning process, such as the industrial sector of the multinational company, or such as the links between the multinational company and a wider network of knowledge, etc. The above-mentioned elements shed some light on the learning capacity of a multinational company, but we have not listed them exhaustively, and they may be debated. For our part, we think that the deficiencies in research work about the learning capacity of a multinational company mostly derive from the failure to understand the knowledge flows circulating during the learning period. In other words, the combination of the specific features, of the implantation of a multinational company on the one hand, and of knowledge sciences on the other hand, may very well lead to an efficient conclusion, as far as location selection is concerned. The evaluation of gains and drops of the financial results linked to knowledge transfer can only be made from a thorough examination of the structure of the companies in the cluster, and of the structure of the multinational company. The cost of a knowledge transfer can be calculated from the general structure of the knowledge (K) involved which is partitioned into a “n” number of groups – Kj with “j” ranging from 1 to n. This partitioning is established so that K1 only contains explicit knowledge whereas Kn only contains tacit knowledge. Each group of intermediate knowledge (Kj with j ranging from 2 to n-1) contains both tacit and explicit knowledge which are not independent, and the proportion of tacit knowledge gradually increases with “j” (in reference to Inkpen and Dinur’s 55 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) knowledge spectrum, 1998). The transfer of the knowledge group Kj from the cluster to the multinational company takes place in Tj days and has a financial cost of Fj. As distance has a greater influence on the transfer of tacit knowledge than on the transfer of explicit knowledge, Tj and Fj are functions related to j. Therefore, the complete knowledge transfer takes a time T=T1+…Tj+…Tn for a total cost of F= F1+…Fj+…Fn. Diagram 1. cluster Multinational companies implantations within the - Creation of knowledge flows in perfumery , - Knowledge embeddedness since 1795 La Maison Lautier (1695-1968) Purchase by the RhônePoulenc multinational On the one hand, this model may be used to establish an indicator of choice for the implantation of a multinational company by comparing projected performances of several possible implantations, on a suitably long period so as to be able to evaluate the effects of the knowledge transfer. On the other hand, clusters which show a real capacity to create knowledge and innovations fast will be given advantage by this indicator of choice. Lautier Aromatiques (1968-1981) 2.2. Case study method The method we use in our case study is appropriate to the object of our research, for it emphasizes the understanding of the existing dynamics inside one particular environment, and will focus on a specific field of investigation. Our investigation will be focused at the cluster level. Our purpose is to study the impact of multinational companies on the cluster in reference to the typology of interorganisational research put forward by Provan and al. (2007, p. 483). We have identified ninety aromatic companies which coexist, very close to each other, on a very limited area. These highly concentrated companies, which have now become a perfume cluster and a centre of competitiveness, developed in the area of Grasse (in the county of the “Alpes Maritimes” in France) between the 17th and 19th centuries without any participation of multinational companies. When the most recent implantations of multinational company within the cluster took place, the tacit knowledge minimized the possibilities of the transfer of knowledge flows. Indeed, the main feature of local knowledge is a very high viscosity, and its transfer requires a long learning process, so that a significant amount of tacit knowledge may be acquired. In order to describe the evolutions of the implantations of multinational companies within this cluster, we have resorted to bibliographic sources, to a vast internal documentation from company, and to thirty five semi-directive interviews. The perfume industrial cluster in Grasse has attracted multinational chemical companies. These multinational companies have attempted to transfer the knowledge flows originating from the producers of aromas and perfume compositions, and from perfume creators. -First direct investment initiative from a multinational company towards the cluster -Transfer of explicit and tacit knowledge flows in perfumery -Embedded knowledge preserved within the cluster Repurchase by the Florasynth multinational Florasynth (1981-1995) -Transfer of tacit knowledge flows in food aromas and fine perfumery -Transfer of a databank of explicit knowledge (formulas of chemical specific products, of aromas and perfumes) -Location of the “Florasynth” within the cluster -Embedded knowledge preserved within the cluster Repurchase by the Bayer multinational Bayer (1995-1996) Haarmann & Reimer subsidiary of Bayer (1996-2003) 2.2.1. The implantations of multinational companies and the perfume cluster In order to illustrate the impact of knowledge flows on the performance of multinational companies after a new implantation, we have studied the succession of purchases and repurchases the “Maison Lautier”, has been subjected to in Grasse. The event of a cluster being taken over by a multinational company cannot be predicted by a mathematical model, because it results from often unpredictable human decisions; however, it is important to have a mathematical model available in order to establish a comparative prevision concerning different possible localizations. We shall therefore relate the impact of multinational companies such as “Rhône-Poulenc”, “Florasynth”, “Haarman&Reimer” and “Bayer” on the cluster businesses, as we shall contemplate the implantation of these four chemical companies in Grasse. -Transfer of tacit knowledge flows in perfumery -Relocation of the activity of perfume creation in Switzerland - Embedded knowledge non preserved within the cluster -Failure to respect the constraint of stability and breaking off of local relation Repurchase by the Symrise multinational Symrise (2003-2004) -Redundancies and permanent closure of the factory -Multinational company’s renunciation of its activity within the cluster 56 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) Other investigations would certainly be welcome to ensure the generalization of these results, particularly with more recent clusters, and clusters adapted to a current access to external sources of knowledge creation. However, this kind of extrapolation must be contemplated with care, as the mathematical model shows that the location performance highly depends on the structure of multinational company. Discussion Nowadays the strategic importance of the implantation of multinational companies within a regional industrial cluster is the subject of an increasing number of theoretical documents. Previous research works mostly provide economic and financial explanations about corporate alliance and acquisitions. However, research works must systematically go on exploring how tacit knowledge within a cluster has an influence on the efficiency of the location choice by a multinational company. Concerning the choice of a regional location by a multinational company within a cluster, geographic distance and cultural differences are challenges to be taken up by managers. In this respect, Kale and Anand (2005) have suggested that the companies of a cluster are conscious of the fact that implantation attempts by multinational companies are intended to exploit learning opportunities. Consequently, local businesses may become very cautions towards the implantation of multinational companies, and they will then do their best to increase their own learning capacities. Conclusion The most recent publications (Yang and al, 2011) underscore that the idea of bringing together learning on the one hand and the cluster’s prospects on the other hand opens up a fruitful and promising way of studying the competitiveness of multinational companies. While the notion of tacit knowledge is an intuitive major element when analyzing a cluster, it has however never been taken into consideration at its true value in existing theoretical models concerning the localization of a multinational company. For several decades, theoretical models have mostly focused on local companies’ accession to new knowledge. (Lin, 2005). Our research work has demonstrated that tacit knowledge, whether through senses or experience, is crucial to assess the efficiency of the localization choice made by a multinational company. Keeping this idea in mind, we have constructed our study with two objectives. The first objective is to elaborate a model in order to have a better understanding of the impact of tacit knowledge on the efficiency of a localization choice made by a multinational company. The second objective is to put forward an appropriate illustration in order to highlight the influence of knowledge flows on the performance of a multinational company carrying out an implantation within an industrial cluster. The results of our research work have led us to the following conclusions: In this publication, we have tried to clarify the complex issues brought up by the location of a multinational company within a cluster, raising all along the following crucial question: what is the efficiency of such a location? Indeed, the decision to enter a regional industrial cluster is usually taken whereas performance results are considered uncertain. Our whole reflection work has demonstrated that it is significant to take geographic tacit knowledge into consideration in order to answer this question. Our approach meant to put forward two key-ideas. Firstly we have put forward one of the first attempts aiming at providing some pieces of theoretical advice, as we evaluated the influence of a cluster’s tacit knowledge on the efficiency of the location choice that a multinational company makes when integrating a cluster. Secondly, our reference to the theory about clusters, based on knowledge, has led us to consider management behaviours which are appropriate to support the tacit knowledge influencing innovation flows. The development of interorganisational routines, as strategic corporate alliances are made, may improve the future interactions between companies. (Zollo and Reuer, 2010). The mathematical model shows that the multinational company chooses its new implantation with a view to reach an optimal level of performance. While the importance of knowledge flows is a major issue in the process of wealth creation, the purpose of multinational companies is to take advantage of this asset when choosing a new localization. Therefore, a cluster’s tacit knowledge is considered valuable only as a complement to fundamental specific capacities of multinational companies. We have shown that the influence of tacit knowledge in the localization choice made by a multinational company may be apprehended through a model allowing to take some tacit knowledge specific features and indicators into consideration. In order to make this mathematical model operational, it is necessary to evaluate all the issues and distances involved: geographical, administrative (institutional), economic and linguistic, and their subsequent costs as the transfer are being actived. (Rallet and Torre, 2005). Research works (Porter, 2000, p. 32) highlight the fact that interactions between the companies of a cluster result in a larger volume of innovations (and of their subsequent competitive advantages) than the one which would have been generated in the companies of the cluster had operated separately. This dynamics develops even more as knowledge flows are being transferred between the multinational company and the whole cluster. Therefore, the localization will be effectively optimized if the multinational company really participates in the local processes of knowledge transfers within the cluster. The question may actually be raised in the following words: considering the volume of innovations generated separately by the multinational company and the cluster, what volume of innovations can be expected in the event of their collaboration? As far as our case-study is concerned, in which no clear collaborative course of action has taken place, the mathematical model predicts a failure of the constraint of stability, which results in the breaking off the local relation. 57 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) Approach ». International Transactions in Operational Research, 3, 1, p. 65-76. Polanyi, M. (1958). Personal knowledge: Towards a postcritical philosophy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Porter, M,E. 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(2006). « The China-Singapore Suzhou Industrial Park: A knowledge transfer network », Journal of Management Studies, 43, p. 779-811. Kale, P.; Anand, J. (2006). « The decline of emerging economy joint ventures: The case of India », California Management Review, 48(3), p. 62-76. Knickerbocker, F,T. (1973). Oligopolistic reaction and the multinational enterprise. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Leszczyńska, D. (2010). « La trajectoire organisationnelle et l’enracinement du savoir. L’étude de cas d’un cluster régional ». Revue Management & Avenir, 2010/6, n° 36, p. 168-184. Lin, X. (2005). « Local partner acquisition of managerial knowledge in international joint ventures: Focusing on foreign management control », Management International Review, 45, p. 219-237. Maskell, P. (2001). « Towards a knowledge based theory of the geographical cluster », Industrial and Corporate Change, 10, p. 921-943. Min, H.; Melachrinoudis, E. (1996). « Dynamic Location and Entry Mode Selection of Mutinational Manufacturing Facilities under Uncertainty: A Chance-constrained Goal Programming 58 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) Trends in information security for Mexican companies, is the cloud computing the answer? Sandra-Dinora ORANTES-JIMÉNEZ Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Centro de Investigación en Computación (CIC-IPN), Departamento de Investigación en Ciencias de la Computación. Av. Juan de Dios Bátiz, esquina con Miguel Othón de Mendizábal, Mexico, D.F., 07738 and Graciela VÁZQUEZ-ÁLVAREZ Instituto Politécnico Nacional, SEPI-Escuela Superior de Ingeniería Mecánica y Eléctrica (SEPI-ESIME-IPN), Av. Luis Enrique Erro S/N, Unidad Profesional Adolfo López Mateos, Zacatenco, Delegación Gustavo A. Madero, C.P. 07738, Mexico, Distrito Federal and Alejandro ZAVALA-GALINDO Instituto Politécnico Nacional, SEPI-Escuela Superior de Ingeniería Mecánica y Eléctrica (SEPI-ESIME-IPN), Av. Luis Enrique Erro S/N, Unidad Profesional Adolfo López Mateos, Zacatenco, Delegación Gustavo A. Madero, C.P. 07738, Mexico, Distrito Federal The only thing that has not taken the full force of the Cloud phenomenon, are the risks and fear of the unknown by organizations in Mexico and elsewhere, not knowing how secure your information is. The objective of this work is focused on determining if current trends of the Cloud for security of information can influence the organization and, then, to investigate variations which must comply with the organizational structure of Mexican companies to embrace change and obtain better results by taking advantage of the implemented services features that make a business organization "flexible". The three levels the Cloud offers that enterprises should pay more attention to are Platform as a Service (PaaS) Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS). Since the first is basically a development environment where companies can create other applications, it makes use of the characteristics of Cloud Computing and IaaS focuses on the possibility of providing companies with all necessary hardware resources for its operations in the Cloud, from storage to computer processing power. At a time like the present in which video conferencing reduces problems, shift managers and associated costs, it is important to note the role that information has assumed over the past decades. Thus, during the 80s and based on data processing systems, which help the company, there has been a move towards the vision of the company as an information system. Any company can be seen as a knowledge network that provides the necessary infrastructure to maintain the exchange of information among its members. Cloud Computing was born from the idea that the information, data and programs to manipulate them, must reside in Internet servers, that is to say, applications and data files currently used in the office computer or corporate, would be located on Internet. RESUMEN With advances in Information Technology and Communications infrastructure, different forms and modern programming models in use have called for innovative forms of Internet and Cloud Computing has come a long way since it was first tagged as a future perspective by some researchers. Cloud Computing, where computing resources and services are offered and consumed over Internet without the users having knowledge of the infrastructure. This idea assumes creating an Internet in which programs and data are stored at all times and is available for people who wish to access to them. The truth is that it is not a completely unknown structure for those who often use services on the Net. Cloud Computing is convenient for users and is profitable for suppliers because, despite having some risks, working with this new type of technology, allows a saving on both licenses and administration of services and equipment needed. Therefore, they may represent an importance for businesses, particularly in Mexico. However, suppliers trying to counter the insecurity that currently is presented by the Cloud, have to abide by rules if they want to offer their services. Keywords: The Cloud, Cloud Computing, Internet, Information Technology, SaaS, PaaS, IaaS, virtualization. 1. INTRODUCTION This research focuses on "the Cloud", precisely because, it is “the place” that can store virtually all files needed at any time and place, as well as use the software tools preferred, and also consider changes that companies may need in their application. This is the impact of Cloud Computing on the organizational structure of the company, not to mention the impact of this technology on the company performance. 59 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) - Scalability. The client (user or company) does not have to worry about updating the computer equipment on which they are running the application, nor by the operating system upgrade or installation of security patches. It is the responsibility and obligation of the service provider to perform these updates. In addition, they are transparent to the client, so that the application must still be available to the user at all times even when performing the process of updating the provider side. Updates and new features are installed almost immediately. - Companies can concentrate on business processes. The client (user or company) can focus more resources and efforts towards a more important strategy, having a direct impact on the business processes of the organization, transferring responsibility to the provider and the deployment, configuration and maintenance of and infrastructure necessary to run the application. 2. ADVANTAGE SYSTEMS IN THE CLOUD The goal of Cloud Computing is about the users relying less on a physical location to work. Therefore as time goes on, it is no longer necessary to use different hardware elements, such as hard drives or processors, thereby achieving common free users and of course also for businesses using large sums of money in investments needed to purchase hardware. One of the most interesting approaches to the idea of software as a service is the ability to work without installing any hardware equipment or software, as well as economically sustaining managing, maintaining and modernizing. It is a company service provider responsible for providing appropriate solutions to the availability problems or otherwise that may arise. In general, some of the advantages that the Cloud offers to enterprises are: - Costs. The user of these services only pays for the resources they use, designing a payment plan usually from the time when it is used (memory, processing, storage). Hence, it can be considered the most attractive advantage presented by the Cloud Computing and if not, at least the most obvious of all this technology. Responsibility for the implementation of the infrastructure is for the provider and the client does not have to worry about buying computer equipment, train personnel for the setup and maintenance and in some cases, for software development. - Competitiveness. Thanks to the Cloud, any organization can compete on equal terms in areas of Information Technology with companies of all sizes, and whereas, the competitive advantage is with the one that has the better computing resources. The Cloud gives the possibility of not having to buy expensive equipment; small businesses can have access to the latest technology at prices within reach, paying only for consumption. - Availability. The supplier is obliged to ensure that the service is always available to the client. - Abstraction of the technique. Cloud Computing allows the customer the ability to forget about deployment, configuration and maintenance; transferring this responsibility to the service provider. - Access from anywhere in the world with access to Internet. Using applications designed on the paradigm of Cloud Computing can be accessed from any computer equipment in the world that is connected to the Internet. Access is usually made from a web browser, which enables the application to be used not only from a desktop computer or a laptop, but goes beyond, allowing the user to use the application from any mobile device. 3. PROBLEMS IN CLOUD SERVICES Cloud Computing is a paradigm that can provide computing services via the Internet and in this context the Cloud is a metaphor for the Internet [1]. Currently, there are many important players in the Cloud and also many services. However, between 2010 and 2011 many, either by faults or vulnerabilities in their infrastructure, were not 100% reliable. Even now, companies have to resolve the legality of the information circulating in these business models. Richard Stallman [2] believes that Cloud Computing endangers user liberties, because they allow their private and personal data to be held by third parties. Service providers for Cloud Computing should pay attention to the following points, considered as disadvantages for companies in their use of information management: - Perception of loss of privacy. Understandably the perception of insecurity generated by a technology that takes information (sensitive in many cases), from servers outside the organization, leaves the data to the provider. Therefore, for many (users or a company) it is extremely difficult to trust their sensitive information to others and considers that the proposals of Cloud Computing threatens the vital information for business processes. - Availability. Availability was formerly listed as an advantage, but because it remains a matter solely for the responsibility of the service provider, the system can fail to keep the service available to the user, and not perform a corrective action to restore service. In this case, the client should wait until the problem is resolved by the provider. It is in this sense that it becomes a disadvantage too. - Lack of control over resources. By having all the infrastructure and even the application running on servers located in the Cloud, i.e. the supply side, the client lacks complete control over resources and even on the information once it is uploaded to the Cloud. 60 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) - Dependence. The client becomes dependent not only on the service provider, but also the internet connection, because the user must be permanently connected to the system to achieve what is in the Cloud. - Integration. The user of the Cloud must follow certain rules, otherwise, it is not at all easy or practical to integrating available resources through infrastructure Cloud Computing with systems developed in a traditional manner. This is an aspect that should be taken into account by the client to see how feasible it is to implement a Cloud-based solution within the organization. The level of acceptance in organizations varies depending on the size of small and medium enterprises in Mexico, and implementing solutions based on Cloud Computing, while larger organizations do so according to individual needs. However, more and more end users, to whom Cloud Computing has changed the way they carry out their activities, which are improved in most cases, allows them to collaborate in a different way with others in different locations, accessing applications that require the web browser from virtually any computer, even from mobile devices. Cloud Computing is suitable for business and is profitable for suppliers because, despite presenting some risks to work with this new type of technology, it allows a saving of both licenses as well as administration services and equipment required for these. Currently, any company that wants to offer Cloud Services is free to do so and the situation will change dramatically in a few years. It is important for security that providers will have to abide by the rules if they want to offer their services and businesses and change their philosophy and abandon traditional means of building information systems. They must work on turning disadvantages into advantages and pave the way for growing companies in the acceptance of this not so new paradigm which is the Cloud. It can be concluded, that the Cloud is the answer regarding cost, availability, competition, location and scalability for Mexican companies and that they can devote themselves to pay more attention to changes in their business processes facilitating their position in the market. 4. VIRTUALIZATION AND CLOUD COMPUTING Virtualization is an emerging paradigm of information technology that separates the functions of computer technology and implementation of hardware. [6] Virtualization is essential for the optimal development of Cloud Computing and refers primarily to the platform issue. It can be said that virtualization is an abstraction of the technological resources that allows servers to create virtual devices which can be used to increase the resources rather than as discrete systems. Cloud Computing is an interesting topic of virtualization, allowing a server to treat many users. Another issue that goes hand in hand with virtualization is clustering, which allows treating many servers as one, and this allows quickly incorporating new resources to virtualized servers, reducing space and power costs and simplifying overall administration. This makes it easier to create test environments that allow implementing new applications without impacting production, streamlining the testing process, and general system failures isolated from a virtual machine without affecting the other virtual machines, and finally bringing a direct benefit in reducing the hardware needed, as well as their associated costs. Virtualization can have a drastic change on how Business pays for its technology and handles the associated risk. First, by removing the hardware associated with IT functions, capital costs are virtually eliminated. Secondly, the remaining costs are strictly transferred into an operating expense with on-demand or subscription based on Cloud Computing applications. 6. REFERENCES [1] [En línea: http://www.imaginar.org/iicd/fichas/05_Cloud_comp uting.pdf] [Consultado: 01-12-2010] [2] Stallman, Richard. “Cloud computing is a trap, warns GNU founder Richard Stallman” [En línea: http://www.guardian.co.uk/technology/2008/sep/29/ Cloud.computing.richard.stallman] [Consultado: 0311-2008] [3] IEEE SPECTRUM (2010). “The Cloud is the Computer” G. [En línea: http://spectrum.ieee.org/computing/hardware/theCloud-is-the-computer] [Consultado el 13/07/2010] [4] Gutiérrez Grajeda, Alfredo Ernesto. “Computación en la Nube (Cloud computing)”. Revista Electrónica Ingeniería Primero – Nº 19. Págs.40-44. ISSN: 20763166. Facultad de Ingeniería. Universidad Rafael Landívar. [5] Claycomb, William R., PhD. “Tutorial: Cloud Computing Security”. CERT Enterprise Threat and Vulnerability Management Team. Software 5. CONCLUSIONS Cloud Computing is a natural evolution of the widespread adoption of virtualization, service-oriented architecture and utility computing. This technology usually has a gradual growth. While it is true that Cloud Computing is a technology that has been used for some years, it has yet to be fully absorbed as a central tendency in organizations, with the problems and disadvantages presented in this investigation. 61 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) Engineering Institute. Carnegie Mellow University. 2007-2012. [6] Evans, J.H. [En línea: http://businesssoftware.suite101.com/article.cfm/computer_virtuali zation_advantages] [Consultado: 19-01-2009] 62 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) Knowledge Network for Quality of Life José Francisco SALM JUNIOR; Karine KOLLER University of Santa Catarina State Florianópolis, Santa Catarina, Brazil And Viviane SCHNEIDER; Roberto Carlos dos Santos PACHECO Institute Stela and Federal University of Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, Santa Catarina, Brazil from multiple electronic systems into a simplified, converged and computer-mediated communication system to enable individuals to interact, play, communicate, collaborate and share information in many new and different ways. In Brazil, Santa Catarina State has been historically recognized as national prominence in the field of ITC. Public investments in the state in Science and Technology Network (STN) are an example of government priority to this sector. STN has allowed the development of research and some breakthroughs in the area of ITC, in several institutions. In the last two years, twelve research labs have cooperated in this STN environment, in a project financed by the Brazilian innovation agency FINEP3, in cooperation with the state foundation in Santa Catarina (FAPESC4). This project is called “Information Technology and Communication Services for Large-Scale Multi-platform: Ubiquitous Systems in Service Quality of Life (SCTIC)”.It intends to attack some of the main computer research challenges in Brazil: ubiquous systems, knowledge modeling and complex applied systems. The main goal is to structure a knowledge research network to develop technology and innovation in Santa Catarina State. This network was organized with six research groups with a common development goal: to create a large scale of ubiquitous applications using hypermedia object in a network. In this article, we present the subproject called Modeling (Portuguese Title: Subprojeto Modelagem), developed by Researchers of Stela Institute5 and Knowledge Engineering Lab at the Federal University of Santa Catarina UFSC6. In next section is explaining main characteristics and outcomes from this research by Modeling Subproject. ABSTRACT This paper explains how a research design can be adopted for a specific goal as to create a base for a knowledge network for researchers, in order to build quality life technologies in Brazil. This knowledge network is one of the results produced by research projects which will help discovery and creation a technology structure, in years to come. Thus, this work explains how and which way these communication and knowledge network elements was created, using several approaches as General System Theory, Ontology and Knowledge Engineering, and Ubiquitous Computation awarecontext. The main focus in this paper is described how we set the context and our main outcomes obtained from it. Also we explain the premises for a big change that is needed to in a network that intends to help raise the quality of life. Keywords: Knowledge Network, Ontology, Knowledge Engineering, Quality of Life, Cybernetic. 1. INTRODUCTION In 2006 there was a Seminar called “The Grand Challenges for Computing Research in Brazil: 2006-2016”, held in São Paulo. This event was organized by the Brazilian Computer Society and supported by CAPES1 and FAPESP2. The researchers identified five challenges for the next years, in the Brazil’s computing: information management in large volumes of distributed multimedia data; · computational modeling of three kinds of systems: (i) complex and artificial; (ii) natural and socio-cultural; and (iii) human-nature interaction; · impacts to computer science due to the transition from silicon to new technologies; · universal and participatory access to knowledge for Brazilian citizens; and · quality in technological development: available, accurate, secure, scalable, persistent and ubiquitous systems. Besides pointing out these challenges, the researchers highlighted the importance of studies in ubiquitous information systems, digital convergence, and other developments in Information Technology and Communication (ITC). Digital Convergence, defined by Ifeanyi O. Asonye, in March of 2003, is the priming of underlying digital technology components and features such as voice, texts, video, pictures, broadcasts, presentation, streaming media, global connectivity and personalized services; the combination of all of these features and abilities 2. KNOW LEDGE MODELING FOR KNOW LEDGE NETW ORK In one of the subprojects, the focus was developing the representation of knowledge and the adoption of modeling technics and was, for that reason, called Project Modeling, which would help to set standards and a framework for 3 1 Coordi nat ion ofImprovementofHi gherEducat ion Personnel(in Portuguese: Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de NívelSuperior). 2 Foundation forResearch Supportofthe St ate ofSão Paul o (in Portuguese: Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de NívelSuperior). 63 FINEP - Financi adoradeEst udoseProjetos(FinancierofStudies andProjects). FINEPfinancesourresearches. 4 FAPESC – Fundação deamparo apesquisado Est ado deSanta Cat ari na (Foundation for support research of Santa Catari na State). FAPESC hasaresponsi bil ityfortomanagetheresources. 5 In Portuguese Instituto Stel a (Stel a Instit ute) is a nonprofit organization, whi ch to make research, development and innovation abouti nformation and communicat ion technol ogies. In this research, Stel a Institute is one importantactor for to supportknowledgemodel ing, nexttoPPGEGC/UFSC. 6 PPGEGC/UFSC- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Engenharia e Gestão do Conhecimento (PPGEGC)da Universidade de Santa Cat ari na (UFSC). (After degree program of Engi neering Knowledge and management (PPGEGC) from Santa Catarina StateUniversity(UFSC)). Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) network, in order to set the relations between researches. The systemic view consists of the tasks below: · to represent 5W 1H (W hat, W here, W hen, W ho, W hy and How ) [1]- the concept 5W 1H was used for to represent a narrative from hypothetical scenario, whose purpose is to mobilize research (knowledge) network to develop advanced technologies for Santa Catarina State (southern Brazil).; · CESM modeling [2,3,4]– a systemic model that represent every system with four main elements: composition, environment, structure, mechanism. The narrative starts: “after a gentleman gets hit bya car, some people come to rescue him and also call an ambulance that soon arrives at the accident scene. The paramedics described the emergency situation, on a mobile device that captures some information and data as (i) voice message, (ii) GPS coordinate, (iii) signal by wristlet intelligent; (iv) patient electronic health record, (v) real time, and, (vi) X-ray image by sensor. This device sends this information for a centralized system that interprets it and infers how medical protocols for emergency calls can benefit the patient. After, the system finds a Hospital nearby for the patient procedures and also forwards the information to the ambulance staff. In the hospital, the doctor already knows about patient situation (from information by hypermedia content) and can prepare everything that patient need”.This scenario was represented in Figure 3. knowledge models for the SCTIC network. In order to produce these results , the primary goal was the development of a framework to be the applied in a knowledge intensive ubiquitous system helping during the modeling phase so that it could be persistent, reliable, secure, and highly available (particularly for Quality of Life). This framework has four phases: (1) Contextualization; (2) Knowledge representation, (3) prototyping and (4) integration. First phase correspond systemic view and context structure identification, as illustrated Figure 1. Fig.1. Relationship between knowledge areas and topics of research [1-15]. In this article we will focus on explaining how we conceptualize the first part of framework (Phase 1 – Contextualization). In this phase we worked on four main products: (i) the state of the art; (ii) systemic model; (iii) contextual model; and (iv) Hypermedia content approaches, as illustrated Figure 1. In Figure 2 one can observe the outcomes from phase 1 in green and the pending elements in gray as well as the relationship between the products and the Modeling Subproject. Fig.3. Scenario described for prototyping technologies. Details pointed out by the red circle in Figure 3, are better illustrated in Figure 4. Fig.2. Outcomes and goals of Modeling Subproject. From state of the art we identified hypermedia modeling approaches. The systemic model was based in CESM model (Component, Environment, Structure and Mechanism) [2,3,4]. In next section is explained how the systemic development model is linked to the knowledge base network. Fig.4. Details by Scenario described for prototyping technologies. In order to categorize this scenario we used CESM model, as illustrated Figure 5. There are some elements whose proposed is to represent outcomes from labs, by knowledge network. For the subproject responsible for Knowledge Modeling it is fundamentally important for modeling purposes the Hypermedia Content. 3. SYSTEMIC BASE OF KNOW LEDGE NETW ORK Knowledge network developed during this research contains connections between human agents and non-human agents (software or hardware). These connections include information and knowledge exchange. This chosen scenario was health care as means for helping quality of life. The first step was discovery the systemic vision for knowledge 64 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) research refers specifically to analyses for identified how complex can be to build scenario structure, specially political and cultural aspect which involve data base integration from several health institution, for example. Based in CommonKADS methodology [6] and KAMET II [7], that are studied in a work master [5], developed in this research, we described: · Problems and opportunities; · Research Challenges; · Proposed Solution; · Necessary resources; · Solution Feasibility; and · Checking of consistency by context. Principals points identified on Problems and opportunities are: (i) Lack of an integrated data base electronic medical record, nationally and internationally; (ii) Lack of equipment Portable X-Ray (for ambulance) with GPS and patient identification, connected to an ubiquitous secure network; (iii) Lack of a service to find patient electronic health records (which may be spread across multiple repositories) and put in one package with Hypermedia in order to send these information by the device Paramedic; (iv) Lack of service able to infer the severity of the medical emergency, based on the X-ray image / signal sent by the patient' s electronic bracelet /paramedic description /at least one of these elements to more severe prioritize calls; (v) Lack of integration of health facilities for the discovery of the most appropriate place to regulate, in a timely manner, the allocation of a patient in a nearest health care facility. Based in these problems we had the following research challenges: (i) How to integrate all databases containing the electronic medical records of patients, nationally and internationally? (ii) There are some X-ray device with portability and connectivity enough to capture and send images, GPS coordinates and patient identification via ubiquitous network? (iii) How to integrate controls of emergencies, health unit for regulation of patients, according to the severity of the medical emergency? (iv) How to infer the severity of an emergency event based on data and information available? (v) There is any part of proposed scenario which can be prototyped? To test it we proposed a solution: Intelligent Regulation System of emergency patients that: · PROVIDE electronic patient record (distributed on network). · INFER emergency severity of the event, based on available data and information; · CHECK availability of the nearest health unit (hospital). · PRIORITIZE emergency care more severe. In order to make this system is necessary some resources as a (i) political according between statewide, national and international health system, for to exchange electronic health record (with security); (ii) existing technology clustering and posterior deploy in health Sector; (iii) financial resources to staff training and development of mobile emergency service; (iv) infrastructure for ubiquitous network, secure and scalable, that can access distributed content hypermedia (patient electronic health record, patient signal, X-ray image, description status emergency event).For prototyping this solution, some parts will need to be emulated in computer and some parts can be tested with real devices (as intelligent wristlet, for example). After we explicated this information about scenario, we verified if developers, knowledge and ontology engineers, managers, and another people understood this proposed solution, risks and challenges that we need to win in development of this research. In the next section is presented this verification, checking of consistency by context, with Modeling Subproject research group. Fig. 5. CESM model applied on proposed scenario. The Hypermedia concentrated every element that will be interchanged inside the Cybernetic Network. In Figure 4 we showed how this process will operate. Basically, CESM model work like follow: · Components:agents by system. In this case the agents are human (people) and non-human (technology); · Environment:the context that interfere in one or in more than one component by system. In this case is a knowledge network whose goal is to make the technologies to operate the proposed scenario; · Structure:“bones” what support the system.In this case this structure is a cybernetic network, whose goal is communication and control of health emergency process; · Mechanism:the process what make system work how it work. In this case, the process is emergency health care. This process include: (i) knowledge about status patient, (ii) knowledge about availability health system for assist the patient. In next section we explain research context and how another subprojects interacting to set a knowledge network. 4. KNOW LEDGE NETW ORK CONTEXT This is hypothetical situation that will permit the labs (knowledge network) develop some technology what will make this situation (or similar) being possible (illustrated in Figure 3). The knowledge network was distributed as illustrated the Figure 6. Fig.6. Knowledge Network that represent SCTIC project. This knowledge network will provide technology structure necessary for a hypothetical scenario like this (illustrated in Figure 3) happen. The main goal from this network is to make Santa Catarina State have knowledge enough to create latest technology. An important part of this 65 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) 5. CONSISTENCE VERIFICATION OF CONTEXT – OUTCOMES Model Systemic and Model Context were presented for a group of research by Institute Stela. Some of they have no familiarity with this research, but they have familiarity with ontology and knowledge engineering techniques. Based on State of the art [5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13], we proposed the follow questionnaire, in Table 1, in order to make a verification about consistence of the context. Fig.7. Outcomes from context consistency verification. Question 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Description Based on models described, it was clear which system knowledge will be developed. It was clear what and how process of knowledge generation in scenario is. It was clear what and how acquisition of knowledge is. It was clear what we define as problem situation All external entities that system needs to interact according to their responsibilities were identified. There is an understanding of the nature of connection (type of relationship) with each external entity. The diagram that represents context, illustrates connections of system with its environment. There are definitions of concepts sufficient to support the diagram. W as explored a number of realistic scenarios for external interactions between the system and external actors, according to the project context. It was understandable the key knowledge for the knowledge system. Consistence of context Value in % Thus, these results demonstrate the first part of Methodological Framework obtained consistent outcomes, indicating that there was considerable understanding of principal items of complex context from knowledge system and network. 10 10 10 6. CONCLUSION 10 This research started some years ago, in order to promote innovation and latest technology for Santa Catarina State, Brazil. Around twelve labs acting through six subprojects made research and advanced for Santa Catarina Technology. In order to promoted communication and knowledge fostering for innovation, FINEP and FAPESC financiered this project whose principal characteristic is high complexity. This complexity happens because two factors: (i) inter organization development of (ii) latest technology. In this context, Subproject Modeling going developed and testing, for years this methodology, described in this article. W ith a support by Institute Stela and researchers from Federal University of Santa Catarina and University of Santa Catarina State, we connected several approaches (by ontology and knowledge engineering, general system theory, artificial intelligence) for to set a specifically approach, according with our needed, how communication between mobile devices & human & smart web services. However, we considered a context concept in order to set and organized a cyber space that contains human and non-human agents, who exchanging data, information and “pieces of knowledge”. Thus we explained it in a methodological framework, whose aim is modeling several aspects (technical, political and cultural) in a contextual scenario, from a systemic approach for high complexity problem. This methodological framework also expects became possible work as a knowledge network in order to create technologies and approaches for quality of life. In this research, specifically, we tested first phase (there are four phases) from Framework. This part is especially important for to set consensual knowledge base for knowledge network. W e used a health scenario for to test this part of framework. The outcomes reveled a consistence of 83,98 %. It represents that human agents of knowledge network could understood the context of application, created from our methodology (framework). Next step is formalization this knowledge produced in first phase by framework, in computation ontology. This ontology will create communication between human and nonhuman agents, in a context by knowledge network for quality of life. Thus, next work is (i) conclude second phase from framework – Knowledge Representation – that include engineering ontology; (ii) conclude third phase from framework – Prototyping – that include prototyping of application based in approaches from artificial intelligence and techniques from ubiquitous computation (contextawareness); and (iii) conclude phase four from framework – Integration – that include modification solicited from researchers by knowledge network. The last phase is important for evolve knowledge model, and also evolve 2 5 18 5 7 23 Table. 1. Questionnaire and corresponding consistence of context value. This consistence to refer in to check how understandable the risks and challenges of research are. Furthermore, it also intend to establishes a consensual understanding about systemic and contextual models. The questions had five (5) options for respond, as is described in Table 2. Option 1 2 3 4 5 Description Assertion is unfounded. I agree somewhat with assertion. I agree with affirmation reasonably. I agree with assertion in almost all aspects described. I fully agree with assertion. Agreement percentage 0-20% 20-40% 40-60% 60-80% 80-100% Table. 2. Value of answer option. W e expected an agreement percentage around 7585% from first part of Methodological Framework. W e obtained a 83,98% as illustrated Figure 7, in total outcomes.According to the graph, how closer are the lines (green and blue), more consistent is the context, according perception of interviewees. 66 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) framework and this research. In summary, we conclude that desired results of this first phase of our research have been achieved. [14]M adkour, M .;M aach, A.;Elghanami , D. Context-aware middleware for services retrieval and adapt ati on. International Review on Computers and Software, v. 7, n. 1, p. 166-176, 2012. [15]Bernardes, J. G.; Gasparin, F. M.; Cunha Malafaia, G.. The Value Chain of a Philanthropic Hospital: A Case Study, XXX MEETING OF NATIONAL PRODUCTION ENGINEERING. Maturity and challenges of Production Engineering: competitiveness of enterprises, working conditions, environment, São Carlos, SP, Brazil, 12 a15 de outubro de 2010. Avaiable in <http:// www.abepro.org.br/ biblioteca/enegep2010_TN_STO_ 119_779_14867.pdf>. Acess in 08/ 05/2013 (in Portuguese). 7. ACKNOW LEDGEMENTS Our acknowledgements to researchers who contributed with this research: Denilson Sell, Fabiano Beppler, Flávio Ceci, Felipe Duarte Silveira, Fernando Borges Montenegro, Heron Jader Trierveiler, João Gabriel Lucchese Zanatta, JoséLeomar Todesco, Marcio Napoli, Rafael Bianco, Rudger Nowasky do Nascimento, Vinícius Medina Kern. 8. REFERENCES [1] M orse, D. R.;Armstrong, S.;Dey, A. K. (2000). The What, Who, Where, When and How of ContextAwareness. In: <http: //wwwstatic.cc.gatech.edu/fce/contexttoolkit/ pubs/CHI2000workshop.pdf.> Accessdate:10out.2012. [2]Bunge, M .. M echani sm and expl anation. Philosophy of the Social Sciences, v. 27, n. 4, p. 410-465, dez. 1997. [3] Bunge, M .. How Does It W ork? The search for explanatory mechanisms. Philosophy of the Social Sciences, v. 34, n. 2, p. 182-210, j un. 2004. [4] Bunge, M .. Systemism:t he alternative to individualism and holism. Jornal of Socio-Economics, v. 29, n. 6, p. 147157, nov. 2006. [5]Schneider, V. Method for modeling strategic context for knowledge-based systems. Dissertation ofM aster’s Degree in Engineeri ng and Knowledge M anagement. Federal UniversityofSantaCatarina, 2013 (inPortuguese). [6] Schreiber, G. et al . Knowledge Engineering and Management: the CommonKADS Methodology. Cambridge:M IT Press, 2002. [7] Cairó, O.;Guardati, S.. The KAM ET II met hodol ogy: Knowledge acquisition, knowledge modeling and knowl edge generation. DepartmentofComputerScience, ITAM , M exico DF, M exico. Expert Systems with Applications 39 (2012) 8108–8114. [8] Levashova, T. et al. Product design network selfcontextualization:enterprise knowledge-based approach and agent-based technol ogical framework. In: INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS OF HOLONIC AND MULTI-AGENT SYSTEMS, 4., 2009,Li nz.Proceedings… Berlin:Springer, 2008. p. 61-71. [9]Brézillon, P. Contextin artificialintelligence:I. A survey ofthe literature. Computers and Artificial Intelligence, v. 18, n. 4, p. 321-340, 1999a. ISSN:02320274. [10] Brézill on, P. Contextin artificialintel ligence:II. Key elementsofcontexts. Computers and Artificial Intelligence, v. 18, n. 5, p. 425-446, 1999b. ISSN:02320274. [11]Brézillon, P. Contextin problem solving:asurvey. The Knowledge Engineering Review, v. 14, n. 1, p. 1-34, maio 1999c. [12]Zhdanova, A. V. etal . Contextacqui sition, represent ati on and employment in mobile service platforms. In: WORKSHOP ON CAPTURING CONTEXT AND CONTEXT AWARE SYSTEMS AND PLATFORMS, 2006, M ykonos.Proceedi ngs… [S. l. ]: [s. n. ],2006. [13]Bazire, M ., Brézillon, P. (2005). Understanding Cont ext Before Using It. In: INTERNATIONAL AND INTERDISCIPLINARY ACADEMIC CONFERENCE, 5., 2013,Buenos Aires.Proceedi ngs… Paris:Spri nger-Verlag, 2013. p. 29-40. 67 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) The Visual Presentation Model for Improving High School Students’ Learning Outcomes David W.S. TAI, Yang-Chih HU Dept. of Computer Science and Information Management, Hungkuang University Taichung, 43302, Taiwan Ray WANG Dept. of Department of Hospitality Management, Hungkuang University Taichung, 43302, Taiwan Ren-Cheng ZHANG and Jia-Ling CHEN Dept. of Industrial Education and Technology, National Changhua University of Education Changhua, 500, Taiwan ABSTRACT 1. INTRODUCTION Engineering drawing is not only the essential skill of engineering staff and the blueprint of manufacturing but also recognized as the non-verbal intelligence. Most especially, it communicates all needed information from the engineers who designed a part to the workers who will make it. The scope of vocational education is to cultivate students the related skills accurately and systematically to make them employable, while also developing abilities and habits of lifelong learning. Although e-learning has become the best way to accomplish lifelong learning, and e-learning has been widely used in this society according to the rapidly growth of technology, researches of vocational mechanical high school settings have been mostly focused on systems of evaluation while learning outcomes, learning attitude, learning difficulties, problem solving abilities, and material development have been widely overlooked. Moreover, students’ prior knowledge have not been well considered wither, not to mention about integrating e-learning and visual presentation to construct the visual presentation models. Therefore, the integration of the above theories are collectively constructed and studied by experimental design in order to construct a visual presentation learning model, furthermore, to improve vocational mechanical high school students’ learning outcomes. Engineering drawing is the most commonly applied graphic language, and as time advances, different concepts, knowledge, symbols or culture can be generated. Because of the coming of the information era, engineering drawing ability required by industries has gradually been shaped to computerized and technology-oriented. Such change on industrial drawing ability, a basic machine language, due to industrial transformation can substantially affect students’ employment opportunity Engineering drawing is a basic technological course not only training students’ various skills for making and reading engineering drawings but also cultivating students’ 3D creativity and imagination. Engineering drawing is required by many industries, such as machinery, industrial design, electronic engineering, information technology, automatic control, automobiles, and molding. Engineering drawing is used as medium by design engineers and manufacturing and production personnel for communication and exchanging ideas. It also makes designer concepts, designs and plans more explicit through the use of graphics. Engineering drawing is based on the principle of projection using computer software according to national standards. Engineering drawing enables user to use engineering language to design, give instruction on construction, exchange technologies and more. One can say that engineering technicians used the drawing language to express their design ideas [1]. As a result, when cultivating new engineering technical personnel, it is important to ensure the quality of drawing courses in order to achieve better drawing quality [1]. Since 1980, the introducing of computers has added significant changes in the engineering domain, and the increasing number of software for facilitating drawing, manufacturing, simulation and analysis as well as the fast software renewal has elevated productivity of the manufacturing industry [2]. Nevertheless, such fast evolvement in technology is accompanied by a greater demand for technical personnel. Unfortunately, the teaching model of vocational education for conventional course subjects has failed to satisfy such social demand on technical personnel. As a result, how to enhance practice-oriented teaching activities, elevate practice-based teaching system, implement practice-oriented teaching methods and self-learning procedure are critical for reforming vocational high school education [3]. Through literature review, expert panel discussion and experimental design, we developed learning materials based on e-learning theory and visual presentation theory for vocational high school mechanical students. Then, we conducted the learning materials, the scripts of the related scales (including prior knowledge learning, learning outcomes, learning attitude, learning problems and problem solving ability scales), and the e-learning material developing strategy and process. Finally, the content of the e-learning materials has been modified and confirmed by experimental design. The quasi-experimental teaching was conducted within 8-week (3 hours per week) period. After the quasi-experimental teaching, data were analyzed (e.g., using MANCOVA to test the learning outcome differences and to analyze the visual presentation learning model). The findings could help high school students to improve their learning outcomes. Keywords: Engineering Drawing, Prior Knowledge, Visual Presentation Learning Model, Learning Outcomes, Learning Attitude, Learning Problems, Problem Solving 68 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) Reforming engineering drawing courses is a global activity, and the teaching of engineering drawing techniques has greatly evolved in recent years [4]. In a multimedia learning environment, information can be presented in different formats, such as texts, figures or animation, and be perceived by different senses [5]. With continuous innovation in animation technology, animation has now become an important element of e-Learning [6]. For engineering drawing courses, however, the effect of dynamic visual presentation on learning outcomes remains unclear. The objective of this study, therefore, is to explore the effect of different types of visual presentation on learning outcomes of engineering drawing. The investigators also examine influences from various types of visual presentation learning on the learning attitudes for engineering drawing. sense of anxiety [18]. Although academic difficulties can be resolved by learning activities, it is still important for the student to be diagnosed and guided in order for them to progress more positively and actively [19]. Aside from suggesting diagnosis and guidance, researchers have indicated that if the learning environment remains the same, students’ learning problems cannot be resolved and failure would reoccur [20]. Engineering drawing studies have shown the most commonly encountered learning difficulty is related to transforming a 2D perspective to a 3D image [21]. To cultivate this 3D spatial capability effectively in engineering drawing, new teaching methods are required for intervention [22]. Studies have pointed out that using multimedia in the drawing course can help students extend their comprehension, reasoning, problem-solving skills, and ability of solving more complicated 3D objects [23]. 2. LITERATURE REVIEW Engineering Drawing Engineering drawing is a fundamental course for nearly all engineering technologies. Although conventional teaching methods enable students to acquire knowledge, these methods are not effective in teaching students’ higher-level practical skills because of a lack of interaction with practice [7]. In mechanical engineering, due to a weaker practical capability and imagination, many students experience difficulties in learning mechanical drawing or geometric applications [8]. Nonetheless, because the basic thinking method of learning engineering drawing is a complete different type of image thinking compared to other engineering subjects, engineering drawing plays an indispensable role in cultivating creative thinking in future engineers [9]. Engineering drawing can train students’ innovation awareness and ability as well as cultivate their independent thinking capability. All of these are important for helping students achieve the goal of life-long learning [10]. Problem Solving Process Having students solving problems manually and using sketching can help them learn about structure of orthographic, which is important for engineering major students [24]. Other studies have shown that the conventional sketching method is beneficial for learning problem-solving graphically or presenting a draft with possible information limitation [25]. Nevertheless, in Taiwan, because of a reduced lecture time for mechanical drawing and for the convenience of teachers and students, CAD is the preferred tool instead of sketching manually. As a result, the important function of manual sketching for problem-solving in engineering drawing is often overlooked [26]. Visual Presentation In a multimedia-based learning environment, information is received via numerous channels, such as vision and hearing, and presented in many forms, such as graphics, on-screen text description, and animation. Learners in turn search for relevant information from graphic display and link the information to the visual or audio stimulation they have perceived [27]. This type of perception based on visual information is referred to as visual presentation [28]. Students still find it hard to visualize the 3D object given the 2D representations of the same object [21]. To effectively cultivate 3D spatial ability for engineering drawing, it is necessary to diagnose using new teaching approaches [22]. The use of multimedia in drawing courses is helpful for students to expand their understanding, reasoning, problem-solving skills, and the ability for more complicated 3D applications [23]. From the viewpoint of teaching, visual presentation is beneficial for learning because it offers an information space and allows learners to reason and to perceive through a simple and direct method [28]. Engineering drawing is a very practical course, and practice accounts for a relative large proportion. In order to train students’ spatial imagination, surveying and measuring practice cannot be over-standardized, but that can be problematic [7]. For example, conventional teaching of engineering drawing is focused on orthographic projection, and the introducing of computer-aided drawing does not alter this situation. With the use of software, the speed and accuracy of drawing can be significantly improved [9]. Nonetheless, there is a limited amount of time for lecture, which is hard for instructors to clearly explain the association between 3D and 2D images [11]。 Learning Attitudes Many studies on vocational high school student have pointed out that different learning attitudes can certainly lead to different learning outcomes, and good learning habits are associated with better learning outcomes [12]. In the mechanic drawing course, the learning interest of students determines their learning attitudes and enthusiasm [13]. It has been shown that in mechanic drawing courses, students with good learning attitudes and specific goals usually possess better mechanic drawing skills [14]. No matter how advance or potent a technique is, the effectiveness of a technique is depending on whether the user has an active attitude. If e-Learning can promote such active attitude, students will be more willing to practice what they have learned, and that can improve their learning [15]. Visual presentation can be classified into two types: static and dynamic. Comparing to verbal only presentation, these two types of presentation are better at helping learners to comprehend the information [29]. Animation has been shown to be beneficial in aiding the delivery of contents of science education, and therefore, there is an increasing trend of using animation-based presentation in a multimedia teaching environment [30]. Dynamic presentation has been much more applied on various types of education resources, while animation seems to be very suitable for helping students learn phenomenal changes because it can provide explicit descriptions for the dynamics of a target condition instead of asking students to reconstruct the dynamics of static graphs mentally [31]. Dynamic presentations are usually expressed in multiple forms and can help students generate comprehensive understanding via various ways [32]. For the effect of dynamic visual presentations, disputes exist between the static and dynamic parts. As a result, many researchers suggest to use simple animation and to eliminate unrelated messages from the visual presentations in order for the important message to stand out [5]. In this case, choosing a format of presentation based Learning Difficulty Diagnosis Learning difficulty is a serious problem. It can make students feel exhausted academically and emotionally and eventually cause depression [16] or deviate behavior [17]. What is even worse is that this issue is not well recognized. Because students when entering the school do not possess equal capacity in terms of learning, skills or knowledge, some of them may encounter learning difficulties such as poor time management, bad adaptation to learning materials, or a 69 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) on the type of students may be beneficial. Moreover, dynamic and static presentations may have their own strength and weakness for learning. If dynamic and static presentations can be integrated, then a maximum effect may be achieved [5]. In fact, static and dynamic presentations are complementary to each other. While dynamic presentation resembling the actual situation much closer, static presentation supports in-depth understanding of basic principles and procedure [5]. the teaching units, the interface and messages of dynamic visual presentation e-Learning materials. The investigators also worked on modifying and verifying the appropriateness of these teaching materials. The major objective of the above-mentioned scales/tests was to collect data and information required by the study, while the dynamic and static visual presentation e-Learning materials for engineering drawing were given to the learners to use. Research Experimentation Preparation: After determining the research theme, the investigators started collecting domestic and foreign studies of relevant topics, and these studies were organized to become the base for the theoretic ground, research design, and research framework of the study. The research tools are the Prior Knowledge Test, Learning Attitude Scale, Learning Difficulty Diagnostic Scale, Problem-solving Ability Scale, and Learning Outcome Scale and dynamic/static visual presentation e-Learning materials for engineering drawing. Samples were selected for the pilot test, and the results from the pilot test were analyzed for the reliability and validity of the scale/test. The scales/tests were further modified accordingly to ensure a good internal and external validity of the scales/tests. 3. METHODS Research Design The objective of the study is to explore effects of e-Learning and visual presentation these two major learning theories on mechanic science major vocational high school students' learning outcomes of engineering drawing course. To achieve the above-mentioned objective, the investigators first conducted a literature review on domestic as well as foreign studies. Next, the investigators selected mechanical engineering major students from a national vocational high school who are currently taking the engineering drawing course. Because subjects of the study cannot be randomly sampled completely, the investigators adopted a nonequivalent control group design of quasi experimental design to carry out the empirical teaching experiment. During the teaching process, a pre-test was given to all subjects to obtain their prior knowledge and attitude related to engineering drawing prior to the experiment. Pre-Test: Before conducting the experimental teaching, both the control and the experimental groups were given a prior knowledge test, a learning attitude pre-test, learning difficulty diagnostic pre-test and problem-solving ability pre-test to evaluate students’ prior knowledge, learning attitudes, learning difficulties, and problem-solving ability related to engineering drawing before the experiment. Subjects The research subjects are the 10th grade mechanic group major students from two classes of a national vocational high school (N=90). Because engineering drawing is a required course for mechanic group major vocational high school students, this population’s learning outcomes for this course should be highly representing. Because the school divided its students into several classes, the subjects were sampled using purposive sampling. The subjects of this study are vocational high school students who are taking the engineering drawing course for vocational high school students. In the experiment, one class of students was randomly selected to be the control group, while another class the experimental group. After assigning the group, the subjects were given a prior knowledge test, a learning attitude pre-test, a learning-difficulty diagnostic pre-test, and a problem-solving ability pre-test. After eight weeks (three hours per week) of treatment, the control and the experimental group students were given a post-test. Tests in the post-test were identical to those in the pre-test except the learning outcome scale (equivalent alternate-form), The obtained results were used, together with the e-Learning theory and the visual presentation theory, to discuss the effect of engineering drawing learning materials for vocational high school students. Experimental Teaching: The investigators randomly selected a class to be the control group and another class as the experimental group. For the control group, the static visual presentation e-Learning material for engineering drawing was used, while for the experimental group, the dynamic visual presentation e-Learning material for engineering drawing was used. Except the use of different presentation types of teaching materials, the course content and the instructor were the same for both groups. Post-Test: After the experimental teaching, a post-test was given to the subjects using the Learning Attitude Scale, Learning Difficulty Diagnostic Scale, Problem-solving Ability Scale, and Learning Outcome Scale in order to assess differences in learning outcomes and learning attitudes among students after the experimental teaching. Data Analysis The obtained data were first computer coded, and then those subjects without completing the test, giving consistent and apparent missing answers, or refusing to answer were eliminated. The rest was statistically analyzed using software SPSS 18.0. To consider type 1 and type 2 errors, α level was set to 0.05 to be significant. In the study, the investigators examined the data using descriptive statistics, independent t-test, and dependent t-test, analysis of covariance and hierarchical regression analysis. Learning Materials and Instruments The research tools used in this study include the Prior Knowledge Test, Learning Attitude Scale, Learning Difficulty Diagnostic Scale, Problem-solving Ability Test, Learning Outcome Scale, and dynamic and static visual presentation e-Learning material for engineering drawing. Each of the above-mentioned scale/test was first tested in a pilot test, and results from the pilot tests were analyzed by items analysis, factor analysis, and expert panel to explore the reliability, conceptual validity and content validity for understanding the appropriateness, feasibility, content validity, and reliability. In addition, e-Learning materials used in the experiment for mechanic group major vocational high school students were developed according to the ADDIE cycle (ADDIE stands for analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation these five stages). According to results from the interview regarding basic knowledge and skills for engineering drawing of vocational high school mechanic group major students, the investigators designed 4. RESEARCH FINDINGS Results obtained from the experiment were applied to statistical analysis and hypothesis testing. Descriptive Statistics After removing subjects who did not complete the whole experiment procedure, the number of valid subjects of the control group was 43 (47.8%), while the number of valid subjects of the experimental group was 47 (52.2%), making a total of 90 valid 70 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) subjects. In the control group, there were 25 males (58.1%) and 18 females (41%), while all subjects in the experimental group were males (N=47, 100%). see if they are significantly different. In this section, the investigators used MANCOVA to test whether there are significant differences between pre-experiment factors, including students’ prior learning attitudes and learning outcomes, and post-experiment factors, including learning attitudes and learning outcomes (as shown in Figure 1). The hypothesis testing procedure of MANCOVA is described in sequence. Paired-Samples T-Test To understand the treatment effect (pre-treatment vs. post-treatment) in the control and the experimental groups, the investigators used the dependent t-test to test differences in learning outcomes, learning attitudes, problem-solving ability and learning difficulties between before and after the experiment in each group (control and experimental groups). The experimental group and the control group only showed significant better post-test score than pre-test score in learning outcomes (t=8.365, p=.000<.05), as shown in Table 1. In other words, students’ learning outcomes have improved significantly after the experimental teaching. Covariance 1. Pre-learning outcomes 2. Pre-learning attitudes Figure 1: The research model Table 1: The result of paired-samples t-test analysis Scale Learning outcomes Learning difficulty Problem solving ability Learning attitude Treatment pre-test post-test pre-test post-test pre-test post-test pre-test post-test n 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 Mean 11.269 17.340 3.044 2.955 3.007 2.988 3.271 3.289 SD 3.747 5.725 .662 .557 .123 .115 .485 .371 t p 8.365*** .000 -1.049 .297 -1.087 .280 .325 .746 Table 3: The result of MANCOVA analysis Source df Constant 1 Between 1 1 Covariance *** p<.001 1 Independent-Samples T-Test Within Pre-test Post-test Scale Learning attitudes Problem-solving ability Learning difficulty Learning outcomes Learning attitudes Problem-solving ability Learning difficulty Learning outcomes Group Mean SD control experimental control experimental control experimental control experimental control experimental control experimental control experimental control experimental 3.168 3.365 3.002 3.013 2.961 3.120 10.993 11.520 3.259 3.316 2.980 2.995 2.897 3.008 20.207 14.718 .488 .468 .115 .132 .671 .652 4.060 3.461 .328 .409 .155 .060 .696 .389 4.846 5.221 86 SSCP matrix Post Post learning learning attitudes outcomes .773 -1.187 -1.187 1.823 .007 .077 .077 .903 .006 -1.945 -1.945 632.536 11.450 -39.509 -39.509 2237.857 F Wilk’s Λ .772 (p=.000) .936 (p=.059) .999 (p=.946) Post learning attitudes .045 (p=.833) 5.808 (p=.018) .050 (p=.824) Post learning outcomes 24.308*** (p=.000) .070 (p=.792) .035 (p=.853) *** p<.001 Table 2: The result of independent-samples t-test analysis Test Dependent Variables 1. Post-learning outcomes 2. Post-learning attitudes IndependentVariables 1. Control group 2. Experimental group t Wilk's Λ of multivariate for testing the parallel of regression lines of groups is 0.955 (p=.436 > .05). This finding indicates that the two groups have same regression line slope, and the control and the experimental groups are equally affected by the covariance. p -1.957 .053 -.410 .683 -1.140 .257 -.664 .508 -.723 .471 -.626 .533 -.939 .350 *** .000 5.155 When testing whether the common slope is equal to zero, the Wilk's Λ values of whether the common slope of pre-test learning attitudes and post-test learning attitudes are zero are 0.936 (p=.059) and 0.999 (p=.946), respectively, and therefore, none of them are statistically significant. In other words, the common slope is significantly equals to zero. That is, the association between the control variable and the dependent variable is weak (See Table 3), and the effect of covariance on dependent variables in the statistical analysis can be neglected (low covariate effect on dependent variables). This indicates that there is no need to exclude the covariance when comparing the group means of dependent variables. If one would prefer to discuss differences of the group variable in multiple dependent variables, MANCOVA could still be used to test whether the group main effects are significantly different [33]. *** p<.001; Numbers of samples in control group is 43, Numbers of samples in experimental group is 47. Independent sample t-test results are summarized in Table 2, one can find statistical results for various scales/tests of the control group and the experimental group before and after the treatment. For the pre-test part, there are no any significant difference between the control group and the experimental group. For the post-test, the mean of the control group (M=20.207) is significant higher than that of the experimental group (M=14.718) in the learning outcome(t=5.155，p=.000). In other words, the control group has better learning outcomes than the experimental group. One can say therefore that compare to students using dynamic visual presentation learning material for engineering drawing, students using the static version can have better learning outcomes. The Wilk's Λ value for whether the group main effects are equal is 0.772 (p=.000<.05), indicating it is statistically significant. That is, the means of each independent variable would be significantly different after adjusting at least one dependent variable. It can be found from the F value (24.308, p=.000<.05) that the main source of difference comes from the post-test learning outcomes. That is, the means of the control and the experimental groups are significantly different after adjusting the dependent variable. MANCOVA Analysis The multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA) was used to eliminate influences from covariance in order to examine whether the treatment effect on dependent variables is significant [33]. The hypothesis testing in MANCOVA has three steps [34]. The first one is testing the parallel lines assumption. It is about testing whether the within-group regression lines are parallel with each other. The second step is testing if the common slope is equal to zero. The goal is to test the degree of association between the covariance and the dependent variables. The third step is testing if the group main effects are equal, which is the conventional covariance analysis. That is, after eliminating the covariance, group means are tested to Hierarchical Multiple Regression Analysis The learning model of the study for the learning outcomes is shown in Figure 2. The result of the 4-step hierarchical multiple regressions is shown in Table 4. In this study, gender is entered at Model 1, visual presentation type (VP) is added at Model 2, pre-test of learning attitude (PLA) and prior knowledge (PK) are added at Model 3, and the interaction between the pre-test of learning attitude and prior knowledge scores is added at Model 4. 71 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) Prior Knowledge (X) Static Visual Presentation e-Learning is More Effective than the Dynamic One on Students’ Learning Outcomes: The study shows that both static and dynamic visual presentation e-Learning materials can significantly improve students’ learning outcomes for engineering drawing. Nonetheless, the use of different visual presentation e-Learning material can lead to significant different learning outcomes in students. Specifically, the use of static visual presentation e-Learning material can lead to significant better than in those using the dynamic one. Learning Outcomes (Y) b2 bXZ b1 a1 Visual Presentation Type (Z) Figure 2: The learning model for the learning outcomes Although Chao and Fang demonstrated that animation not only facilitates teaching but also acts as a supplementary material for after class learning [35], Höffler and Leutner showed that the effect of animation for learning is not better than the effect of static figures [36]. That is, there is no guarantee that the use of simulating animation for information on changes can help students understand the critical information [37-38]. In addition, dynamic presentation may lead to passive information processing; preventing students from actively working on more in-depth comprehension and cognitive process [39]. Table 4: The result of hierarchical multiple regression analysis Variable Female Static VP PLA PK PLA*PK Model 1 B SE B 4.921*** 1.424 Constant 16.357 .637 F 11.946*** R2 .120 △F 11.946*** △R2 .120 β .346 Model 2 B SE B 1.841 4.719*** 1.556 1.246 14.718 .734 14.047*** .244 14.337*** .125 β .129 .414 B 1.859 4.721* -.031 .160 14.713 Model 3 SE B β 1.603 1.266 .563 .546 .131 .414 -.005 .028 .752 6.893*** .245 .047 .001 B 2.300 4.542* -.033 -.010 -.759 14.646 Model 4 SE B 1.634 1.269 .561 .560 .596 β .162 .398 -.006 -.002 -.126 .751 5.879*** .259 1.620 .014 *** p<.001; * p<.05 Furthermore, the dynamic display of dynamic visual presentation changes constantly, but there is only one message and that has to be remembered in a limited period of time. As a consequence, before students verifying the message, the message may be gone already. The message displayed in such a short period of time may suppress the cognitive function of students. Even though dynamic visual presentation can impress learners, it can also cause learners to receive message passively, suppressing their effort during the cognitive function for deeper understanding [39-40]. There are other studies that have pointed out that when students are watching animation with embedded questions, they would also experience more mental disturbance and often pay attention to trivial details [41]. Therefore, dynamic visual presentation learning may interfere with learning by requiring the learner to carry out some processing tasks. Therefore, the study showed that static visual presentation learning can lead to better learning outcomes than dynamic visual presentation learning, and this difference may be related to students’ message processing capacity and emotional factors. According to the hierarchical multiple regression analysis, the regression revealed that female contributed significantly to the regression model 1 (F=11.946, p=.001), and accounted for 12% of the variation in learning outcomes. Introducing the visual presentation type in model 2: static variable explained an additional 12.4% of variation in learning outcomes and this change in R² was significant (F= 14.337, p < .001). However, adding the pre-test of learning attitude and prior knowledge to the regression model 3 explained only an additional 0.1% of the variation in learning outcomes and this change in R² was not significant. In Model 4, adding the interaction between the pre-test of learning attitude and prior knowledge scores to the regression model explained an additional 1.4% of the variation in learning outcomes and this change in R² was not significant, either. When all independent variables were included in stage 4 of the regression model, only static visual presentation was a significant predictor of learning outcomes. 5. CONCLUSIONS AND DISCUSSION In addition, the study cannot carry out a complete random sampling, and therefore, it is the nonequivalent control group design of quasi experimental design that is used. The male and female ratio between the control and the experimental groups is not equal. In the control group, there are 25 males (58.1%) and 18 females (41.9%), but in the experimental group, there are males only. Cagiltay, Yildirim and Aksu pointed out that gender is a critical student control factor and moreover, gender can also affect the experiment results [42]. The objective of the study is to explore effects of e-Learning and visual presentation these two major learning theories on mechanic group major vocational high school students’ engineering drawing learning. The investigators tested the effect of using different visual presentation e-Learning materials for engineering drawing on students’ learning outcomes and learning attitudes. Significant Improvement from Using Different Visual Presentation e-Learning for Engineering Drawing: The study has found that before and after the experimental teaching, students from the control and the experimental groups showed no significant difference in learning attitudes, problem-solving ability, and diagnosed learning difficulties. Moreover, there is no significant difference in the prior knowledge between the control and the experimental groups, indicating that the two groups of students at starting are at a similar level. Nonetheless, after implementing different visual presentation e-Learning materials, these students showed significant improvement in engineering drawing. Therefore, the use of different visual presentation e-Learning materials can significantly improve subjects’ learning outcomes for engineering drawing. Compared to verbal-only presentation, visual presentation is better at helping learner comprehend information [29]. In addition, dynamic and static presentation each has its own strength and weakness for learning. Maximum learning effect can be obtained if these two can be integrated [5]. 6. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The authors would like to thank the National Science Council, Taiwan, R.O.C. for financially supporting this research under Contract NSC 99-2511-S-241-005-MY3. 7. REFERENCES [01] M. X. Luo, "Engineering Graphics Implementation and Reflection on Teaching Quality Assurance", in: Engineering Education and Management, Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2012, pp. 371-376. [02] M. Jou, J. Shiau, & H. 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Grzondziel, "Individual and Co-Operative Learning with Interactive Animated Pictures", European Journal of Psychology of Education, Vol. 14, No. 2, 1999, pp. 245-265. [41] R. K. Lowe, "Extracting Information from an Animation during Complex Visual Learning", European Journal of Psychology of Education, Vol. 14, No. 2, 1999, pp. 225-244. [42] N. E. Cagiltay, S. Yildirim, & M. Aksu, "Students' Preferences on Web-Based Instruction: Linear or Non-Linear", Journal of Educational Technology & Society, Vol. 9, No. 3, 2006, pp. 122-136. 73 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) The Impacts of Social Responsibility and Social Media on the Success of International Ventures Nittana TARNITTANAKORN School of Business Administration, Bangkok University Klong Luang, Pathum Thani, 12120 Thailand distribution networks and brand recognition country by country, a process that many times favored large firms over small ones. A well-developed website also can draw the consumers throughout the world without the need to establish a physical presence in each country, making it easier for small businesses to cut their costs, allowing them to better compete internationally against their larger rivals (Griffin and Pustay, 2005). Thus, business in the international context needs to pay close attention to the specific of the cross-border operations such as sales, services, finances and payments, and investments with other countries. In international business venturing, consider ethic and social responsibility as a corporate initiatives to assess and take responsibility for the company‟s effects on the environment and impact on social welfare (Koseska and Arnaudov, 2012). ABTRACT Social responsibility refers to a form of corporate self-regulation. The company becomes interested in the international environment when it engages in operations with other countries. The purpose of this paper is to explore a link between the role of the social responsibility and the success of international venture based in Thailand. This study applies a cross-sectional survey for data collection from 280 international ventures. The findings of this study illustrate that online social media and social responsibility factors including fair labor practices, and product safety significantly affect the success of international venture in Thailand. Keywords: Social Media, Social Responsibility, International Business, International Venture 1. INTRODUCTION Many leaders of the international business have come to realize the consequences of globalization for their companies, therefore defending a consensus regarding the fact that companies are liable towards the communities they serve and rely on (Revathy, 2012). In order to be able to respond to ethic and social responsibility challenges encountered in international business, managers or business owners must understand the increasing complexity of the global business environment and its ethic issues and to develop strategies for decision making and for forming and implementing corporate social responsibility policies (Holtbrugge and Dogl, 2012). Thus, the growing relevance of environmental and social issues in international business is motivation of the study for analyzing the impacts of social responsibility practices on the success of international ventures. In addition, the use of social media in business becomes a low cost and effective tool for company‟s communication strategy (Woodcock, N., Green, A., and Starkey, M., 2011). It highlights how companies communicate their social responsibility programs through their websites and other online social media. Companies reach their customers through several media efforts In recent years, the central role of business has extended from the traditional economic actor to being a political and social actor. Concerns about corporate responsibilities have consequently become an increasingly high profile issue in many countries and globalizing industries (Tulder and Kolk, 2010). Recent studies have also stressed that, in addition to economic assessments, the environmental and social impact from international operations should also be integrated more closely in to corporate strategic decision-making (Toppinen, 2011). The rising awareness of social consciousness and actions leading to commercial success has also inspired many researchers to study the linkage between social responsibility and financial performance of international firms (Koseska and Arnaudov, 2012). Today‟s small businesses are becoming more involved in international business as the growth of Internet communication technology such as ecommerce has opened up new opportunities for small business ventures. Previously, to enter foreign market, firms often needed to painstakingly build 74 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) like Facebook, LinkedIn, and Twitter. Personal interactions and real off-line relationships can be developed through several types of social media for companies in developing customer relationship and positive business image (Castillo, S.M., Illia, L., and Rodriguez, B., 2012). However, the focus of the present study is on international ventures in Thailand. The social responsibility dimensions used in the study such as environment, community development, labor practices, and product safety has drawn from the corporate social responsibility research conducted by Loureiro, Sardinha and Reijnders (2012). Furthermore, the use of social media can deliver financial benefits to companies no matter what sector is studied. The benefits are centered on increasing customer insight and engagement and are fundamental to driving business performance (Jeong, H.J. Paek, H., Lee, M. and Morrison, M., 2012). business globalization include power abuse within nations where institutions exert a reduced control, bribe and corruption, loss of work places, disrespecting the human rights, involvement in political affairs and influence abuse, pollution and negative effects upon the environment (Ciliberti, Pontrandolfo and Scozzi, 2008). International ventures are defined as entrepreneurs whose business activities involving cross border transactions of goods, services, and resources between two or more nations (Joshi, 2009). Transaction of economic resources include capital, skills, people etc. for international production of physical goods and services such as finance, banking, insurance, and construction (Griffin and Pustay, 2009). However, differences among national contexts create specific types of entrepreneurial opportunities. Entrepreneurial ventures across the world, thus, can evaluate and analyze international opportunities in their capacity as founders, investors, or partners of international ventures or established companies that are looking to grow internationally. In addition, international ventures must be knowledgeable about cultural, legal, political, and social differences among countries. They must coordinate the activities of their foreign subsidiaries, while dealing with the taxing and regulatory authorities of their home country and all the other countries in which they do business (Griffin and Pustay, 2005). 2. LITERATURE REVIEW Businesses are an integral part of the communities in which they operates (Qi, Feng and Jin, 2012). Long-term success is based on continued good relations with a wide range of individuals, group, and institutions (Ciliberti, Pontrandolfo and Scozzi, 2008). Moreover, customers expect goods and services to reflect socially and environmentally responsible business behavior at competitive prices. Shareholders are searching for enhanced financial performance that integrates social and environmental consideration (Revathy, 2012). In addition, people want to work for companies that are socially responsible and that create directions for them to be as well. Companies also realize that a healthy community is a great place to operate a business, to hire people, to locate a store, a great place for people to come and shop. The health of the community represents a platform for economic success (Loureiro, Sardinha, and Reijnders, 2012). The term „corporate social responsibility‟ originates with Bowen (1953). It is used to describe businesses‟ integration of social and environmental issues into decisions, goals, and operations. Other terms for social responsibility are corporate responsibility, sustainability, corporate citizenship, ethical business practices, social/environmental responsibility, triple bottom line, and environmental and social stewardship (Revathy, 2012). Corporate responsibility is actualized in the last decades of the 20th century with the internationalization and globalization. Big companies, spreading its business in many countries, fighting the competition, started to introduce „innovations‟ in the work, as follows: protection of the human environment, employees‟ health and safety, customers and community care etc (Ciliberti, Pontrando and Scozzi, 2008). Social responsibility can be defined as success in the business activities that is gained not only by adhering the laws and regulations, but by approach that accomplishes However, global companies exert a strong influence on society, with both benefits and negative effects (Griffin and Pustay, 2009). Social contributions of global corporations are connected to creation of new workplaces, the improvement of life standards in the host areas, the ease of access to modern technology offered by business or management expertise, the introduction of ethic practices within the competition and the creation of relations within the community based on social responsibility (Qi, Feng and Jin, 2012). The disadvantages induced by 75 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) balance between economic, ecological and social goals, on a way that is useful for the citizens, community and society (Koseska and Arnaudov, 2012). of previous research. Then, the pilot work was conducted through the use of self-administrative questionnaires in order to verify the meanings of the concept as well as to validate whether or not potential respondents would be able to understand and complete the questionnaires. It is clear that customer contact through informal social media networking and more formal companysponsored platforms, such as discussion forums, is an increasingly integral element in building brand communities and financial benefits. The previous study shows that corporate social responsibility leads to the intention to join the business brand page among consumers (Noble, C.H., Noble, S.M., and Adjei, M.T., 2012). Harnessed with social responsibility and customer relationship management, social media can create key drivers of online brand community success that encourage loyalty, purchases, and positive word of mouth (Noble, C.H., Noble, S.M., Adjei, M.T., 2012). The survey design employed in this study is a crosssectional survey in which data was collected at one point in time from the designated sample. The target population for the research was the founders or the owners of international ventures in Thailand. The sample selection was based on the criterion that the international ventures in this study were defined as international firms established for at least two years because it was not possible to gather enough data to consider the success of firms operation in a shorter period of time (Jeffcoate et al., 2012). 4. RESULTS Several academic studies have attempted to analyze the relationship between corporate social responsibility and profitability (Cochran, 2007). A recent meta-analysis suggests the cost of having a high level of corporate social responsibility is minimal and that firms may actually benefit from socially responsible actions (Wu, 2006). This findings is similar to results of earlier studies. The concept success is another factor that is considered in the current study as the expected outcome of the relationship between the social responsibility and international business venture. Success can be measured by hard or quantitative and by soft or qualitative criteria such as sales growth, income, employment trends, return on investment, and satisfaction of customers or business owners (Kim and Kim, 2009). While some research has used financial performance such as key indicators, the non-financial goals or indicators of the owners such as relative growth rate, business stability, customer satisfaction, returning rate of customer, and customer acceptance are utilized in this study because Thai entrepreneurs in general tend to keep low profile and refrain from disclosing information about their earnings (Tarnittanakorn, 2011). A total of 300 survey questionnaires were distributed to international entrepreneurs in Thailand. 20 responses were eliminated because they either were vague and lacked descriptive detail. This resulted in a final sample of 280 giving an overall response rate of 93 per cent. The response rate was high due to the fact that the questionnaires were collected right after the respondents completed the form. The demographic profiles of the respondents were composed of slightly more men (51%) than women (49%). The largest group of respondents was between the age of 40 and 49 years (54%). In terms of education, 54% of the sample had a bachelor‟s degree. 47% of them owned an import-export business. Reliability and Validity Analysis According to Table 1, the overall results of scale reliability analysis achieving alpha coefficient ranged from .757 to .888 for high reliability, a minimum alpha of 0.70 suffices for the study (Nunnally, 1978) and indicates that the summed scales have internal consistency and are reliable. Additionally, factor analyses assessing the six constructs in the study including environmental concerns, community development, labor practices, product safety, social media, and success were conducted. Principal component analysis with Varimax rotation was used in all cases. Table 1 also reports the results of factor analyses and a factor loading value of 0.50 and higher is regarded as good and significant and the eigenvalues greater 3. METHODOLOGY Theoretical literature from various sources was reviewed to design the research framework. In order to develop the questionnaire, initially, a survey questionnaire assessing the constructs in the current study was developed from published scales 76 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) than one is considered practically significant for the study (Hair et al., 1998). This indicated that the sets of measures in each construct represented the concepts well and, therefore, confirmed that the measures in the study achieved construct validity. Table 1: Summary Results of Reliability and Validity of Construct Reliability Validity Construct Mean S.D. Alpha’s Factor Eigen Value Coefficient Loading 1. Environmental concerns 3.68 .64 .821 2.61 .759-.841 2. Community development 3.59 .69 .832 2.66 .784-.850 3. Labor practices 3.41 .64 .757 2.31 .760-.802 4. Product safety 3.44 .63 .830 2.65 .767-.853 5. Social media 3.58 .68 .879 2.94 .839-.887 6. Success 3.57 .70 .888 2.99 .857-.876 highly collinear and will pose a problem in regression analysis (Kleinbaum, Kupper, and Muller, 1998). As shown in Table 2, all of the VIF values are well below 10, ranging from 1.502-2.189. Therefore, there is really no problem of multicollinearity. Hypothesis Testing Collinearity estimates were tested for multicollinearity before conducting multiple regression analysis. As a rule of thumb, if the variance inflation factor (VIF) for each independent variable exceeds 10, that variable is said to be Table 2: The Effect of Social Responsibility on Success b SE Beta t Sig. Tolerance (Constant) .202 .177 1.138 .256 1. Environmental concerns .053 .058 .050 .923 .357 .457 2. Community development -.016 .056 -.015 -.288 .773 .482 3. Labor practices .200 .054 .201 1.843 .046 .519 4. Product safety .551 .044 .564 12.534 .000 .666 5. Social media .262 .054 .243 4.828 .000 .532 2 2 R = 0.794, R = 0.630, p<0.05 Variable The correlations between the variables in the study were studied statistically by means of multiple regression analysis as depicted in Table 2. The results of hypothesis testing show that the social media and social responsibility dimensions of labor practices, and product safety were significantly related to the success of international venture in Thailand. However, the environmental concerns and community development did not have an impact on the success of international venture. Analysis of beta weights indicates that product safety (β=.564) is the best predictor for the success of international venture, followed by the use of social media (β=.243) and the labor practices (β = 0.201) respectively. VIF 2.189 2.076 2.126 1.502 1.880 factors of labor practices and product safety affect the success of international venture are supported and these factors reveal positive relationships with the success of international venture in Thailand. However, the social responsibility on the aspects of environmental concerns and community development was not supported. 5. CONCLUSIONS The study reveals that the use of social media and social responsibility dimensions including fair labor practices and product safety affect the success of international venture in Thailand. This reiterates the important role of social media and social responsibility in the context of international business. Nonetheless, it is possible to find mechanisms by which social media and social responsibility might enhance profitability by examine the impact of social media and social responsibility on various stakeholders. It is The overall results of social media and social responsibility practices affecting to the success of international venture are statistically significant with a p-value less than 0.05. Therefore, the hypotheses posit that the social media and social responsibility 77 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) important to understand this does not mean that firms which engage in social media and socially responsible activities will be more successful (Cochran, 2007). It is rare when few factors can explain any specific organization is successful or unsuccessful. Then, future comparative studies of the social media and social responsibility affecting the success of international venture on management practices and policies could be conducted to enhance the understanding of their impacts and also to increase the applicability of the findings. [10] [11] [12] 6. REFERENCES [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] B. Revathy, “Corporate Social Responsibility – An Implementation Guide for Business”, Far East Journal of Psychology and Business, Vol.6, No.2, 2012, pp. 15-31. C.H. Noble, S.M. Noble, M.T. Adjei, “Let Them Talk! Managing Primary and Extended Online Brand Communities for Success”, Business Horizons, Vol. 55, No.5, 2012, pp. 475-483. C. Nunnally, Psychometric Theory, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1978. D. Qi, C. Feng, M. Jin, “Research on the Social Responsibility of Corporations in China”, Asian Social Science, Vol.8, No.15, 2012, pp. 184-188. D.G. Kleinbaum, L.L. Kupper, K.E. Muller, Applied Regression Analysis and Other Multivariate Methods, Boston: PWS, 1998. D. Holtbrugge, C. Dogl, “How International Is Corporate Environment Responsibility?”, Journal of International Management, Vol.18, 2012, pp.180-195. E. Koseska, K. Arnaudov, “Business Ethics and Social Responsibility in Tourist Organizations in Terms of Changing Environment”, Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, Vol. 44, 2012, pp. 387397. F. Ciliberti, P. Pontrandolfo, B. Scozzi, “Investigating Corporate Social Responsibility in Supply Chains: A SME perspective”, Journal of Cleaner Production, Vol.16, 2008, pp.1579-1588. H.J. Jeong, H. Paek, M. Lee, M. Morrison, “The Effects of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) Campaigns on [13] [14] [15] [16] [17] [18] [19] [20] 78 Consumer Responses to Brands in Social Media. American Academy of Marketing & Customer Strategy Management, Vol. 18, No.1, 2012, pp.50-64. H.S. Kim, Y.G. Kim, “A CRM Performance Measurement Framework: Its Development Process and Application”, Industrial Marketing Management, Vol.38, 2009, pp. 477-489. J. Jeffcoate, C. Chappell, S. Feindt, “Best Practice in SME Adoption of E-commerce”, Benchmarking: An International Journal, Vol. 9, No.2, 2012, pp.122-132. N.L.A. Toppinen, “Corporate Responsibility and Sustainable Competitive Advantage in Forest-based Industry: Complementary or Conflicting Goals?”, Forest Policy and Economics, Vol.13, 2011, pp. 113-122. N. Tarnittanakorn, “An Analysis of the Relationship between CRM and the Success of Micro E-commerce Enterprises in Thailand”, Proceedings of the IABE-2011 Barcelona-Summer Conference, Barcelona, Spain, Vol.9, No.1, 2011, pp. 74-79. N. Woodcock, A Green, M. Starkey, “Social CRM as a Business Strategy”, Journal of Database Advertising Conference Proceedings, 2011, pp.135-136. P. L. Cochran, “The Evolution of Corporate Social Responsibility”, Business Horizons, Vol.7, 2007, pp. 449-454. R.M. Joshi, International Business, London: Oxford University Press, 2009. R.V. Tulder, A. Kolk, “International Business, Corporate Social Responsibility and Sustainable Development”, International Business Review, Vol. 19, 2010, pp.119-125. R.W. Griffin, M.W. Pustay, International Business, 4th ed., New Jersey: Pearson Education, 2005. S.M. Castillo, L. Illia, B. Rodriguez, “When CSR Clicks”, Communication World, Sep/Oct 2012, pp.32-35. S.M.C. Loureiro, I.M.D. Sardinha, L. Reijnders, “The Effect of Corporate Social Responsibility on Consumer Satisfaction and Perceived Value: The Case of the Automobile Industry Sector in Portugal”, Journal of Cleaner Production, Vol.37, 2012, pp.172178. Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) CULTURAL LENS: A CRITICAL VARIABLE IN THE MICROFOUNDATIONS OF STRATEGIC PROBLEM FORMULATION Heterogeneity is a cornerstone of this Strategic Management Journal (SMJ) publication. From their literature review, the authors underscore that competitive advantage results when strategic value is created from strategic challenges, and that typically heterogeneous, cross-functional, interdisciplinary teams grapple with such complex, ill-structured and dynamic problems. Theoretically, heterogeneity and group decision making trump homogeneity and individual problem solving. Yet, research has yielded mixed results. Importantly, Baer, Dirks and Nickerson [3] conclude that heterogeneity introduces only the potential for superior decision making and problem solving, not necessarily the realization of it. This conclusion provides the impetus for these authors to first determine the microfoundations of problem formulation, in anticipation of providing further insight into the heterogeneity impact, and second to develop a model which appropriately captures Problem Formulation: Inputs, Impediments, and Outcomes. Marta Szabo WHITE Department of Managerial Sciences, Georgia State University Atlanta, Georgia 30303, USA ABSTRACT Cybernetics originally centered on the study of control, communication, and information (See Figure 1 in the appendix), more recently morphing into a host of other disciplines under the informatics label, including robotics, artificial intelligence, bionics, nanotechnology, genetics, artificial life, cognitive science, neuroscience, to mention a few (See Figure 2 in the appendix). Cybernetics is particularly concerned with informatic disciplines and their implications for culture and humanity. It is from this concern that the relationship between culture and strategic problem formulation is examined. Inspired by a thought-provoking presentation on Critical Thinking by Professor Jackson Nickerson, one of the authors of the Strategic Management Journal (SMJ) article entitled Microfoundations of Strategic Problem Formulation [3], this paper builds on the innovative model presented in their article and argues further that culture is a critical component of heterogeneity, thus should be incorporated into the Problem Formulation Inputs. Baer, Dirks and Nickerson [3] develop a salient model anchored by heterogeneity, which they then separate into information sets, objectives and cognitive structures (See Figure 3 in the appendix). Although heterogeneity may implicitly include cultural differences, this paper suggests that culture should be explicitly included as an independent variable. First, Baer, Dirks and Nickerson [3] describe Heterogeneous Information Sets as advantageous in that collectively, teams represent several sets of information, which are able to capitalize on several pieces of the strategic problem, providing the opportunity to deliver a more comprehensive formulation of the problem. In reality, bounded rationality (assumptions of limited resources, e.g. memory, attention span, time, etc.) drives communication to the lowest common denominator, i.e. at the Keywords: Globalization, International Business, Culture, Strategic Management, Problem Formulation, Stakeholder Model, Decision-making LITERATURE REVIEW 79 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) lowest cost, therefore suboptimal decision making results from shared information at the expense of unshared information. This impediment to problem formulation is identified as a Narrow Sampling of information in the model created by Baer, Dirks and Nickerson [3]. stakeholders previously excluded from the CSI process, who are then asked to then consider any other symptoms and causes not included in the framing and formulation documents constructed by the first group. This paper, titled Cultural Lens: A Critical Variable in the Microfoundations of Strategic Problem Formulation is a cross-disciplinary work, bridging the strategic management literature with cybernetics. Considering the theme of this paper to be the Impact of Informatics and Cybernetics on Societies and Cultures, the blend of cognitive sciences with strategy formulation and culture is depicted in Figure 4, the culmination of the previous three figures (Please see appendix). Second, Heterogeneous Objectives represent the different goals that various stakeholders bring to problem formulation. While numerous interests may be represented, the impediment here is that problem formulation is dominated by those who have the most at stake; resources are distributed according to a political process, and solutions result that are premature. The authors identify these as Dominance and Jumping to Solutions Strategic Behavior in their model. LMR PROVENANCE Third, Heterogeneous Cognitive Structures promote multifaceted perspectives in addressing problem formulation. In reality, however, Representational Gaps emerge, which represent differences in understanding, knowledge capital and context lens when formulating the problem. The heterogeneity barriers to strategic problem formulation resulting from this category include unidentified assumptions, varying definitions and concepts; miscommunications resulting in conflict and distrust. From his forty-plus years of cross-cultural consulting, Richard Lewis authored When Cultures Collide [15] and The Cultural Imperative [16], in an effort to explain national, international and transnational business cultures. The 1980s had propelled an acute demand for cross-cultural instruction, and Richard Lewis, had been approached repeatedly by multi-national clients for a new and practical classification system. For years, cross-culturalists had grappled with the problem of understanding and codifying national characteristics. Richard Lewis proposed that cultures could be classified simply and more comprehensively according to the three categories, comprising the LMR framework [15] & [16]. The major contribution of the Baer, Dirks and Nickerson [3] seminal work is their inclusion of the Collaborative Structure Inquiry (CSI), a process which attempts to mitigate the impediments to complex, illstructured problems as identified in their model. According to these authors, CSI involves two phases. The framing phase identifies all possible symptoms associated with the initial inquiry, and the formulation phase focuses explicitly on the causes (alternative formulations) of one or more of the symptoms previously identified. The final stage includes all relevant Poignantly, he conceived of the LMR [Linear-active, Multi-active, and Reactive] framework [16], which gave birth to Cultureactive, a cross-cultural assessment tool. The strength of this model, as is its successor’s, InterCultural Edge [ICE], is that it transcends previous works by focusing on the individual, rather than the 80 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) nation-state as the unit of analysis. As such, the microfoundation of strategic problem formulation is underscored. The provenance of Cultureactive and ICE are chronicled in more detail in earlier papers. Structure category, thereby blending cognitive sciences with strategy formulation through culture. REFERENCES CULTURAL LENS [1] Adair, W. L., Buchan, N.R. & Chen, X.P. [Forthcoming]. Communication and Social Interaction Style across Cultures (CSIS): Conceptualization, Antecedents, and Organizational Consequences. While the explosion of the Internet has fueled learning in different time zones and ignited cross-border business transactions, culture itself remains the final barrier. The contribution of this paper is the proposition that the Heterogeneous Cognitive Structure classification proposed by Baer, Dirks and Nickerson [3], would benefit from including a cultural context lens at the micro level, such as the Linear-active, Multi-active, and Reactive (LMR) framework. This critical input variable would serve to mitigate the Representational Gaps discussed by these authors, or strategic myopia, and enrich their model in robustness through diversity. [2] Adair, W. L., Buchan, N.R. & Chen, X.P. [In press]. Bringing views of culture as communication and social interaction into management and marketing research. In C.Nakata (Ed.) Beyond Hofstede: Culture Frameworks for Global Marketing and Management. New York, NY: Macmillan Palgrave. [3] Baer, M., Dirks, K.T. & Nickerson, J.A. [2013]. Microfoundations of Strategic Problem Formulation. Strategic Management Journal, 34, 197-214. CONCLUSION Few things are as heterogeneous as cultural differences. Commensurate with exploring the microfoundations of strategic problem formulation, model robustness and richness may be elevated with the inclusion of cultural lens as an independent variable under the Heterogeneous Cognitive Structure component of the Baer, Dirks and Nickerson [3] paradigm. Capitalizing on the LMR framework would enable the implementation of a cultural lens while sustaining a micro-focus and corroborating the relationship between culture and strategic problem formulation. [4] Bearden, W.O., Money, B.R. & Nevins, J.I. [2003]. Development and validation of a measure of long term orientation, In Money, B.R. and Rose, R.L. [Eds.] Enhancing Knowledge Development in Marketing, 14, Chicago, IL: American Marketing Association. [5] Bond, M.H. [2002]. Reclaiming the Individual From Hofstede’s Ecological Analysis- A 20-Year Odyssey: Comment on Oyserman et al. [2002]. Psychological Bulletin, 128 [1], 73-77. [6] Brouthers, K.D. [2002]. Institutional, Cultural and Transaction Cost Influences on Entry Mode Choice and Performance. Journal of International Business Studies, 33(2), 203-221. This paper serves two purposes. First is to celebrate the work of Baer, Dirks and Nickerson [3] and their new paradigm of strategic problem formulation. Second is to build on their innovative model to include culture as an important component of cognition, i.e. the Heterogeneous Cognitive [7] Fulbright, W.J. [1989]. The Price of Empire. Pantheon Books. 81 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) Individualism and Collectivism: Evaluation of Theoretical Assumptions and MetaAnalyses. Psychological Bulletin, 128(1), 3-72. [8] Gómez-Mejía, L.R., Balkin, D.B. & Cardy, R.L. [2004]. Managing Human Resources. [4th Ed.]. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson Prentice Hall. [19] Ramsey, R.E. & Miller, D.J. [2003]. “Experiences between philosophy and communication: engaging the philosophical contributions of Calvin O. Schrag”. SUNY Press. p. 21. ISBN 9780791458754. http://books.google.com/books?id=Id7Norn oMI8C. Accessed March 2, 2012 [9] Gulliver. [2000]. Richard Lewis Communications. PricewaterhouseCoopers. [10]Hall, E.T. [1973]. The Silent Language. Garden City, New York: Anchor Press/Doubleday. [11] Hill, C.W.L. [2003]. International Business: Competing in the Global Marketplace. [4th Ed.] Boston: McGrawHill/Irwin. [20] Thomas, K.W. & Kilmann, R.H. [1974]. The Thomas-Kilmann Mode Instrument. New York: NY: Xicom. [12] Hofstede, G. [1980]. Culture's Consequences: International Differences in Work-related Values. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. [21] Tinsley, C. [1998]. Models of conflict resolution in Japanese, German, and American cultures. Journal of Applied Psychology, 83(2), 316-323. [13] Holtgraves, T. [1997]. Styles of language use: Individual and cultural variability in conversational indirectness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73(3), 624-637. [22] Triandis, H. C. [1972]. The Analysis of Subjective Culture. New York: Wiley. [23] Trompenaars, F. & Hampden-Turner, C. [1998]. Riding the Waves of Culture: Understanding Cultural Diversity in Global Business. [2nd Ed.] New York: McGraw-Hill. [14] Jackson, S.E. & Schuler, R.S. [2006]. Managing Human Resources Through Strategic Partnerships. Australia: Thomson/South-Western. [24] White, M.S. [2009]. Academic Globalization: Universality of Cross-cultural and Cross-disciplinary LMR Perspectives. Proceedings of the Second International Symposium on Academic Globalization: AG 2009, Orlando, Florida, 10-13 July, 2009. BEST PAPER AWARD [15] Lewis, R.D. [2000]. When Cultures Collide: Managing Successfully Across Cultures. London: Nicholas Brealey. [16] Lewis, R.D. [2003]. The Cultural Imperative: Global Trends in the 21st Century. Finland: Intercultural Press. [25] Yamagishi & Yamagishi [1994]. Trust and commitment in the United States and Japan. Motivation and Emotion, 18(2), 129-66. [17] Mello, J.A. [2006]. Strategic Human Resource Management. [2nd Ed.]. Australia: Thomson/South-Western. [18] Oyserman, D., Coon, H.M. & Kemmelmeier, M. [2002]. Rethinking 82 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) APPENDIX FIGURE 1: ORIGIN OF CYBERNETICS INFORMATION CYBERNETICS CONTROL COMMUNICATION FIGURE 2: EVOLUTION OF CYBERNETICS ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE ROBOTICS NANOTECHNOLOGY CYBERNETICS COGNITIVE SCIENCES NEUROSCIENCES GENETICS BIONICS 83 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) FIGURE 3: STRATEGIC PROBLEM FORMULATION INPUTS HETEROGENEOUS INFORMATION SETS STRATEGIC PROBLEM FORMULATION INPUTS HETEROGENEOUS COGNITIVE STRUCTURES HETEROGENEOUS OBJECTIVES Adapted from Baer, Dirks and Nickerson [3] FIGURE 4: CULTURAL LENS AND STRATEGIC PROBLEM FORMULATION LINEAR-ACTIVE HETEROGENEOUS COGNITIVE STRUCTURES MULTI-ACTIVE REACTIVE 84 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) Discreet Event Simulation Used within the Food and Drink Industry Duncan Folley School of Computing, Creative Technology and Engineering, Leeds Metropolitan University, Leeds, LS6 3GZ, UK And Dr Stephen Wilkinson, School of Computing, Creative Technology and Engineering, Leeds Metropolitan University, Leeds, LS6 3GZ, UK Professor Cathy Barnes, Faraday Centre for Retail Excellence, Leeds Metropolitan University, Leeds, LS6 3GZ, UK And Philip Richard Scott, School of Computing, Creative Technology and Engineering, Leeds Metropolitan University, Leeds, LS6 3GZ, UK And Quintan Thorton, School of Computing, Creative Technology and Engineering, Leeds Metropolitan University, Leeds, LS6 3GZ, UK ABSTRACT This research paper investigates the challenges facing the food and drinks industry in the UK and how Higher Education (HE) can play its part. It will explore two case studies carried out at Leeds Metropolitan University by two part-time postgraduate students who carried out their own research whilst working at their food and drink companies. Their research was to be used as evidence against a discreet event simulation module taught on the MSc Advanced Engineering Management course using FlexSim as their primary software tool. (In both case studies all references to their companies have been deliberately removed). 2. THE FARADAY CENTRE FOR RETAIL EXCELLENCE The Faraday Centre for Retail Excellence at Leeds Metropolitan University uses expertise from across the University to help businesses improve the consumer experience and to help them make a real difference in the economy. At its launch event (June 2012) the Director of the Faraday Centre for Retail Excellence, Professor Cathy Barnes [13], gave an inaugural lecture where she explored how rigorous and robust consumer research can be used as a platform to create and identify opportunities for retail innovation, stating: "Our Centre is unique in the way we look at the whole retail supply chain and work with companies to innovate the customer experience at both the point of sale and during use. There are so many exciting opportunities in the retail sector currently"(p.1). This paper will then look at the role of Higher Education and how links with industry have a twoway benefit, evidencing this through two case studies carried out at two food and drinks companies. Keywords: Discreet event simulation, Food and drink, simulation, Higher Education, authentic assignments. The Faraday Centre was born 14 years ago, and has been used by many global retail and consumer goods companies to enhance innovation. The centre now looks to extend a supporting arm to Yorkshire businesses within the retail supply chain, offering exclusive access to new ideas and technologies. 1. INTRODUCTION According to the Food and Drink Federation (FDF) [1] the UK’s food and non-alcoholic drink exports broke through the £10 billion mark in 2010, with an increase of 11.4% in 2011 to £12.1 billion and there are no signs of this growth declining. Jennie Formby [2] reports that the food and drink industry employs 400,000 people, which in turn is approx. 17% of the total manufacturing workforce in the UK. With this in mind the engineering provision within Leeds Metropolitan University has expended to include an MSc Advanced Engineering Management and will in 2014 introduce a BSc Food Engineering course which is specifically aimed at supporting the Food and Drinks Sector. This year two MSc Advanced Engineering Management students developed projects directly related to the food and drink industry. Although all references to their sponsoring company have been removed what the reader should note is the scope and opportunities HE can offer through highly qualified undergraduates and post graduates. Jim Moseley, FDF President in his video podcast “Skills and Talent in the food and drink industry” [3] voices his concern however that the food and drinks industry has an aging work force and there is not enough talented young work force coming through, he believes the industry will require in the next five years over 137,000 new recruits. According to the National Skills Academy [4] 27% of jobs in the future will require HE graduates and these will mainly be in the engineering/technology fields. 3. COMPUTER SIMULATION Many industries use simulation as a pre-planning tool, and many companies have reported the benefits of computer simulation, Purdom [6]. 85 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) It can be clearly seen that any technique which can model such a system before it is built would give the following advantages: available. The selection of an entity from a queue depends on its characteristics, such as the type of machine, once the entity has been selected its state is changed e.g. the machine is working. The activities each entity undergoes are considered to begin and end instantaneously and are known as "events" (Simul8Corporation 2011 [12]). Generally these types of simulation are controlled by a timing mechanism known as the "three phase" method e.g. ! Correct layout of elements in relation to one other ! Evaluation of different designs ! Comparing different operating policies ! Predicting performance ! Educating management & operatives ! Determining control strategy 1. Advance the clock to the soonest event. 2. Terminate any activities that are due to finish at that moment. 3. Initiate any activities which the conditions built into the model permit. 4. Repeat the process. This shows the above features may be explored without the need for building, disrupting the operation of, or destroying the real system, Carrie A S [7]. From this type of model a variety of performance measures can be considered such as machine utilization, WIP, throughput times, buffer queue performance data etc. Most systems are subject to random influences, such as the vagaries of human beings, Carrie [8], however since automated food manufacture is computer controlled, many of the random disturbances have been eliminated. This means that there can be greater confidence in the results of automated food production systems over conventional manufacturing methods. 3.3 Petri Net Models A Petri Net is a graphical system that uses circles to represent places and bars to represent transitions. Input and output relationships are represented by directed arcs between places and transitions. Diagrammatic tokens represent the state of a net at a given moment. Various modelling and simulation techniques are available for planning both layout and control strategy, they are Graphical Simulation, Discrete Event Simulation, Petri Net models and Mathematical models. Petri Nets are useful tools for modelling and analysis of discrete event dynamic systems. They are particularly valuable when state and control information are distributed throughout the system as is the case in FMS. 3.1 Graphical Simulation This is where the physical design and interaction between elements within a system can be visualised. This has the advantage of giving the system designer information to identify excesses and deficiencies within the system and to some extent predict how the system will perform, Dr Ugur Guve [9]. Examples of 3D design packages are Grasp and Workspace. They have all been developed to model robots, conveyors, automated guided vehicles (AGVS) etc. These features aid the development of workplace layout by manipulation of these entities. Other features include event processors which can link events together such as robots picking and placing objects on a conveyor being sensed, food processing equipment starting or stopping etc. These events can be saved along with their associated parameters e.g: starting time, duration of actions, delays, accelerations etc. In this manner complex interactions between components within automated food manufacture may be studied and evaluated. Grafcet is a Petri net based graphical tool intended to apply to all software control systems for industrial automation, it has proven a powerful tool for expressing control flow, Prof. J.-D. Decotignie [10]. Also it has helped towards modularisation of code, communication between parallel processes, and problems in control flow. 3.4 Mathematical Models These are the classical models developed from operational research linear methods. They have been developed to include computer applications, for example Hatano et al [11] have developed a rule base technique for online scheduling of an automated system which takes into account uncertain events i.e. failure of machines, repair time and processing time. 3.2 Discrete Event Simulation 4. CASE STUDIES In a discrete model the states of each entity within the system are modelled, for example whether a machine is working or waiting, also Dr Ugur Guve [9] whether a food product is waiting or being worked on. There are combined activities such as equipment-process-food product activities. In other states entities can be in a queue waiting for conditions to change, for example a food product waits for a machine to become According to the National Skills Academy [4] research has shown that one of the main inhibitors to improvement in productivity is the lack of qualified engineering' s that are industry specifically trained. They go on to highlight the growth of automation with the food and drink industry, noting that 67% of companies who supply the large food and drink industry plan to expand their use of 86 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) technology over the next two years. Jim Moseley, FDF President [1] notes that 20% of those employed in food manufacture are to degree level. Currently Universities & Colleges Admissions Service (UCAS) [5] shows 132 UK courses which are food related from nutrition, health, food science/technology, with just two courses for food manufacture. This highlights the need for more high quality HE provision to supply the food and drink industry. The following two case studies investigates two food and drink companies who have allowed their staff to progress onto a post graduate (PG) course at Leeds Metropolitan University (the identities of the companies have been deliberately removed). The case studies are based around one single module, Simulation and Modeling where they were required to investigate a production line using discreet event simulation techniques and software (FlexSim) within their own company. Figure 2 Data from FlexSim Modell for wrapping legwrapping cycle The data which has been obtained shown in Figure 1 and 2 of the states of the each of the machines shows that there is a lot of idle time on the secondary wrapping assets (in red). 4.1 CASE STUDY 1 If we look at the secondary wrapping machines, we can see that two are idle 39.8% of the time. Although a very small amount of this can be attributed to the starting up and part filling of the store, this will only account for no more than 0.5%. The rest of the idle time is due to the lack of product. The third wrapping machine is only fed by one primary wrapping machine, hence the idle time for this asset is a phenominal 69.9%. This case study looks at the package process of a very popular chocolate bar. The company is in a very fortunate position that it can sell as many of these bars as it can make, therefore any small reduction in production times effects company profit. The case study looks into a wrapping leg- wrapping cycle. The case study used the commercially available package FlexSim. The package is primarily a discreet event simulation software package capable of modeling complex processes and allowing the users to optimize those processes by running “what if scenarios” for real world systems. It is clear from this simulation that alternative setups need to be investigated to reduce idle time and as such increase production. After running several simulations with different layouts the following was deemed to offer the best results. Using the simulation package FlexSim a simulation was created to understand if it is possible to run the wrapping with less secondary wrapping assets. Figure 3 Proposed New Layout for wrapping leg- wrapping cycle Figure 1 FlexSim Modell for wrapping leg- wrapping cycle 87 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) 4.2 CASE STUDY 2 This case study investigated the manufacture of a household sauce production facility and more specifically the production and distribution of sauce within the plant. The plant consists of a specialist mixing vessel, with a purpose made emulsion head that under the correct conditions and with the correct ingredients batched into it will produce the sauce. At the time of the study the plant was over stretched and struggled at peak periods to produce sufficient sauce to meet the demands of the factories mixing department. The plant makes several different sauces with variations on ingredients altering variables such as thickness, ph and flavour. Figure 4 Data from Proposed New Layout for wrapping legwrapping cycle It has been assumed for some time by site managers that the best way to increase the sauce production on the site would be to invest in a second mixing vessel to increase the throughput to double its current output. This case study uses discreet event simulation to investigate if this is correct or if a better method could be found. From the cost analysis and the analysis of the simulations it is recommended that a second primary wrapping machine is purchased, the conveying system is altered so the primary wrapping machines can be group into threes and each group of three feed a secondary wrapping machine as shown in the proposed layout in Figure 3. In addition to adding another primary wrapping machine and removing one of the secondary wrapping machines a cost has been allocated to support the upgrade of the control and automation system that controls the conveyors to allow the addition of conveyors to feed the sixth primary wrapping machine to integrate seamlessly into the existing system. When the sauce is produced, an operator must first weigh out products that cannot be batched directly in to the mixer, these are added to feed tanks close by to the mixer, and is then added to the mix at the appropriate time in the process. Once these have been prepared, the operator follows a sequence of batching in oil, vinegar and oil and emulsifying with the pre-weighed ingredients from the wet and dry hoppers. To get a worst case scenario, using a software package known as MARA (Machine Analysis Reporting Application) it is possible to generate a report for the period of this research to see how efficient the primary wrapping machines were over the month, this was found to be an average of 62.47%. Quantity Additional 246524 Production Cost @ 5ppb perday £12326.2 The sequence is virtually the same for each of the sauces produced with variations on the quantities of each of the raw ingredients. On discharging the sauce from the mixer the product is pumped into a holding tank, from here it is pumped to a further holding tank before being pumped to the storage tank where it will be stored until required within the mixing department. Cost @ 5ppb peryear £4227886.6 When building the simulation models it was felt that there was no requirement to simulate each part of the mixing process because these are not variable, it always takes the same time to produce the sauce and these times cannot be modified so it was considered best to include the production of sauce in one stage and concentrate on areas that can be altered. The first simulation was of the original/current layout this was to enable comparisons to be made with further simulations to identify improvements. £7700 £2641100 Additional 154003 Production at 62. 47% Table 1 – Projected Costing’s Looking at the cost for adding a new primary wrapping machine £387,090 it can be seen that it would take nearly two months to start making a profit from the alterations. When comparing the plants performance to the simulation the plant produced on the most efficient day 26 batches, this is shown to coincide with the model proving that the times used within the model are realistic. Clearly this discreet event simulation will benefit both the company involved, but also the research student who has gained an invaluable insight into his company’s production process, identifying bottlenecks and offering solutions. 88 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) Graph showing the cost of labour per batch Cost per batch £6.00 Figure 5 FlexSim Simulation 1 £5.00 £4.00 £3.00 £2.00 £1.00 £0.00 Si mul ati on Si mul ati on Si mul ati on Si mul ati on Si mul ati on Si mul ati on 1 2 3 4 5 6 In total 6 different layouts where simulated the final one has the holding tanks removed which removed the bottleneck in production allowing both mixers to operate without any idle time. As well as installing discharge pumps that reduce the time to discharge by half. This is the maximum production that could be achieved with two mixers. Sim ulation Figure 7 Graph to show the cost of labor per batch Simulation 6’s configuration shows the highest possible throughput for the plant. It is possible to produce 74 batches each shift. This also shows the lowest cost in labor of simulations. Of the current production requirements this model is not required as there is not the demand for this amount of product. With payback at over ten years there is insufficient justification for the second mixer at this time however as wages increase and production requirements increase this maybe a more viable option in the future. This simulation could be run for the 11 hours that are available due to there being no tanks to pump out at the end of the shift. Figure 6 Flexsim Simulation 6 5. CONCLUSIONS According to comments by Jim Moseley, FDF President [1] there is clearly going to be a shortage of a skilled workforce unless UK HE develops world class undergraduate and postgraduate courses. However as discussed earlier, Universities & Colleges Admissions Service (UCAS) [5] show only two courses for food manufacture. When running the simulations the following data was recorded for analysis;Simulation Throughput pershift Simulation 1 Production hours available 10 Simulation 2 11 31 Simulation 3 11 37 Simulation 4 10 48 Simulation 5 11 62 Simulation 6 11 74 27 The benefits for industry can be seen in the two case studies, in fact Case Study One offers enormous potential for expanding the study across the all production, with potential massive savings. Typically a PG full time one year course will cost approximately £8,000, UCAS [5]. These two case studies were carried out by two part-time students who are sponsored by their employer. According to the Prospects [17] getting an employer to sponsor a student is a win-win situation. With the graduate gaining a qualification that will benefit their ability to carry out their job and the employer will benefit by having a more qualified, productive and motivated employee. Table 2 Production hours available and throughput per shift Alternative to PG studies are the Government lead Knowledge Transfer Partnerships (KTP) [14]. “A relationship formed between a company and an academic institution (' Knowledge Base' partner), which facilitates the transfer of knowledge, technology and skills to which the company partner currently has no access.” (p1). From the table above it can be seen that the throughput per shift ranges from 27 for simulation 1 to 74 for simulation 6. The production hours available are improved from 10 hours to 11 hours by removing the two holding tanks. The KTP is currently funded by fifteen UK government organizations and led by the UK’s Technology Strategy Board. According to the KTP (2013) [14] web site the benefits for businesses can be on average: - 89 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) [7] Carrie A S. (1986). “The role of simulation in FMS. Flexible manufacturing systems : methods and studies”. Publisher : elsevier science (North Holland). ! “An increase in annual profit of over £290k ! 8genuine new jobs created ! Investment in plant and machinery of over £220k ! Commercial benefits from application of IP~24%” (p1). [8] Carrie A. (1988). “Simulation of Manufacturing systems”. Publisher Wiley 1988. The Browne report in 2010 [15] was a land mark for HE in the UK. Lord Browne was asked in Nov 2009 to review the funding of UK HE and ensure that it is sustainable for the future. According to the web site “What’s so interesting about Lord Browne?” [16] the report has developing proposals that would make UK HE into a business. Therefore the UK HE sector needs to develop and embrace closer links with industry. Leeds Metropolitan University has therefore developed the Faraday Centre for Retail Excellence and its HUB where academics and industry can collaborate. [9] Dr Ugur Guve. (n.d.). “Modeling and Simulation Engineering Solutions”. On-line. http://www.academia.edu/1709194/Modelling_and_ Simulation_in_Engineering_Solutions. Accessed 11/3/2013. [10] Prof. J.-D. Decotignie. (2007). “GRAFCET and Petri Nets”. On-line. http://lamspeople.epfl.ch/decotignie/G7RdPgb.pdf. Accessed 11/3/2013. [11] Hatano et al. (1991). “Modelling and on-line scheduling of flexible manufacturing systems using stochastic Petri nets”. IEEE Transactions on Software Engineering IEEE Journal V17 n2. As the paper has shown the food and drinks industry is facing a short fall of highly qualified graduates. Link this with the need for UK HE to develop partnerships with industry, then the door is open for UK HE to develop UG PG courses, KTP that meets the needs of both industry and addresses the challenges the Browne (2010) government paper has set HE. [12] Simul8Corporation (2011). “What is Simulation Software?” On-line. http://www.simul8.com/products/what_is_simulatio n.htm. Accessed 11/3/2013 Clearly benefits for HE are that academics will develop their knowledge within their subject area on real world situations, thus developing up to date teaching material, publish high quality research papers, as well as bring in much needed external funding to their University. [13] Barnes, C. (2012). Faraday Centre for Retail Excellence launched at Leeds Metropolitan University. On-line. http://www.leedsmet.ac.uk/news/faraday-centre-forretail-excellence-launched-at-leeds-metropolitanuniversity01062012.htm?type=external. Accessed 11/3/2013. REFERENCES [14] Knowledge Transfer Partnership. (2013). FAQs. On-line. http://www.ktponline.org.uk/faqs/#funds Accessed 8/3/2013. [1] Food and Drink Federation (2011). “Delivering sustainable growth through exports”. On-line http://www.fdf.org.uk/corporate_pubs/Exports_broc hure_2012.pdf. Accessed 8/3/2013 [15] Browne, J.(2010). An independent review of higher education funding And student finance. Online. http://www.educationengland.org.uk/documents/pdf s/2010-browne-report.pdf. Accessed 8/3/2013. [2] Jennie Formby (2012). “Food Drink and Tobacco”. On-line http://www.unitetheunion.org/how-we-help/list-ofsectors/food-drink-and-tobacco/. Accessed 8/3/2013 [16] “What’s so interesting about Lord Browne?” (2010). On-line http://aboutlordbrowne.com/ Accessed 23/2/2012. [3] Jim Moseley (2012), “Skills and Talent in the food and drink industry” On-line http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qEaM9wUKlW4 &list=UUmmge8MoN-oQ0F3ZY7QCvtA. Accessed 8/3/2013 [17] Prospects (2012). Funding postgraduate study: Employer sponsorship. On-line. http://www.prospects.ac.uk/funding_postgraduate_s tudy_employer_sponsorship.htm. Accessed 23/2/2012. [4] The National Skills Academy. On-line http://foodanddrink.nsacademy.co.uk/. Accessed 11/3/2013 [5] UCAS. Search Results. On-line http://www.ucas.ac.uk/students/coursesearch/2013s earcheu/. Accessed 11/3/2013 [6] Purdom P (1983). “How Computer Simulation helped Citroen setup a new FMS”. Publisher : Production Engineer 1983, 62(5). 90 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) Natural Selection in Virtualization Environments: A Decade of Lessons from Academia Bruce Hartpence Information Sciences & Technologies, RIT Rochester, NY 14623 USA Daryl Johnson Computing Security, RIT Rochester, NY 14623 USA Sharon Mason Information Sciences & Technologies, RIT Rochester, NY 14623 USA 1. ABSTRACT Bill Stackpole Computing Security, RIT Rochester, NY 14623 USA A second alternative to provider-based cloud solutions is to design, host and run a local virtualized environment on a university campus for both local and remote access. Locally, departments may leverage desktop virtualization, a private cloud (large and small) or a combination of these two. Desktop virtualization is an economic aid and effective instructional tool. As such it is often the first step from traditional methods such as imaging. In our own migration to virtualization and cloud services, the first step was desktop virtual machines as documented in [1]. In short, we elected to deploy VMWare workstation on a majority of our desktops, along with a collection of virtual machines or VMs. But this format often does not go far enough toward meeting faculty and student needs. In addition, the desktop footprint is still an issue as a large number of physical machines may still be required. For example, the cost of populating a lab filled with machines for experimentation and the cost of filling a lab full of computers running virtual machines are similar, unless the number of desktops is actually reduced. The financial impact is that often the number of machines in a lab can be reduced though the RAM in the remaining machines is increased. This change, combined with reduced space, HVAC and power costs, benefits the academic unit. This concept comparing the physical and virtual lab scenarios has also been explored by [8]. Virtualization technologies are commonly used in industry to provide storage and server solutions. Several implementations exist, from desktop to public and private cloud-based virtualization. In light of the support and experience required, the question arises as to the validity of virtualized systems for educational purposes, in particular for networking, security and systems administration students. The faculty members at Rochester Institute of Technology (RIT) in the department of Networking, Security and Systems Administration (NSSA) have over 15 years experience in delivering the curriculum in a hands-on environment. The NSSA faculty members have also embraced the use of virtualization in delivering curricula. This paper outlines their experiences with five distinct virtualization systems by exploring the advantages and limitations of each as well as the future work that lies ahead. 2. INTRODUCTION Both virtualization and cloud computing continue to be adopted by industry for enterprise level solutions and access to applications and data. Educational institutions have turned to these solutions as the pressure to reduce costs competes with the expenses associated with maintaining competitive computing facilities. Academic programs with a need to provide departmental services to their students have also made use of these architectures. For computing and information based programs, the use of virtualization and provider cloud computing services for student access to instructor materials as well as storage of system images for research and analysis can be critical. However, the use of provider cloud services (such as Amazon EC2) requires customers to depend on remote services and a one-size-fits-all architecture. In the case of academia, faculty and students may not fit this mold as the faculty has limited administrative control and the students are constrained to the applications available. Local private clouds can be promising because of the increased virtual:physical ratio and the ability to access the system remotely. With a standard lab setting, a student sitting at a computer without virtual machines has a 1:1 ratio – one operating system per physical machine. By running more than one virtual machine on the same computer this ratio can increase to a value only limited by the physical resources on the machine. For example, labs in the department commonly run a 2-3:1 ratio as students run both server and client virtual machines on the same physical computer. A private cloud pushes beyond this, allowing many students to simultaneously connect to the system and each student running several virtual machines. Thus, data centers push this ratio to 10 or 20:1. Our local solution, when appropriate for classwork, was to run either ESXi nodes to facilitate this model or full clusters based on ESXi that also included storage. Two alternatives to using provider-based cloud services exist. The first, and the historical solution, has been the use of nonvirtualized systems in a campus lab environment. The traditional model of non-virtualized components includes removable hard drives, machine imaging and policies to control installation of software and changes to systems. This solution has the advantages of local control, but also the challenges of management, cost, and scalability. One goal of the NSSA labs was to provide as much control and access to the students as possible. While the traditional, non-virtualized model met the goal of student access, the high number of students (several hundred undergrads) made the collection and storage of removable hard drives difficult at best. The replacement costs of these hard drives and the modifications of the chassis were also barriers. Interestingly, though this option was discarded, five years later we returned to it on a small scale for forensics and malware coursework. But even with these benefits, a private cloud can be an expensive proposition unless off-the-shelf components are to be used. The first RIT private cloud was entitled the Remote Laboratory Emulation System (RLES) is described in [2]. This system predates the current use of ESXi. RLES implemented an off-the-shelf modular approach, utilizing low cost components. The original RLES was built using cast-off department machines and volunteer faculty labor. No components were purchased and faculty effort was included in the academic year workload. RLES better addressed the challenges associated with running a virtualized infrastructure for a smaller academic unit as well as the limitations of working with an outside solution beyond local control such as EC2. With the success of 91 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) RLES, RIT went to an institutional model at much greater cost and outside local control. The second iteration of RLES was built in collaboration with the university-level information technology services organization at a cost of approximately $140,000. These costs were shared between the two groups with support from the university. This approach works reasonably well but is dangerously close to following in the steps on the public clouds as they move farther and farther from the academic unit. expansion and the corresponding increase in budget requirements. Management and storage solutions have transitioned from copying images via parallel ports, removable hard drives, returning applications to their original state and full system imaging to desktop virtualization and clusters. This history is documented in a previous paper [1]. RIT’s computer networking, security and information programs have grown substantially over the years to the current state of approximately 300 students. For some period of time, capital was readily available to make improvements and updates to the lab infrastructure that directly supports the curriculum. However, stabilizing growth along with increasing hardware costs associated with the continuously required technology updates and replacements have dictated a more efficient approach to managing lab infrastructure. The advent of virtualization technologies was timely in that the faculty had to develop this more efficient approach. The NSSA faculty have explored the use of both public and private virtualization to support student research, course and lab work. Labs at RIT currently support five implementations of virtual computing: This paper will review these approaches to providing an academic virtualization environment and the solutions implemented by the networking and security faculty at RIT. The discussion will include lessons learned and solutions currently deployed. 3. YET ANOTHER COMPUTING RESOURCE? Universities continuously work to demonstrate a commitment to providing outstanding computing resources for students. Usually this discussion revolves around wireless coverage, connectivity, email, printing and other such services. Virtualization is another service, and although it is largely transparent to the users, it requires significant effort and resources from academic departments wishing to remain current. For this reason, the decision to move into the virtualized space should be thoroughly considered as the expectations may far exceed the performance realities. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. virtualization on student-owned machines virtualization in a commercial public cloud desktop virtualization on lab machines a low-cost private cloud named Remote Laboratory Emulation System (RLES), virtualization on a low-cost private ESXi cluster. While the RLES cluster has migrated to the campus infrastructure group due to staffing and support economies, the remaining strategies are designed, developed and managed within the department. Another consideration revolving around the conversion to virtualization is that it may become a service within a service. Like other computing resources, the virtualized environment requires processing, storage, rack space, etc. Unlike other computing resources, virtualization leads to a massive increase in required storage capacity. In the case of the local virtualized solutions, the academic unit may be responsible for storing the student work, virtual machines, and required software. The question about handling all of this student data becomes an important consideration. To be clear, the question of student data is not regarding data about students but rather data from students. Data from students includes data resulting from laboratory experiments or configurations as well as research experiments. This may be text files as small as ten kilobytes to virtual machines exceeding a gigabyte. A reasonable question is whether or not academic departments should be in the business of managing and storing student work. This discussion extends back to removable hard drives and writeable CDs. There are positive and negative arguments to the overall discussion but the NSSA department, determined that it was important to provide this data storage service to students. There are many aspects to the discussion regarding virtualization strategy selections. Storage of student data should be an additional discussion point within the department. 4.1 Virtualization on Student-Owned Machines Virtualization on Student-Owned Machines Advantages: Faculty members are experimenting with allowing students to conduct all studies using virtualization on their personal, student-owned, operated and managed machines, utilizing approved licensing models. The licensing issue is significant because while a school may have a site license for a Microsoft product, it may not have a site license permitting uncontrolled proliferation of “free VMs” containing the software. While testing of this solution has been limited, initial results demonstrate that all of the benefits of a virtualized system can be realized with little to no hardware costs to the department. Students directly absorb all of the costs associated with purchasing and maintaining and upgrading the equipment and software. Students enjoy the flexibility of completing coursework from any location. Virtualization on Student-Owned Machines Limitations: While storing student data on student-owned machines merits further consideration, the lab experiments and associated electronic files required for coursework sometimes proves unmanageable. Between the size of virtual machines, software required for experiments, the need to access/use data for ongoing lab exercises, etc., the faculty determined that it would simply be easier and more reliable to store resources on the local servers. To be sure, this required increasing the skill and sophistication of faculty members and lab staff to maintain the system, but the 4. SOLUTIONS Initial Conditions: The Applied Networking and Systems Administration (ANSA) degree program at RIT began accepting students in 2002. Prior to that, the networking coursework was part of the Information Technology program. Since that time, significant growth has resulted in lab facility 92 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) faculty continues to believe that it is a valuable departmental resource. students must learn the intricacies of the system and work within the provider’s available customer support. 4.2 Commercial Public Cloud Several classes have experimented with using public cloud services such as Amazon’s EC2. Initially a program that lacks huge computing resources might find that low cost student accounts in a public cloud are very attractive simply because the system is managed by a reliable provider. A closer examination might reveal that these benefits do not necessarily outweigh the potential pitfalls. Several database classes from RITs Information Technology program were moved to Amazon to test the viability of running these classes in the cloud environment with the eventual goal of expanding the curriculum and maintaining currency. The details of that experiment can be found here [3]. 4.3 Lab Machine Desktop Virtualization On lab computers, a virtual environment is deployed (such as VMWare workstation) and students “stand up” a collection of virtualized computers on a single lab machine. This empowers the student by providing complete local control over the configuration of both the virtual machines and the virtual network. Lab Machine Desktop Virtualization Advantages: Virtualization on desktop machines was an important addition to the lab infrastructure for several reasons. Perhaps the most significant of all was the afore-mentioned ability to run several virtual machines in a single physical department-owned desktop lab machine. Each physical machine is capable of supporting a virtual network of up to four virtual machines (VMs). Our systems administration courses are able to configure and manage multiple servers and workstations to do coursework, research and analysis for the relatively low cost of additional RAM. For example, students commonly deploy Linux and Windows based DHCP and DNS servers along with a collection of clients for experimentation and research. Commercial Public Cloud Advantages: Currently cloud-based virtual computing provides a baseline free platform for limited experimentation and study. Additional services are available at nominal charges, typically $12 per student. Several options exist for supporting those nominal charges. First, the charges may be at the direct expense of the student through their own accounts at the service provider. Second, the department may bear the entire expense for each students cloud provided services. While these costs appear transparent to the students, they are indirectly absorbed through tuition charges. A third “hybrid” solution is to provide students with some cloud-based services to a given threshold. When service requirements exceed the threshold limitations, the students accept the additional charges. Amazon also provides an Education Grant Program to offset the costs. [7] Student lab benches that previously housed four separate physical desktop computers have been reduced to two or three physical machines. This has resulted in an immediate cost savings by reducing hardware purchases, daily support and repairs as well as power consumption. The unused machines were repurposed for other labs. Lab Machine Desktop Virtualization Limitations: Desktop virtualization is not without cost, both in terms of faculty time and finances. Faculty must learn to effectively and efficiently use the virtualized resources for their own research as well as for student research, course and lab work. Moving and copying virtual machines also requires additional domain knowledge. While the charges for utilizing the public cloud must be absorbed at some point, savings can be found in a reduction of: 1.) hardware repair for lab-based machines, 2.) hardware replacement costs, 3.) staffing requirements to support the hardware maintenance, 4.) staffing requirements to support lab facilities during class-time and during open student time, 5.) general lab space and maintenance requirements, and 6.) energy costs in the lab facilities. Additional benefits include potential 24-hour access to resources. Given a stable cloudbased environment, students will also realize the benefit of access from any location. This expands the possibilities for remote or distance education. On the fiscal side, virtualization requires more powerful computers equipped with more RAM. Costs associated with storage requirements also increase when deploying a virtualized environment if saving content for individual students. For example, when conducting experiments in a fully outfitted nonvirtualized lab environment, student work was deleted as the machines were re-imaged between lab sections. With virtualization, it became apparent that student work could be saved for later use. But, questions about storage locations and the associated costs arise. One solution is to hold students responsible for the storage. Another is to provide storage on departmental systems. The obvious costs associated include the hardware along with the personnel for management and maintenance. This leads to potential scalability issues as more coursework is moved to a virtual platform and as student enrollment increases. An unforeseen effect of our virtualization topologies was that we began to collect VMs. Every faculty member had a list of those that might be required for classes. In addition, many of the VMs included the same software. For example, at one point the department servers housed three Windows XP VMs, all of which contained the complete MS Commercial Public Cloud Limitations: If cloud usage costs increase substantially, costs associated with course experiments may once again become prohibitive. Service-levels of these free or fee-based public cloud environments must also be considered. If the cloud is not available, coursework and curriculum will be negatively impacted. Additionally, changes to the cloud-environment, initiated by the service provider, may potentially change the system in ways that are not predictable, rendering the system unusable to faculty and students. Either of these scenarios will leave the faculty with no control of their teaching environment. One of the most significant challenges to academic programs is not the pricing or reliability of the service, but the potential to update what and how things are taught [3]. The cloud service may not provide the same software leading to limitations to course content. In addition, 93 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) Office suite. Thus the number of VMs and the storage requirements became unmanageable. This increase in VM size also impacted the images that were being pushed out to the lab machines as part of regular setup and configuration. would not solve the problem, as the old hardware would likely be incompatible with any new hardware. The solution was either a replacement of all CPUs or forgoing the use of the new features until replacement of the older CPUs was feasible. Because RIT already had a substantial financial investment, a full-scale replacement was not possible. Another limitation to desktop-based virtualization systems is that students must physically be sitting in one of the campus labs to access their stored images. More and more students are looking to complete their coursework and research remotely. Tying them to a physical lab on campus restricts flexibility. Software licensing issues also arise as the distribution of desktop-based images is difficult to manage. Vendors, when informed that their software was to be used in a virtual environment often had to develop deployment models on the spot. Another restriction in the private cloud RLES system is that the users are limited to viewing only the machines under their control. This “privilege limitation” extends to faculty only having the capacity to view instances of virtual machines initiated by students in classes under their control. As such, neither students nor faculty can make informed decisions about how or when it would be best to deploy machines that might tax the system performance and, by extension, other users. Configuration implementations and intense experimentation are often causes of performance problems. These performance issues are compounded by the popularity of the system and the limitations of resources to scale up the local system to support the increased load. Advanced systems administration classes commonly see markedly reduced system response times as they build virtual data centers or run Nessus scans for penetration tests. 4.4 Low-Cost Private Cloud with Off-the-Shelf Components - RLES To mitigate some of the problems associated with the desktop virtualization, a Remote Laboratory Emulation System (RLES) was initiated in 2005 [2]. RLES was initially developed as a pilot aimed at providing a graduate lab experience for distance learning students. It evolved from remote access capability enabled on single user machines to a cluster of systems built specifically for this purpose. The initial system simply required a collection of computers, a small network and a location. Departmental machines were used along with faculty time during the regular academic year. Moving the system to the campus environment was a much more costly investment that required the department not only to spend tens of thousands of dollars for the campus upgrade, but also required the relinquishing of control. 4.5 RLES Moves to a University-Wide Public Cloud With the RLES pilot success, the next step was to address the performance issues. Expansion of the local system became prohibitive to our academic unit and a more robust production version of RLES was constructed and housed within the RIT data center, outside of the departmental management structure. RLES currently runs on hardware housed in the campus colocation facility. It provides remote access to virtual lab environments 24 hours a day, seven days per week. Accounts are deployed using the concept of leases that the system automatically releases resources should students forget to do so. Like the first generation RLES, the environment is used to teach both systems administration and security courses. As an example, users can deploy and watch malicious traffic in isolated virtual network spaces without fearing that traffic will inadvertently leak onto the campus network. The concept of providing virtual environments for security-related education is one that warrants further discussion. Other universities are also exploring this issue as outlined in [9]. Low-Cost Private ESX Cloud Advantages: Given all of the potential deployment models, opportunities for additional control and an incredible learning environment made the evolution of a locally controlled cloud similar to RLES very attractive, especially for advanced classes. The virtualization cluster also provides a secure and isolated environment where students can experiment with and experience security scenarios without disrupting departmental or campus resources. This is a tremendous advantage to a department that delivers security and forensics curriculum to students who may not have the expertise or maturity to distinguish between acceptable and unacceptable network and system use. This environment mitigates student, faculty and university risk while facilitating an open teaching, learning and research environment. Alternate, but less attractive solutions include isolating an entire lab to contain securityrelated experiments from “leaking” onto the campus network [4]. RLES allows for machines and networks to be pre-configured to include or exclude content to allow specific curricular needs to be met. Authentication to the system has been integrated with the campus course registration system. Students in courses using RLES are automatically added to the appropriate facultymanaged group(s). To encourage student experimentation, ten percent (10%) of the system’s computing capacity is made available to students registered in the computing college, regardless of whether or not they are in a class that uses the system. The remaining ninety percent (90%) is reserved for students registered for classes using the system. Low-Cost Private Cloud Limitations: The RLES system was implemented just before the public release of CPUs with “Virtualization Technologies” (VT-support) and with the thencurrent VMWare virtualization software. “VT-enabled” denotes a CPU with hardware extensions that specifically support software virtualization by providing VMs with direct access to hardware. As VMWare matured, configuration changes were necessary in order to enable new features. Without VT-support the systems could not utilize many new features such as live migration of virtual machines. Simply adding more CPUs University-Wide Public Cloud Advantages and Limitations: Moving the system outside of the department created an environment in which hundreds of VMs and several classes could run simultaneously. However, faculty no longer maintained local control of the system. Although the staff in the 94 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) data center made efforts to support individual customer needs, moving from the department owned and managed RLES system to the RIT university-wide private cloud resulted in the department becoming one of many customers. backbone routing and switching hardware. While this creates a bottleneck, the primary limiting factor is the lack of spindles. All the equipment as part of the cluster still proves to be adequate even given the limitations outlined here. This is true only because the cluster is solely utilized in a lab environment rather than a production environment. However, long-term usage and scalability of the cluster should be considered in regards to the limitations. 4.6 A Return to the Low-Cost Private ESX Cloud The limitations of the campus RLES and the faculty interest in virtualization led to a desire for the locally controlled virtualization environment. Thus, members of the faculty, along with two honors students, built a low-cost virtualization cluster based on ESX technology. VMWare products have been primarily used due to the low costs and the existing market share of the products. A recent poll at Vyatta indicates that, of the more than 5,000 respondents, 50% of the deployments use VMWare [6]. As educators, the faculty determined this to be an appropriate environment for preparing students. 5. DISCUSSION: ACTUAL USE Perhaps one of the more interesting details about these models is how they are actually implemented in the classrooms and labs. It is not uncommon for new technologies to enter the learning environment with the expectation of great success and innovation only to have them underutilized. The reasons are many and varied, ranging from a lack of training to an unwillingness to adopt new ideas. The same is true of the solutions outlined in this paper. Virtualized environments may provide cost savings, resources not previously available and economies of scale but often they are not deployed for the same reasons other technologies gather dust on the shelf. With the advent of faster and less expensive components, a cluster utilizing commercial-off-the- shelf (COTS) components was designed with a hardware budget of $15,000. The cluster was built with 12 nodes with hex core AMD processors, 16 GB memory, dual Gigabit Ethernet interfaces, and 20-80 GB system drives. A 13th node was configured as an iSCSI server to provide storage for the individual cluster nodes. The cluster allows for different environments to be studied. Students, faculty and collaborators can experiment with hands-on exercises in the varying environments. The cluster also supports performance testing as well as feature and functionality comparisons between the systems. This flexibility extends the value of the cluster by providing the capability to incorporate new virtualization technologies as they are released. For example, one of the great benefits of virtual machines is the ability to deploy servers (such as FTP) and recover from losses. However, in a lab setting, taking the time to run the virtualized environment and then the server can take longer or introduce more technical challenges than simply installing the server software for a short term set of experiments. In the case of public clouds offering externally managed resources, negative experiences may impact the adoption rate. At RIT, the use of the Amazon cloud is generally considered successful though there have been difficulties. In one instance, the service failed during practical examinations and the instructor was forced to fall back to desktop virtualization. Doubtless, many instructors are unlikely to depend on the service in exam situations. In fact, this indicates that a duplicate infrastructure was in place and that full adoption of the public cloud had not occurred. The cluster was designed to provide secure remote access to participating students from both on and off the RIT campus. Remote users of the system are not provided with direct access to the virtual system, but rather console access, therefore limiting the risk to systems outside of the virtualized environment, again providing a tremendous advantage to the department, the faculty and the students. Different environments can be studied, students can run experiments, and hands-on exercises with each of these environments can be performed. Such a system also allows for performance testing as well as feature and functionality comparisons between the systems. This flexibility allows straightforward incorporation of new virtualization technologies as they are released. Latency is another issue associated with the public cloud services. The private cloud deployed on the RIT campus is also plagued by latency. Over time it may be possible to predict system usage but currently the number of classes (and therefore the number of users) varies dramatically, even without considering varying enrollment numbers for individual courses. Thus the performance of the system is just as unreliable. While resources are allocated to the system, the university is also uncertain as to its efficacy and therefore the level of support required. The result is that instructors may not use the local cloud service depending on their perception of the usage for that quarter. Students and faculty alike have discovered that there is also a significant performance difference between accessing the system remotely versus on-campus. Low-Cost Private ESX Cloud Current Limitations: The cluster currently houses no offline storage to provide backup or disaster recovery. The only backup resides on a faculty-owned external USB drive stored in a faculty office. This is an obvious cause for concern should any of the nodes fail. Because the cluster was built with desktop components that are not intended for round-the-clock continuous uptime, the hardware is a vulnerability point. The nodes contain no additional cooling systems and no redundant power supplies. Considering power, heating, cooling and longevity, the cluster nodes are not nearly as robust as enterprise- class hardware. In the iSCSI file server, only four 1TB spindles were allocated. Storage is adequate for lab needs, but utilizing this minimum number of spindles creates a performance problem in achieving adequate throughput. The network is also limited by the 100 Mb There is a barrier of faculty and staff expertise. While it is difficult to argue with the benefits associated with virtualization, it is also difficult to convince faculty who may not be familiar with virtualization to convert their classes to the 95 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) new environment. Consider that a traditional lab setting with well understood methodologies and idiosyncrasies is to be replaced by an VMWare ESX cluster that must be remotely managed and contains an internal virtual switch connecting the VLANs housing the virtual machines. It is little wonder that a faculty member may balk at taking on the extra challenge. Systems administration staff members may also see an impact as they are faced with the unexpected responsibility of running the cluster. possible. In addition to the fiscal advantages and disadvantages, the faculty must seriously consider the educational experience for the students. While virtualization may prove a cost-effective means to delivering education and providing a research platform, questions about the educational experience arise. What curriculum is best experienced in a virtualized versus a traditional hands-on environment? How do we prepare our students for their post-academic careers that will be set in both a hands-on and virtualized environments? How is it to be supported? This paper’s scenarios provide guidance for these discussions. Department heads having a new line item added to the budget may have to be convinced that virtualization, no doubt an industry trend, is worthy of the expense. Thus, the deployment and subsequent use of virtualized technologies may not live up to the expectations or predictions of its proponents. However, if the discussion is limited to desktop virtualization without clusters or additional storage needs, it is our experience that virtualization offers cost savings over deploying traditional computer labs. At this point, the technological learning curve has a modest slope that can be managed by most faculty. 8. REFERENCES [1] Stackpole, B., “The Evolution of a Virtualized Laboratory Environment,” Proceedings of the 9th ACM SIGITE conference on Information technology education Pages 243248, ACM Press 2008. [2] Border, C., The Development and Deployment of a MultiUser, Remote Access Virtualization System for Networking, Security, and System Administration Classes, Proceedings of the 38th SIGCSE technical symposium on Computer Science 6. FUTURE WORK education, p 576-580, 2007. This paper considered the advantages and limitations of various virtualized learning environments. Scalability beyond the issues outlined in this paper will need to be considered. Other universities are demonstrating success with this issue [10]. However, the advent of these virtualized environments leads to additional opportunities to deliver curriculum to remote student groups as well as opportunities to partner with remote students on curricular and research experiences. In addition to scaling access to university students, the private, low-cost ESX cluster provides an opportunity to share resources with student groups at universities around the world. Team-based experiences may lend themselves particularly well this environment. Both local and remote teams have an opportunity to configure, test and analyze their own networks and systems in the virtualized cluster and then engage for security defense and forensics exercises. [3] Holden, E., et al, Databases in the Cloud: a Work in Progress, Proceedings of the 10th ACM conference on SIGinformation technology education, p 138-143, ACM Press 2009. [4] Armitage, W., et al, Remotely Accessible Sandboxed Environment with Application to a Laboratory Course in Networking, Proceedings of the 8th ACM SIGITE conference on Information technology education, 83-90, Destin, Florida, October 2007. [5] Hixon, E., Buckenmeyer, J., Revisiting Technology Integration in Schools: Implications for Professional Development, Computers in the Schools, Vol 26 Issue 2, pg. 130-146, 2009. [6] Viatta.org. Avail: http://www.vyatta.org/poll/hypervisor [Accessed 15 March 2013]. In addition, there is opportunity to use the virtualized environment as a teaching tool itself. While there is ample work being done in implementing systems and networks in virtualized environments, little work is being done with university students to learn about the architecture and underpinnings of the virtualization systems themselves. Students become high-level tool users and potentially suffer from lack of understanding of the nuts-and-bolts of the virtualized environment. Opportunities exist to work with students to develop a deeper understanding of the systems and therefore more effective and efficient use of those systems. [7] Amazon Education Grants. Available: https://aws.amazon.com/education/ [Accessed 15 March 2013]. [8] Stephen D. Burd, et al, Virtual Computing Laboratories: A Case Study with Comparisons to Physical Computing Laboratories, Journal of Information Technology Education, volume 8 (2009), pp. 55-78. [9] Kara Nance, Brian Hay, Ronald Dodge, Alex Seazzu, and Steve Burd, Virtual Laboratory Environments: Methodologies for Educating Cybersecurity Researchers, Methodological Innovations Online, volume 4:3 (2009), pp. 3-14. 7. CONCLUSION [10] Henry E. Schaffer, Samuel F. Averitt, Marc I. Hoit, Aaron Peeler, Eric D. Sills,Mladen A. Vouk: NCSU's Virtual Computing Lab: A Cloud Computing Solution. IEEE Computer Society Jul 01, 2009 Many options exist for virtualization, from desktop VMs to public or private-based clouds. The faculty must continue to examine each of the virtualization scenarios based on research, course and project needs. These requirements will dictate the best solution and a one-size-fits-all solution may not be 96 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) How can we get our students to think while we help their work too? Document based development László MENYHÁRT Department of Media & Educational Informatics, Eötvös Loránd University Budapest, 1117, Hungary and Dr. Gáborné PAP Department of Media & Educational Informatics, Eötvös Loránd University Budapest, 1117, Hungary high standard especially when creating specification, algorithms and good testcases. ABSTRACT The education of programming for the informatics students on the University must contain the whole process of the development. According to our experience, though, the majority of the students are only interested in creating an operative code which is based on the wording of the task. In this article we would like to present an intention that tries to solve this problem. We highlight the preparation of specification and algorithm as the main task from among the students’ tasks and provide help to the other steps. The essence of the assistance is an automatic code generation based on an algorithm; in addition, if the student fixes the main items of the documentation in a pre-prepared Excel workbook, the whole documentation will be generated except the usage of the program. There were attempts earlier to make the students understand that problem solving does not start with the coding but with thinking the task over. The emphasis was on the specification and there was a specification language defined with which the recognized algorithm pattern can be briefly described. The program was executed based on the specification with the help of an interpreter. In this way the coding step (and sometimes also creating the algorithm) was left out in this idea. [5] Our focus is the algorithm from which the code will be created. Of course the specification must be there because the data definition (input and output) and the whole documentation is based on this. Keywords: Education, Algorithm, Code generation, Template, Documents. 1. 2. PROGFUNDCPPWIZARD This is the new application kit which tries to help the students to create their home assignments and maybe it can be the key to their problem-solving. INTRODUCTION The aim of the introductory subject of teaching programming for Software Development and Teaching Informatics BSc programmes on the Eötvös Lorand Science University is not a programming language but the teaching of the methodology of the programming. This is meant as the whole process of the software development. The aim is the preparation of a functioning and well-documented program starting from the composition of task, through creating specification and algorithms, until coding and testing. [3], [4] First view The unpacked directory downloaded from [1] URL contains four types of files. Note that this article was translated to English but the application was created for our students in their native Hungarian language! That is why it is available in Hungarian only on the given URL. ProgFundCppWizard_v1.0.20121017: │ algorithm_HU_20121017.xls (2) │ generate.bat (3) │ template.doc (4) │ XLS2CppConverter.jar (3) │ _!_algorithm_of_problemsolving.txt (1) │ _!_Read_me.pdf (1) ├─lib (3) │ commons-beanutils-1.8.3.jar (3) │commons-beanutils-bean-collections-1.8.3.jar(3) │ commons-beanutils-core-1.8.3.jar (3) │ commons-collections-3.2.1.jar (3) │ commons-digester-2.1.jar (3) │ commons-io-2.4.jar (3) │ commons-jexl-2.1.1.jar (3) │ commons-logging-1.1.1.jar (3) │ dom4j-1.7-20060614.jar (3) │ jxls-core-1.0.jar (3) │ poi-3.8-20120326.jar (3) Though in the home assignments complete documentation is required and in this also the preparation of specification and algorithm, but its creation is very interesting. First of all the specifications are very deficient if they exists at all. It seems that the algorithms are somehow trying to do some reverse engineering from a functioning code. Sometimes the documentation is only a shallow revision of the template documentation and students leave in it some parts of the samples. This experience gave the idea of our article. The students take tests in the programming fundamentals subject and create home assignments about functioning programs and whole documentation. We thought that if we help the students’ work that they have to spend less time coding and the formatting, they will have more remaining time for thinking and doing work of 97 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) │ poi-ooxml-3.8-20120326.jar (3) │ poi-ooxml-schemas-3.8-20120326.jar (3) │ xmlbeans-2.4.0.jar (3) └───template (3) generated.h (3) main.cpp (3) PROJECTNAME.cbp (3) do not have to do extra work. The final step is the customization of the documentation because we cannot write the running information, screen shots and the final content update into the documentation automatically. The usage of this wizard is helped by a short introduction (_!_Read_me.pdf) and a short “sentence-like algorithm”, pseudo-code in a text file The information of each topic has to be defined on eight worksheets. A more detailed introduction of the Excel workbook The worksheet Basic contains the given information of the task, the environment, the creator and the documentation. (_!_algorithm_of_problemsolving.txt). First the Excel workbook must be opened which helps the analysis of the problem to be solved and the algorithm of the solution can be written into this, too. (algorithm_HU_20121017.xls) After this (when we finished the analysis and creating the algorithm and finally we closed the Excel) we can generate a C++ code from the algorithm. The generate.bat script must be called for generation with two parameters where the first parameter is the name of the Excel file, the second parameter is a path to where the Code::Blocks project will be created. The source codes in this folder can be modified on request, but it is also necessary to define the input data as constants or to implement the reading. A new algorithm.xls is generated in the new directory whose first sheet named Basic has a button with „Update Document” title. After clicking on this the first version of the documentation will be created based on the template.doc. This new documentation must be customized. We must not forget to allow the usage of the macros. Figure 1: Information on the Basic worksheet The title, a short identifier and the description of the task have to be given. The filenames will be generated from the short identifier so it is worth having it in lowercase and digits. After one month development, at this stage of the study the handling of the types and the expressions in the algorithm is rather limited and requires further development. So we do not regard these insufficiencies as mistakes but as necessary development steps. Any lists of further needs are welcome so that we can continue the development based on that. In this first step we test the support and the practicability of the idea. The environment is about the operating system and the development environment. The name, identifier and availability can be given about the creator. The identifier of the generated document can be stored for the documentation where it is worth again to keep to being lowercase and digits. More detailed steps of the usage The steps which must be done from the interpretation of the task to the documentation can be read in the _!_algorithm_of_problemsolving.txt file. The understanding of the task is helped by the following four worksheets which contain the four parts of the specification. The names of the input data and its types have to be defined on the sheet Input. It is made to initialize the variables and to define constants. We continue the whole problem solving and repeat its steps until we decide that its preparedness – the source code and the documentation – is satisfactory enough. The first step is the interpretation of the task, the specification. The second step is creating the algorithm. To this we give an Excel sheet to the students as help. Its detailed description is available in chapter 2.3. After the students have filled in the first six sheets out of the eight sheets, they must have a comprehensive view about the problem and its solution. Figure 2: Data on the worksheet Input The restricting information of the input data can be defined in the first column on the sheet PreCondition. It is not used by the generator which must be paid attention to at the customization of the code. However, this will get into the documentation. At this stage the student can decide whether he encodes the algorithm or he uses the helping generator. Its description can be read in chapter 2.4. After the coding or customization of the generated code the remaining two Excel sheets can be filled with the missing information. As the next step, this prepared template documentation can help to copy the information from the Excel sheet so that the students 98 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) Figure 3: Sample on worksheet PreCondition Figure 7: The worksheet Testing Variables and types of the output data can be defined on the sheet Output. Finally the possible developments can be written into the cells of the first column of the worksheet Improvement. Figure 4: The worksheet Output Figure 8: The worksheet Improvement Some cells in the first column of the sheet PostCondition store the statements about the output data which will be true after the execution of the algorithm. These are not used by the generator either so the algorithm must look after this information. The documentation will also contain these rows. Detailed information about the generator and the generated code Run the generate.bat to start the generator. It has two parameters. The first one is the name of the Excel file. The second one is the name of the basic folder where the Code::Blocks project will be generated. Figure 5: The worksheet PostCondition The generator is implemented in Java and it uses function libraries from Apache Group POI project [7]. These required libraries can be found in the lib folder. The name and the parameters of the generated function must be defined on the next worksheet Algorithm. The first line in Figure 6 shows how. One cell is for one parameter, its type and direction (input or output) does not need to be defined because the generator can decide this from the specification namely from the sheets Input and Output. We can mark them to ourselves which variables are inputs or outputs. For example with the following background colors green ([gri:n]) will be Input and blue ([blu:] will be oUtput. If needed, extra parameters can be defined in the same way as on the worksheet Input. The algorithm is the next. Tabulators i.e. the empty cells must be used because of the better legibility and the right generation. For example the usage of “end loop” is not needed because it is obvious from the empty cell whether the following command is on the loop or not. In this way closing the loop is made by the generator. The generator uses the filled Excel and pre-prepared Code::Blocks project in the template folder as input. It creates a new folder in the basic folder deriving from the second parameter. Its name will be composed from the short identifier from the second parameter and from a timestamp. So the generated source codes will be under version control. The short identifier will be the name of the project and the name of the Code::Block project file (cbp) too. The source code will also be generated. Figure 9 part 1: Generated codes (main.cpp) Figure 6: The worksheet Algorithm The user can write the results of the tests on the worksheet Testing. These rows will be part of the documentation also. 99 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) Students can learn from this and they can find the right position in the algorithm. During the generation the algorithm and the source code will be produced as a large text which can be written back to a hidden worksheet in the Excel from where it will be copied into the documentation. That is why the document generation must be started from the Excel in the versioned folder. The template of the documentation The template of the documentation is based on the sample documentation of the home assignments in the subject Programming Fundamentals. We introduced the % (per cent) mark to indicate the variables in the documentation. The information from the Excel will be copied in these positions in the documentation. Figure 9 part 2: Generated codes (generated.cpp) The declaration of variables and the function calls will be generated into the main.cpp. In addition we warn the students in comments not to forget to implement the reading input and writing output in case of necessity. If there is no input definition, the program will stop. Figure 10: The template of developer documentation We indicate to the students with red “Update it!” text what the automatic generation cannot be filled in. The generated.h file will contain the header of the function which implements the algorithm. The implementation of the algorithm will be generated into the generated.cpp file. It is in a separate file in case it is needed to be regenerated from a modified Excel. So copying generated.cpp file is enough and customization is not required again in the main.cpp. Comments in the generated source code will contain the algorithm, so when debugging, the algorithm can be read. The format is the same after copying so fortunately a wellreadable, formatted documentation is generated when we set the tabs, font family and font size in the lines of %ALG% (algorithm), %SOURCE% and %TEST%. 100 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) for defining the data because it makes the students’ work more difficult and they will not use this help and they follow the same low level method. A structogram or a pseudo code? We teach structogram to describe the algorithm in the Programming Fundamentals subject. The reason for using this tool during the education of programming mathematicians and informatics students is its simplicity and obviousness. And now we still ask for a pseudo code. But why? We use a pseudo code in teachers training and in the informatics education in secondary schools because it is closer to the native language, it is more easily understandable for the students than the structogram, but it is also obvious while keeping some rules. We think that using both algorithm defining methods should be known by the future experts. Here the most important thing is that thinking should be the first and coding should be the next. There should not be coding without designing. The tools of designing should be irrelevant. Figure 11: Formatting the algorithm and the source-code in the template It is also used at the test documentation. Figure 12: Formatting test information in the generated documentation On the other hand if somebody would like to generate only a source code from an algorithm, a structorizer application can be used. [5] A structogram should be defined in this application and we can choose which programming language and source code (e.g C or Pascal) would be generated. The aim of ProgFundCPPWizard is more than an automatic code generation. It is a key and help for coding and documentation. We must click on the „Update Document” button on the worksheet Basic in the versioned Excel to get the filled up, half-ready documentation from the template of the documentation. First – in case of unsuccessful generation – the configuration of Macros might be needed. To reach Word documentation from the Excel must be set in the VisualMacro also known as Microsoft Visual Basic for Applications. It can be set in the submenu References of Tools menu. Here the up-to-date version of the function library must be chosen for handling Word documents. We set Microsoft Word 12.0 Object Library which is compatible with the next versions and it does not require any other configuration. Could the automatic code generation have the effect that the students will not learn to write source codes? Certainly coding should not be forgotten about in education since the implemented algorithms can be tested and through this students see their own code working. So they can get a sense of achievement. That is why our assistance should not be offered at the beginning of the semester, but only when they have already made codes in several programs and home assignments. It is necessary to have classes during which students can practice coding, and midterm papers are also required not to overshadow it. Problems, limitations and development possibilities It might happen that a problem has one specification and more functions, for example Backtrack. Now it can be handled with three tables, three specifications and three algorithms. Namely it can be reduced to three other easier problems. But it is a development facility that a project could be generated from more Excel. Later, when students are able to make codes, we can show them the automatic code generation to enhance their recognition how important it is to create a good algorithm. Of course a code can be generated from an incorrect algorithm when they can see that the program does not work and maybe they will modify it. Since we lay emphasis on the harmony of the algorithm and the code, students must correct the algorithm. In this way they have a chance to check their algorithm as they can easily do it with another automatic code-generation. Moreover, we tried to show this bound by putting a line of algorithm into the comments of the code. Now the generator manages only simple types but not all of them. So this development must be carried out anyway because there are a lot of problems where we use resolving arrays. 3. QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS During our design and the implementation of this type of help a lot of questions came up in our mind, as well. We answer some of these here. 4. Why should I write the initiation of the documentation in Excel instead of Word? EXPERIENCE OF USAGE Before writing this paper we wanted to ask the students to evaluate our work. First we were interested those students’ opinions who have already finished the Programming Fundamentals subject. We created a list of queries via Google form which was available and answered on the URL [2]. Then we evaluated the answers. We did not expect the students to give their names so that their answers would be more objective. Practically, from the students’ point of view it does not matter, to which application the most important parts of the documentation will be written. But it is relevant to the generator. The parts of the documentation are separated with good structure on worksheets. There is a template that shows what information should be placed in each cell. From this, Excel can generate the source code and the documentation. Of course it must be an aim that there should not be too many restrictions 101 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) The questionnaire The questions were divided into two groups. First we asked about the past that is how the home assignments were created while completing the subject. Next we gave them the ProgFundCppWizard with a user manual to test it and we asked them about their impressions. Questions about the home assignments Programming Fundamentals subject 1. 2. 3. of 3. 4. the How many hours did you spend making the home assignment? What percentage of the time was used for making an algorithm A= , creating the code C= and writing the documentation D= ? If its sum is not 100, what did you do in the remaining time? What was the order of making the following parts: algorithm (A), coding (C) and documentation (D)? 5. 6. 7. Questions about testing the ProgFundCppWizard 8. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. What do you think about this idea? ( It is useless / It is good but the application is very labor-consuming / It is good / It is very good) Do you think that it helps improving the importance of making an algorithm? (No / Partly / Yes) Do you think that it helps making documentation? (No / Partly / Yes) Do you see a danger in it if this application is used by the students? (Free text) Is it confusing that the algorithm must be prepared first? (Yes / No) Would you have used this tool if you had had the chance to use it during completing the subject? (Yes / No) How do you feel, would you have saved any time with this tool when completing your home assignments? (The home assignment would not have been completed. / It would have caused delays./ No / Little / Much) What kind of mistakes did you find in the application? (Free text) What kind of improvements would you suggest? (Free text) Other observations: (Free text) 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. We are glad that the few respondents found our work useful and the message about the importance of the algorithm came through. We are confident that the ProgFundCppWizard application will be more interesting for the students who are learning the subject than for those who have completed it. 5. We sent our request to 2-300 students who have completed the Programming Fundamentals subject and we asked them to test and evaluate our education helper kit. Testing and filling the survey would have taken only 20-30 minutes. We gave about one and a half weeks for this. The reaction was typical of the students. We got only 13 valuable answers. 2. REFERENCES [1] http://xml.inf.elte.hu/ProgAlapCppVarazslo_v1.0.2012 1017.zip, 2012. [2] https://docs.google.com/spreadsheet/viewform?formke y=dGxHdldudWZDUElTTXNhdDlFWXpfc0E6MQ, 2012. [3] E.W. Dijkstra, A Discipline of Programming, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cli_s, 1973. [4] P. Szlávi, L. Zsakó, Módszeres programozás: Programozási bevezető, 18. Mikrológia, 2008. [5] http://structorizer.fisch.lu/ [6] Sz. Csepregi, A. Dezső, T. Gregorics, S. Sike, Automatic Implementation of Service Required by Components, Workshop on Property Verification for Software Components and Services ,PROVECS 2007, http://lina.atlanstic.net/provecs/2007/provecs2007proceedi ngs.pdf [7] http://poi.apache.org/ The evaluation of the questionnaire 1. time was spent on documentation (between 10 and 60%). They mentioned debugging, formatting documentation, looking for information as actions in the rest of the time. 25% of students confessed that they started the work with coding. Everybody left the documentation to the end. 15,4% of the responders did not see the sense of it, whereas the same number of them think it is very good. 30,8% think it is good, and according to 38,5% it is good but very labor consuming. Nobody said that importance of making algorithm is improved by this tool, but according to 61,54% of responders it is only partly. According to 7,7% creating documentation is not helped by this but the others are divided in 46,15%46,15% as it is help or partial help. Students mentioned the following: it is changing for better; harmless; they will think less; they will not learn coding; Excel table is not good for everything. Only 15,4% of responders said that creating the algorithm first is a difficulty. 69% of the responders would have used this aid. Regarding the question about saving time 15,4% of the students would have saved much time but the same number of them said they would have had delays. Others would have saved little time but everybody would have been ready. Errors were not indicated. As improvements a Graphical interface instead of Excel, fewer steps and the integration of a structogram were mentioned. This new application would be useful. The rest of the answers were about the subject in general. More specifically, students indicated it would be better if two separate subjects contained the education of making algorithms and coding. They completed the home assignment within 17,5 hours in average. There was somebody who spent 90 hours completing the task, but somebody spent only half an hour. 26,41% of their time was spent on the algorithm (between 5 and 60%), 40,56% of the time was spent coding (between 28 and 85%), and 32,65% of the 102 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) Providing Access to a Culturally Diverse Special Education Doctoral Program through Educational Technologies Patricia Peterson Educational Specialties Department Box 5774 Northern Arizona University Flagstaff, AZ 86011 United States 928-523-4005 Phone 928-523-1929 Fax patricia.peterson@nau.edu Abstract: The LEAD doctoral program funded by US Department of Education is a blended program of online distance education courses during the academic year and on-site courses during the summer to overcome traditional residence only doctoral program access barriers. Using technology of Web courses, video conference, Google Hangouts, and BBLearn Collaborate, the doctoral program is accessible to students in many locations rather than only in residence students. The special education focus is in Culturally Linguistically Diverse Exceptionaleducation (CLDE). Six LEAD doctoral students graduated in December 2012 and are now university faculty who teach and conduct research in the CLDE area. 30% of the university faculty position vacancies in special education go unfilled (Smith et al., 2001). In addition, Smith et al. (2001) report that since 1992, although the number of faculty vacancies has not changed, the pool of applicants to fill these vacancies is much smaller today. In special education, 255 doctorates are conferred annually, but over 50% (130) of these doctoral graduates do not become employed as faculty members or are only in faculty positions for a short time (Smith et al., 2001). Smith et al. (2001) found the severe lack of special education faculty has a direct impact on the ability of teachers to provide high quality services to students with disabilities. Culturally and Linguistically Diverse (CLD) Faculty Need By 2020, the number of culturally diverse children ages 6 – 16 will have increased to 20% Hispanic, 17% African American, 5% Asian, and 2% Native American (Futrell, Gomez, & Bedden, 2003). In contrast, Futrell et al. cite the percentage of culturally diverse university faculty as only 5%. Focusing on the need for more Hispanic and Native American faculty, the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) reports in 2001 that there were only 3.3% Hispanic and .7% Native American full-time instructional faculty and staff at U.S. colleges and universities. The Digest of Education Statistics (NCES, 2000) also reports a lack of doctorates conferred for CLD persons with only 3.2% of all doctoral degrees in 1998 for Hispanics and .5% for Native Americans. Clearly more CLD doctoral students and faculty are needed to increase the diversity in higher education compared with the growing numbers of diverse students in the school-age population. Related to the field of special education, comparatively few Hispanic and Native American students are receiving doctoral degrees. For example, in Spring 1998 Smith and Tyler (1998) Key Words: cultural diversity, special education, educational technologies, rural, doctoral program Shortage of Special Education Faculty A shortage of special education faculty in U.S. universities exists who are available to meet the demands of preparing special education teachers, implementing research which leads to improved practice, and developing 21st century policymakers and administrators (Dil, Geiger, Hoover, & Sindelar, 1993; Pierce, Smith, & Clark, 1992; Sindelar, Buck, Carpenter, & Watanabe, 1993; Smith, Pion, Tyler, Sindelar, & Rosenberg, 2001; Smith & Salzberg, 1994). The demand for faculty in special education in the United States is greater than the current supply of doctoral level persons available, and 103 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) report only 8 Hispanics received a doctorate in special education. Out of 1,015 students enrolled in special education doctoral programs, only 46 were of Hispanic background (Smith & Tyler, 1998). As of 2003, less than 20 Native Americans hold doctorates in special education (R. Gilmore, personal communication, January 20, 2003). It is important to increase the numbers of Hispanic and Native American faculty in special education so that they can effectively address diversity issues as well as provide mentorship to Hispanic and Native American future teachers who will in turn teach students with disabilities from Hispanic and Native American backgrounds (Dieker, Voltz & Epanchin, 2002; McSwain, 2002; Obiakor, 2001). Many potential Culturally and Linguistically Diverse (CLD) doctoral students in the Southwest live in rural and remote areas where there is no university doctoral program available. A barrier is the difficulty in giving up jobs and relocating into a full-time doctoral program at a reduced student stipend. Most students have family responsibilities which preclude their participation because of the relocation necessary to attend full-time programs combined with their ongoing financial obligations. The LEAD program provides a unique combination of online distance education courses during the academic year and on-site courses during the summer to overcome these traditional doctoral program barriers. Using technology in the form of Web courses, video conference, Google Hangouts, and BBLearn Collaborate, the doctoral program is now accessible to students in many locations rather than only in residence students. Rural Need The national shortage of special education teachers and general education teachers with training in special education is especially critical in rural areas (Westling & Whitten, 1996). Many individuals familiar with these types of classrooms (individuals from the community) lack the resources and accessibility to courses needed to obtain their special education teaching certificate. Izzo (1999) reported that 1/5 of all rural special education teachers will leave their jobs annually to pursue employment in larger districts and communities. Few teacher education programs focus on the preparation of teachers for rural and remote areas (Eigenberger, Sealander, Peterson, Shellady, & Prater, 2001; Helge, 1984; Helge, 1991; Heimbecker, Medina, Peterson, Redsteer, & Prater, 2002; Peterson, Medina, Gilmer, Prater, & Stemmler, 2002). According to Solop and Hagen (1999), while 42% of special education administrators felt recruitment/retention of special education teachers was a significant problem, rural school district administrators were more likely to cite this as the primary problem than were urban administrators. Over 60% of special education administrators indicated universities were not producing enough certified teachers to meet the demand for existing and new special education teaching positions. With predictions of even more serious teacher shortages in the next several years, there is critical need for additional special education teachers for CLDE students in rural areas (Medina, Peterson, Showalter, & Gilmore, 2003; USDE, 2002). In order to meet this need, more special education faculty must be trained in doctoral programs, so that they in turn can increase the supply of highly qualified rural special education teachers who can serve CLDE students in rural and remote areas. Technology and Distance Education : Challenges and Solutions Challenges: Many potential doctoral students cannot afford to give up their full time jobs and relocate to a university in a different area. In addition, many students are not comfortable and proficient in taking Web-based courses even if they were made available to them. Solutions: LEAD students can continue in their full time jobs while taking Web-based courses during the academic year. LEAD students take two Web-based courses each academic year semester and then come to the Flagstaff campus for four on-site courses in the summer. A WebCT tutorial was developed for the students and delivered the first day of web classes during the orientation meeting. During this orientation, all students also had the opportunity to meet with the head of distance learning for the Cline Library to discuss webbased research procedures, interlibrary loans, electronic data, and other subjects pertinent to their coursework and research topics. In addition, all students received the Endnotes computer software program as well as training on its use to facilitate their scholarship and research. Eight doctoral level web-based CLDE courses were developed, designed, and taught . All the students received a Technology Handbook as well as the in person tutorial training for the WebCT and BBLearn. In this way, the students could ask any questions to be sure they were comfortable working within the electronic medium and also have a guidebook to refer to as other questions came up. In addition, the Technology Facilitator is available 24/7 to assist students with any distance education and technology issues. During the summer, the Technology Facilitator delivers in-person seminars on topics such as Constructivism and Technology, Utilizing Web-based Resources, and Teaching Web-based Courses. Other technology approaches focused on new systems such as Elluminate, BBLearn Collaborate, and Leaders in Exceptional-education Addressing Diversity (LEAD) Training Program Description 104 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) Google Hangouts. These technologies provided ways to have Hybrid or Blended courses with the face to face component using a technology-assisted approach and the Web component using online BBLearn. Through Google Hangouts the courses could reach ten sites where the doctoral students could see the classroom, view speakers who were live or on video, and interact effectively with the faculty member and other students. The Hybrid courses became very popular, because they included the best of both worlds. They provided the feeling of a face to face class but the convenience of staying at the students’ rural sites and providing interaction throughout the course on the BBLearn Web portion also. [4] Futrell, M. H., Gomez, J., & Bedden, D. (2003). Teaching the children of a new America: The challenge of diversity. Phi Delta Kappan, 84 (5), 381–385. Outcomes As a result of utilizing technology to recruit students, deliver courses, communicate between research mentors, dissertation committees, and the rural doctoral students, all six LEAD doctoral students graduated in December 2012. Four of the six dissertations were qualitative and required more time and distance technology communication with the doctoral committees. All six of the graduates are employed in leadership positions in special education in January 2013. Three have full time positions as faculty at universities in special education. The other three students are part-time faculty in Spring 2013, but they are seeking full time faculty positions for Fall 2013 when the academic year begins. Utilizing a “technology assisted culturally responsive” approach to this doctoral program was the key to success of these doctoral students. They have a unique combination of expertise in special education, culturally linguistically diverse exceptional students, research methods, effective use of technology in education, and curriculum and instruction methods in higher education. However, without the utilization of a technology-assisted approach for their doctoral studies, they would not have had access to the doctoral degree. [7] Helge, D., (1991). Rural exceptional, at risk. Reston, VA: Council for Exceptional Children. [5] Heimbecker, C., Medina, C., Peterson, P., Redsteer, D., & Prater, G. (2002). Reaching American Indian special/elementary educators through a partnership with a Navajo Nation School District. Phi Delta Kappan, 23, 373-378. [6] Helge, D., (1984). The state of the art of rural special education. Exceptional Children, 4, 294-305. [8] McSwain, A., (2002). The effects of multicultural and bilingual training on preservice students’ selfreported level of competency. Multiple Voices, 5, (1) 54-65. [9] Medina, C., Peterson. P., Showalter, S., & Gilmore, R. (2003). Alternative pathways to teacher education: Building successful rural multicultural partnership programs. Journal of Innovations in Higher Education. 17, 33-34. [10] National Center for Educational Statistics (2000). The Digest of Education Statistics. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences. [11] National Center for Educational Statistics (2001). A Guide to Today’s Teacher Recruitment Challenges. Washington, D.C.: RNT, Inc. [12] Obiakor, F. E., (2001). Multicultural education: Powerful tool for preparing future general and special educators. Teacher Education and Special Education, 3, 241-255. References [1] L. Dieker, L., Voltz, D., & B. Epanchin, B., (2002). Report of the Wingspread Conference: Preparing teachers to work with diverse learners. Teacher Education and Special Education, 25 (1), 1-7. [13] Peterson, P., Medina, C., Gilmer, J., Prater, G., & Stemmler, K. (2002) Changing the face of teacher preparation: Developing rural exceptional-educators to address multicultural students. Journal of Borderwalking, 5, 53-64. [2] Dil, N., Geiger, W., Hoover, J.J., & Sindelar, P.T. (1993). Available special education faculty positions in higher education. Teacher Education and Special Education. 16, 230-239. [14] Pierce, T.B., Smith, D.D., & Clark, J. (1992). Special education leadership: Supply and demand revisited. Teacher Education and Special Education, 15, 175-182. [3] Eigenberger, M., Sealander K., Peterson, P., Shellady, S., & Prater, G. ( 2001) Challenges facing teacher educators in rural, remote and isolated areas: Using what we know and what we have learned. Rural Special Education Quarterly 20 (1/2), 13-21. [15] Sindelar, P.T., Buck, G.H., Carpenter, S., & Watanabe, A.K. (1993). Supply and demand of leadership personnel in Special Education: A follow-up study with analysis of failed searches. 105 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) Teacher Education and Special Education, 16, 240248. [16] Smith, D.D., & Salzberg, C. (1994). The shortage of special education faculty: Toward a better understanding. Teacher Education and Special Education, 17, 52-61. [17] Smith, D.D., Pion, G., Tyler, N. C., Sindelar, P.T., & Rosenberg, M.S. (2001). The shortage of special education faculty: Why it is happening, why it matters, and what we can do about it. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education Programs Division of Research to Practice. [18] Smith, D.D., & Tyler, N.C. (1998). The doctoral pipeline: It’s ebb and flow. OSEP Leadership Conference Monograph. [19] Solop, F.I., & Hagen, K. (1999). Special education personnel needs survey. Flagstaff, AZ: Northern Arizona University. [20] U.S. Department of Education (2002). Designated Teacher Shortage Area. Available http: http://www.ed.gov/offices/OPE/Students/repayment/ teachers/tsa.html [2002]. [21] Westling, D.L. & Whitten, T.M. (1996). Rural special education teachers' plans to continue or leave their teaching positions. Exceptional Children, 62 (4), 319-335. 106 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) A User-selectable Obscuration Framework to Censor Digital Videos for Children and Adolescents Jiayan GUO, David LEONG, Jonathan SIANG, and Vikram BAHL School of Infocomm, Republic Polytechnic, Singapore storyline of the film. Such harmful content is still accessible to the viewers. The children thus are exposed to a vast amount of inappropriate media content. ABSTRACT There is an increasing concern from parents, educators and policy-makers about the negative influence that digital media exerts on children and adolescents. Such concerns have fueled a growing need to effectively filter potentially harmful content. However, existing technologies have limited ability in allowing users to adjust the filtering levels, or generating seamless cutting results. To tackle this limitation, we propose a framework which empowers parents and teachers to censor movies and TV shows according to their level of acumen and discretion. Such framework helps parents and teachers protect children and adolescents against obscene content. In particular, our framework enables parents and teachers to sanitize movies and TV shows by skipping over specific objectionable scenes. Moreover, the framework can blur out the unsavory objects in the scenes, so that the integrity of the storyline can be preserved. Technically, it utilizes the non-rigid object tracking and video masking techniques to blur out the unwanted object. Instead of physically altering the original videos or making replicated copies, our framework keeps the original video unscathed by applying the censorship to the video during playback. We conducted evaluations on the challenging real-world video sequences. The experimental results demonstrated effectiveness of the proposed framework. According to the Singapore Censorship Review Committee 2010 report [2], parents are encouraged to take responsibility to protect their children against the negative aspects of media proliferation. In order to guide their children on digital media consumption, parents have to be empowered with effective tools to filter sex, violence and profanity out of the digital media. However, existing tools have limited capabilities to effectively block potentially harmful content. Presently, ClearPlay and MovieMask are the two forefront computer programs that cleanse movies containing offensive scenes. Their technologies are built onto stand-alone DVD players and other video devices. While both can mask objectionable content, their technical operations and capabilities are considerably different. Specifically, for ClearPlay, users have to download two components, including the software and a filter associated with a particular DVD movie. The filter can guide the DVD player to mute dialogues or skip scenes during playback of the corresponding movie. Such filter is predefined, and users cannot customize it according to their needs. In contrast, MovieMask allows users to personalize the blocking of harmful content. Technically, it first lets users select the edited scenes, and some graphics/ animations. It then censors the movie by overlaying the graphics/ animations onto the selected scenes. However, this technology affects the integrity of the original movie. The resultant censored movie would be jagged, and the scene-to-scene cuts are noticeable. Keywords: Video Censorship, Non-Rigid Object Tracking, Mean Shift, Scale and Orientation Adaptive, Video Masking. 1. INTRODUCTION Motivated by above observations, we propose a novel framework to facilitate parents and teachers to censor the movies and TV shows. The framework enables parents and teachers to select the obscuration according to their level of acumen and discretion. With our framework, parents and teachers can sanitize the movies and TV shows by skipping over specific scenes that contain nudity, sexual situations and excessive violence. Moreover, our framework can also be used to blur out the unsavory objects in the scenes, which is effective to preserve the continuity of the storyline. Take the painting scene in "Titanic"with Kate Winslet posing nude as an example, our framework allows users to pause the video in the current frame and select her body as the target area to be blurred out. It then automatically tracks the target area throughout the video based on the non-rigid object tracking technique. After the target area is located, our With the rapid development in information technology, children and adolescents have unprecedented access to digital media. Given the double-edged sword digital media has become, parents, teachers and policymakers have concerns about the negative impact that digital media exerts on children and adolescents. Many parents believe that digital media is a major contributor to young people’s violent or sexual behaviors [1]. This leads to a growing need for digital media content regulation and censorship. However, current censorship is mild and insufficient. It is only applied to a small number of films or TV shows that have explicit sensitive or offensive content. Over the last three years, out of 2,351 films classified, only nine films (0.4%) were censored. Many violence and sexual scenes are still allowed if they are relevant to the theme and This work was supported by grant MOE2011-TIF-1-G-019from the Ministry of Education, Singapore. 107 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) framework applies the video masking technique to blur out the target area in every frame it appears. Finally, the censored video is presented to user during playback. Different from existing sanitizing tools, such as CleanFlicks1 and Family Flix, our framework does not physically alter the original videos or make alteration copies. The censorship is only applied to the video during the video playback. That is, the original video remains untouched and thus does not violate any copyright issues. ask them to seek the objectionable scenes. The users can pause the video and select the unsavory object in the current frame as a target area (also known as Region of Interest). We then employ a non-rigid object tracking algorithm to find the target area throughout the video. Afterwards, a video masking technique is utilized to blur out that target area throughout the frames covered. Finally, we play back the censored video to the users. In this paper, we present the following three contributions: Firstly, our framework empowers parents and teachers to filter harmful content out of movies or TV shows based on their own standards and preferences. Secondly, the nonrigid object tracking and video masking techniques in our framework facilitate users to blur out the unsavory objects. In particular, the non-rigid object tracking technique outperforms the current state-of-the-art approaches. It has low computational complexity and is easy to be implemented. In addition, it is capable of handling large variety of objects with different color/ texture patterns, being robust to partial occlusions, significant clutter, target scale variations, rotation in depth, and changes in camera position. The video masking technique is employed to blur out the objectionable target area. It is not only effective in blocking unwanted gore and salacious content for young viewers, but it preserves the veracity of the entire film, leaving its artistic vision intact. Lastly, since our framework does not physically alter the original videos or make modification copies, it does not infringe on any copyright law. The rest of the paper is organized as follows. Section II provides a brief overview of our framework. The details of the non-rigid object tracking algorithm used in our framework is elaborated in Section III. In Section IV, the video masking is described in detailed. Section V provides a snapshot of our framework and reveals the experimental results. In addition, our non-rigid object tracking algorithm is compared against two popular tracking algorithms. We evaluate the experimental results we have obtained. Finally, we conclude this paper in Section VI. Fig. 1. Procedure of blurring unsavory objects in the scenes. In the next two sections, we will discuss the non-rigid object tracking algorithm and video masking technique. 3. NON-RIGID OBJECT TRACKING ALGORITHM Object tracking is a fundamental but challenging task in the field of computer vision. There are sources of uncertainty in tracking the real-world videos that render it a highly non-trivial task, such as complex scene clustering, partial/ full occlusions, non-rigid object deformation, and illumination change. A number of algorithms have been proposed to overcome these difficulties. Among various tracking algorithms, the mean shift algorithm is well-known due to its simplicity and efficacy. The mean shift algorithm was firstly developed by Fukunaga and Hostetler [3] for data analysis. It was later introduced into the field of image processing by Cheng [4]. Comaniciu et al. [5] had successfully applied the mean shift algorithm to object tracking. However, in the classical mean shift tracking algorithm [5], the estimation of target scale and orientation changes was not solved. Bradski [6] further modified the mean shift tracking algorithm and developed the Continuously Adaptive Mean Shift (CAMSHIFT) algorithm. The moment of the weight image determined by target model 2. OUR FRAM EW ORK Our framework aims to filter the potentially harmful content out of videos according to the preferences of parents and teachers. The filtering can either be skipping over the objectionable scenes, or blurring out the unsavory objects in the scenes. To skip over objectionable scenes, we first segment the videos into frames, and ask the users to seek some frames as the potentially objectionable scenes. The videos are then censored by removing the objectionable scenes, and shown to users during playback. Such skipping may affect the continuity of the video storyline. To enhance the censoring, we resort to the filtering strategy of blurring unsavory objects in the scenes. We illustrate the blurring strategy in Fig.1. The strategy consists of four steps. We first invite the users to watch the movie or TV shows, and 1 found to be illegal by a 2006District of Colorado court ruling. 108 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) +ˆ ( y ) , +[ pˆ ( y ), qˆ ] ! $ u !1 pˆ u ( y )qˆu is used to estimate the object scale and orientation. Although it is not robust, it could handle various types of object movements in real time. Many tracking methods were proposed to tackle the problem of target scale and orientation estimation. By exploring the relativity of the weight image and the Bhattacharyya coefficient between the target model and candidate model, Ning et al. [7] proposed a method to determine the scale and orientation of the target object. Zivkovic and Krose [8] employed the EM algorithm to estimate the position and the covariance matrix that can describe the shape. Collins [9] adopted scale space theory [10] to estimate the scale of the target. Unfortunately, it cannot handle the rotation changes of the target, and the computational cost is also very expensive. m candidate locations. The new target position ŷ1 is calculated to be a weighted sum of pixels contributing to the model. % yˆ 0 # xi 2 & $ i !1 xi wi g '' h (( ) *, (5) yˆ1 ! 2 % yˆ 0 # xi & nh $ i !1 wi g '' h (( ) * qˆu m . (6) wi ! $ u !1 " [b( xi ) # u ] pˆ u ( yˆ 0 ) where g ( x) ! # k -( x) is the negative derivative of the nh M ean shift tracking algorithm In object tracking, a target model is typically defined by an ellipsoidal region or a rectangle surrounding a region of interest in the image. Color histogram is widely employed to represent the target model because of its robustness to partial occlusions, invariance to scaling and rotation, and low computational cost. The pixel location of the target * model is denoted by {xi }i !1...n , which is centered at the origin point and have n pixels. The probability of the feature u (u=1,2,… ,m) in the target model is computed as n where kernel profile. Scale and orientation estimation For the target scale and orientation estimation, the moment of the weight image is used. The weight image is corresponding to wi . The mean location, scale and orientation are calculated as follows. Firstly, find the zeroth moment, first order moments, and second order moments for x and y M 00 ! $$ Ix ( , y) , (1) x k ( x) is a convex, monotonically decreasing " is the Kronecker delta function, and x b( xi* ) is the histogram bin associated with the pixel by C ! 1 $ i !1 x x candidate region which are centered around y in the current frame. Similarly, the probability of the feature u in the target candidate model is given by x y (9) y The second order central moments are determined by .20 ! M 20 M 00 # x 2 ;.11 ! M 11 M 00 # x y ; % y # xi & n pˆ u ( y ) ! Ch $ i !h1 k ' " [b( xi ) # u ] , (2) ( ' h ( ) * where h is the bandwidth and Ch is the normalization 2 2 y The mean location of the target candidate region is computed as (10) ( x , y ) ! ( M 10 M 00 , M 01 M 00 ) . Let {xi }i !1...nh be the normalized pixel locations in the % y # xi function Ch ! 1 $ i !1 k ' ' h ) y M 11 ! $$ xyIx ( , y ). 2 |x | |) . k (| nh x M 20 ! $$ x Ix ( , y );M 02 ! $$ y 2 Ix ( , y ); x The normalization constant C is represented * i y 2 * i . n (7) y ( , y );M 01 ! $$ yIx ( , y ) , (8) M 10 ! $$ xIx isotropic kernel, location (4) The mean shift algorithm finds the local maximum of the similarity function +ˆ ( y ) by iteratively sampling the In this paper, we present a scale and orientation adaptive mean shift based non-rigid object tracking algorithm. We employ the moment features and then estimate the scale and orientation of the target object. 2 |xi* | |) " [b( xi* ) # u ] , qˆu ! C $ i !1 k (| . 2 .(3) 02 ! M 02 M 00 # y . (11) Then the target scale and orientation can be obtained by decomposing the covariance matrix as follows / .20 .11 0 T 2. 3 ! U 1 S 1U , . 02 5 4 11 /612 0 0 / u11 u12 0 where U ! 2 and . S ! 2 3 23 4u21 u22 5 4 0 62 5 & . ( ( * To determine the similarity between the target model and the candidate model, the similarity function is defined as 109 (12) Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) T compared the proposed non-rigid object tracking algorithm with the classical mean shift algorithm with adaptive scale [5] and the EM-shift algorithm [8]. T The eigenvectors (u11 , u21 ) and (u21 , u22 ) represent the orientation of the two major axes of the ellipse target. The values 61 and 62 denote the estimated length and width of the ellipse target. In practice, these values are smaller than the length and width of the real target. The zeroth moment can be regarded as the real area of the target that is A0 ! M 00 . Therefore, the length l and width w can be computed as l ! 61 A0 (762 ) ! 61M 00 (762 ) , (13) w ! 62 A0 (761 ) ! 62 M 00 (761 ) . (14) Our proposed framework was implemented under the programming environment of MATLAB R2012a. In Fig.3, a snapshot of our framework graphical user interface is shown. 4. VIDEO M ASKING There are various types of visual masking techniques in censorship to obscure the objectionable images or videos from viewing. The most common ones are pixelization, censor bar and fogging (blurred out) techniques. Pixelization technique obscures an image by displaying part or all of it in a remarkably low resolution. Censor bar is a black rectangle or square box used to occlude a small area in the image. For example, censor bars are used to cover the eyes of the suspects at crime scenes. Fogging is to blur out an area for a picture or movie. One drawback of pixelization is that the original image can be easily reconstructed by exploiting more moving images in that video. Another disadvantage of pixelization is that it does not perfectly blend with the surroundings in an image. In contrast, fogging technique is irreversible, and it blends smoothly with the surroundings in an image. Therefore, fogging technique is preferable over most other forms of masking techniques. Fig. 3. Snapshot of the proposed framework. The below TABLE I shows the details of the video sequences. Three of them are sitcoms broadcasted from TV, while one is from reality television series. The first experiment is on a model runway show scene (see Fig. 4); the bikini model’s bottom with change in scale is to be tracked and blocked. First row are some frames from the original video sequence. Second row shows the tracking results. The initialized target region is selected by the user. The red ellipse represents the estimated target region. Third row shows the blurred out censored results after video masking is carried out. The proposed algorithm was also tested on Kissing scene 1 to 3;the kissing human faces with deformation, change in scale and orientation, change in illumination, partial and full occlusions and sudden camera zoom out were tracked and blocked (see Fig.5, Fig.6and Fig.7). In this paper, we use fogging (blurred out) technique to block the unsavory object. Fig.2 demonstrates our video masking technique. To generate the blurry effect, we convolute the tracking results obtained from Section III with a circular averaging filter. TABLE I. Fig. 2. Video masking tehnique. 5. EXPERIM ENTAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS In this section, we first present a snapshot of our framework. Then several real-world video sequences are used to evaluate the proposed framework. In addition, we 110 VIDEO SEQUENCES USED FOR PROPOSED FRAMEWORK EVALUATION Video Sequences Size Frame No. fps Model runway show 624×352 318 29 Kissing scene 1 1024×576 553 23 Kissing scene 2 1024×576 985 23 Kissing scene 3 1024×576 218 23 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) Fig. 7. Censoring kissing scene 3 sequence. First row:frames from original video sequence. Second row:tracking results. Last row:censored results. From left to right, frames 55, 61 and 72 are shown. Fig. 4. Censoring model runway show sequence. First row: frames from original video sequence. Second row: tracking results. Last row:censored results. From left to right, frames 167, 188and 209are shown. We compared the performance of our proposed algorithm with the adaptive scale Mean Shift tracking algorithm in [5] and the EM-shift algorithm in [8]. The visual description of tracking performance for the algorithms can be observed from Fig. 8to Fig. 11. Fig. 5. Censoring kissing scene 1 sequence. First row:frames from original video sequence. Second row:tracking results. Last row:censored results. From left to right, frames 260, 266 and 293 are shown. Fig. 8. Tracking model runway show sequence. First row:Scale Adaptive Mean Shift. Second row:EM-Shift. Last row:our proposed algorithm. From left to right, frames 171, 182 and 193 are shown. Fig. 6. Censoring kissing scene 2 sequence. First row:frames from original video sequence. Second row:tracking results. Last row:censored results. From left to right, frames 1, 82 and 96are shown. Fig. 9. Tracking kissing scene 1 sequence. First row: Scale Adaptive Mean Shift. Second row:EM-Shift. Last row:our proposed algorithm. From left to right, frames 261, 266and 296 are shown. 111 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) methods. From the comparison results, we can see the adaptive Mean Shift object tracking algorithm shows good performance in tracking the target object, however it cannot estimate the orientation of the target. The EM-shift algorithm fails to localize the object center accurately. And it wrongly estimates the scale and orientation of the target. In addition, the tracking area has the tendency to continue shrinking or enlarging. The experimental results show that our proposed algorithm has good performance in tracking the target object throughout the video sequence. It is robust to partial/ full occlusions, complex clutter background, object scale variations, rotation in depth, changes in camera position and illumination variations. Fig. 10. Tracking kissing scene 2 sequence. First row:Scale Adaptive Mean Shift. Second row:EM-Shift. Last row:our proposed algorithm. From left to right, frames 33, 75 and 161 are shown. 6. CONCLUSIONS In this paper, we propose a framework which empowers parents and teachers to censor movies and TV shows according to their level of acumen and discretion. In our framework, we developed an adaptive mean shift based non-rigid object tracking algorithm and video masking technique to blur out the unsavory objects on the scenes. The proposed framework is tested on challenging realworld video sequences. Experimental results demonstrated effectiveness and robustness of the proposed framework. Our algorithm has shown superior tracking performance when compared to the adaptive scale Mean Shift tracking algorithm and the well-known EM-shift algorithm. Fig. 11. Tracking kissing scene 3 sequence. First row:Scale Adaptive Mean Shift. Second row:EM-Shift. Last row:our proposed algorithm. From left to right, frames 61, 73 and 81 are shown. TABLE II. 7. REFERENCES [1] [2] THE MLE AND TAR VALUES BY THE COMPETING TRACKING METHODS. Scale Adaptive MS M LE TAR M LE TAR M LE TAR Model runway show 4.17 87.52% 13.43 48.29% 3.26 98.43% [4] Kissing scene 1 8.38 72.64% 7.03 78.35% 2.42 92.16% [5] Kissing scene 2 15.08 28.41% 8.20 53.36% 4.77 85.52% Kissing scene 3 2.94 89.13% 7.72 63.82% 2.61 94.11% M ethod EM -Shift [3] Our Proposed [6] [7] To evaluate the competing methods, TABLE II lists the mean localization errors (MLE) and the true area ratios (TAR) by the three methods on the four real video sequences. The TAR is defined as the ratio of the overlapped area between the tracking result and the human annotated ground truth to the area of human annotated ground truth. The MLE and TAR are closely related to scale and orientation estimation of the target being tracked. TABLE II shows that our proposed method achieves the best performance among the three tracking [8] [9] [10] 112 V. Rideout, “Parents, Children, and Media,” Menlo Park, CA The Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation, 2007. Singapore Censorship Review Committee 2010 report, http:/ /www.mda.gov.sg/ Public/Consultation/Documents/C RC_2010_Report.pdf. K. Fukunaga and L. Hostetler, “The Estimation of the Gradient of a Density Function, with Applications in Pattern Recognition,”in IEEE IT, vol. 21, no. 1, pp. 32-40, 1975. Y. Cheng, “Mean Shift, Mode Seeking, and Clustering,”in IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence, vol. 17, pp. 790-799, 1995. D. Comaniciu, V. Ramesh, and P. Meer, “Kernel-Based Object Tracking,” in IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence, vol. 25, no. 5, pp. 564577, May 2003. G. Bradski, “Computer vision face tracking for use in a perceptual user interface,”in Intel Technology Journal vol. 2, pp.1-15, 1998. J. Ning, L. Zhang, D. Zhang and C. Wu, “Scale and Orientation Adaptive Mean Shift Tracking,” in Computer Vision, IET, vol. 6, iss. 1, pp. 52-61, 2012. Z. Zivkovic and B. Krose, “An EM-like algorithm for color-histogram-based object tracking,” in IEEE Conf. Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, vol. 1, pp. 798803, 2004. R. T. Collins, “Mean-shift blob tracking through scale space,” in IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, pp. 234-240, 2003. T. Lindeberg, “Feature detection with automatic scale selection,” in International Journal of Computer Vision, vol.30, iss.2, pp. 77-116, 1998. Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) PERCEIVED USEFULNESS, PERCEIVED EASE OF USE, AND ATTITUDE RELATED TO E-MAIL USAGE TOWARD INTENTION TO USE E-MAIL SYSTEMS OF UNIVERSITY STUDENTS Penjira KANTHAWONGS. Ph.D Business Computer Department, School of Business Administration, Bangkok University Phahonyothin Rd., Pathum Thani 12120 Thailand e-Mail: penjira.k@bu.ac.th and Penjuree KANTHAWONGS Bachelor of Business Administration (English Program), Kasem Bundit University 1761 Phatthanakan Rd., Bangkok 10250 Thailand e-Mail: penjuree_ka@bba.kbu.ac.th, penjuree@hotmail.com ABSTRACT 1. INTRODUCTION E-mail is always significant means in communication for business and academic. Nowadays, it allows more flexible ways to communicate in terms of length, language, and structure used in e-mail systems. Students use e-mail to get help, make excuse, and make formal request with their teachers. The attitude related to e-mail usage and Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) are combined and extended in this study. This research attempts to investigate a power of prediction of perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, attitude related to e-mail usage toward intention to use of university students in Thailand. The author revealed only perceived ease of use significantly positively related to intention to use e-mail systems of the university. Nevertheless, the researcher did not find relationships between perceived usefulness and intention to use nor attitude related to e-mail usage and intention to use. Although a limitation of this research is the small sample size used, these preliminary results should give light to educators or university administrators to make a good use of e-mail for university students at its potential. E-mail has become an important method to communicate in business and academic worlds. In the past two decades, the existence of email as the primary medium of internal and external business communication has revolutionized the way in which individuals work and companies operate [1]. During the pre-Internet age or Globalisation 2.0, the external communication seemed to be “conducted via carefully crafted letters bearing a company’s letterhead” [2, 3]. Now, in the more flexible and fluid environment governed by Globalisation 3.0 professionals worldwide, the transacting business via e-mail messages seem to have length, language and structure as formal as those encountered in Business English textbooks and classrooms [2, 3]. The use of email has been widespread within higher education [4]. Advantages of e-mail as a communication channel are being asynchronous [5], textual [6], shared [7], traceable [8], instantaneous [9], and efficient [10]. Disadvantages of e-mail are being overload [11], information deficiency [12], and poorly targeted emails [13]. E-mail can be a means of creating and sustaining relationships among students and teachers. This method of communication mostly uses for “phatic communication, asking for help, making excuses, and making formal requests” in teaching or learning environment [14]. Evans conducted a research providing “pedagogically relevant information about the function of e-mail in internal and external communication, its intimate Keywords: Perceived Ease of Use, Perceived Usefulness, Attitude Related to E-Mail Usage, Intention to Use, Educational Technology 113 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) relationship with spoken communication, the importance of intertextuality in e-mail chains and the length, as well as language and structure of email messages” [15]. The researcher suggested the implementation of a simulation-based approach in which email communication was embedded in a series of interdependent activities that integrated speaking, listening, reading and writing [15]. E-mail also allows students to “explore different aspects of their personality that they may not feel as comfortable expressing in face-to-face situations” [16]. “It gives them a space to exchange their opinions on common interests and topics, thus creating a sense of community and a shared knowledge base” [16]. In Thailand, several researchers conducted research to compare writing competence of the students before and after study writing skill by analyzing the students’ homework sent through e-mails. The researchers found that the students’ writing competence developed moderately [17]. In the technical perspective, Sornsuwit development e-mail alerts with open-source software for Thai students [18]. Based on the technology acceptance model (TAM), scarce research has directly examined power relations between TAM and e-mail’s intention usage, therefore, this research attempts to explore such a power of prediction of perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, attitude related to e-mail usage toward intention to use of university students. their perceptions, which drive them to monitor and deal with incoming e-mails continuously [23]. Several researches can possibly apply TAM to e-mail usage. Cheng explored the roles of interaction and flow in explaining nurses’ e-learning acceptance. Based on TAM with the flow theory, this study presented three types of interaction factors, learner-system interaction, instructor-learner interaction, and learner-learner interaction to construct an extended TAM to explore nurses’ intention to use the e-learning systems. The results showed that flow had significant effects on perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use, and perceived ease of use had a significant effect on perceived usefulness. The effects of flow, perceived usefulness, and perceived ease of use on intention to use were significant [25]. Chong studied a two-staged SEM-neural network approach for understanding and predicting the determinants of m-commerce adoption and found that perceived usefulness had significant influence on consumers’ m-commerce adoption intentions [26]. Moreover, several researchers guided by TAM and reactance theory sought to study the determinants of college students’ adoption of mobile-based text alert short message service (SMS). The findings showed that the probability adoption the text alert SMS was not directly increased by perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness of the service, but was indirectly affected by the two antecedents through ones’ attitude toward the use of SMS [27]. Escobar-Rodriguez and Monge-Lozano attempted to understand the factors impacting the intention to use Moodle, which would allow them to determine which actions might be carried out to boost its use by University students in order to improve both their skills and grades. They found that perceived usefulness for professors, perceived compatibility with student tasks, and training did provide specific insight on the adoption of Moodle by business administration students [20]. Therefore, this study hypothesizes that perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, attitude related to e-mail’s usage impact intention to use e-mail for university students. 2. LITERATURE REVIEW A widely applied Information Systems (IS)’ theory of the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) suggested that an individual’s behavioral intention to use a system is explained by perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness [19]. Davis described perceived usefulness as “the degree to which a person believes that using a particular system would enhance his/her job performance” and perceived ease of use as “the degree to which a person believes that using a particular system would be free of physical and mental effort” [19, 20]. Then, the system use is directly determined by behavioral intention to use, which is in turn influenced by user’s attitude toward using the system [20, 21]. Attitude towards usage defines at “a person’s affective evaluation of the costs and benefits of using a new technology” [22]. Attitude related to e-mail usage can be explained by Hair and others that people are voluntarily and regularly switching to e-mail from other applications and checking it throughout their working day [23]. Gonza´lez and Mark argued that it was not only the activity of dealing with the interruptions, such as reading e-mail, but also the switching activity required a need to change mental context with every activity switch. They found that workers tended to spend an average of only 3 minutes working on any one activity before switching to another [24]. Then, in the case of e-mail’s usage, the evidence appears to suggest that this stress is self-imposed. Hence it would appear that the students’ behavior is caused by 3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND FINDINGS The target population was undergraduate students enrolling in an Introduction to Business course conducted with the use of several e-mail systems including a university’s messaging portal system and that university’s e-mail system provided to students in Thailand. An instructor at that university administered the course materials with face-to-face lectures along with e-mail systems’ usage. A survey questionnaire assessing the constructs in the current study was developed from published scales of previous research as stated in the literature review. All of the scales were measured on a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree. The survey was collected from 114 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) October to November 2012. A total of 160 self-administrated questionnaires were distributed to all students in the class and 100 usable surveys were returned giving an overall response rate of 62.5%. The small sample size of 100 usable surveys was used because this study is in the preliminary step of a larger sample size’s research. Nevertheless, at this stage, the response rate was more than 50%, mainly due to the fact that the questionnaires were collected right after the respondents completed the forms on the last week of the classes. The sample was females (61%) more than male (39%); the typical respondent was 19 years old; have 2-2.99 grade point average. In this study, the psychometric properties of the instrument were utilized for checking reliability and construct validity. The alpha coefficients of the reliability analysis ranged from .730 to .890 indicating that all of the scales were acceptable [28]. Construct validity was assessed by principal component analysis. The analysis produced four components. All results and multiple regression analysis are reported in the table below. total variance. The relative strength of their explanatory power; however, was different. Ease of use (β= 0.389) was significant predictor of user’s attitude towards usage with the e-mail systems. One group of researchers indicates that the multicollinearity problem becomes too serious when a VIF value is equal to or higher than four [29]. For this study, VIF values are acceptable for all items studied. Overall, the results indicated a statistically significant linear relationship between the constructs with a p-value less than 0.05. There was a positive association between the students’ attitude towards e-mail usage and perceived ease of use. Hence, a part of hypothesis (H) was supported. The regression analysis for identifying the relationships between independent and dependent variables were illustrated in figure below. Figure 1: conceptual model of students’ intention to use the e-mail systems P. Usefulness β = .168 β =.389** Table 1: Multiple Regression Results – Part 1 De. Var.: IntentionToUse (SumIue)(Mean = 2.92, S.D. = .56, C. A. = .74), r = .52, R2 = .27 Ind. HypoMe C. S.D. β Var. theses an Alpha P. Useful 3.78 .77 .79 .168 ness P. H Ease of 3.65 .68 .73 .389 use E-mail Attitud 3.48 .76 .89 .055 e P < 0.05, N = 100 P. Ease of Use Intention to Use E-mail β =.055 E-mail Attitude Note: Significant paths (p<.05) between constructs were reported with standardized beta weights. 4. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION E-mail becomes crucial part in communication for both business and academic worlds. Now, during the age of Globalization 3.0, professionals in business world are more flexible in terms of length, language, and structure used in their e-mail as compare to Globalization 2.0 when companies carefully crafted letters with companies’ letterhead. Disadvantages and advantages of e-mail were explored. In academic world, students use e-mail to get help, make excuse, and make formal request with their teachers. In Thailand, several researches conducted related to e-mail usage. The attitude toward intention to use e-mail and TAM models are combined and extended in this study. The researcher found that only perceived ease of use significantly positively related to intention to use e-mail systems of the university students. This result is similar to research by Cheng that perceived ease of use significantly influence intention to use [25] e-mail systems of the university students. Nevertheless, the result of this study is different from Chong that perceived usefulness had significant influence on consumers’ m-commence adoption intention [26]. Furthermore, this result is different from Escobar-Rodriguez and Monge-Lozano Table 1: Multiple Regression Results – Part 2 De. Var.: IntentionToUse (SumIue)(Mean = 2.92, S.D. = .56, C. A. = .74), r = .52, R2 = .27 Ind. Supp Sig. t VIF Var. ort P. Useful 1.554 .124 No 1.470 ness P. Ease of 3.648 .000** Yes 1.440 use E-mail Attitud .577 .566 No 1.156 e P < 0.05, N = 100 Only perceived ease of use was found to be significant determinant of user’s attitude towards usage of the e-mail systems provided by the university, explaining 27% of the 115 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) work. The researchers suggested that perceived usefulness for professors would likely to provide specific insight on the adoption of Moodle by business administration students [20]. While many software or simulations especially the ones from the Western countries seem hard to use [26, 27], e-mail systems appear to be easy to use for Thai university students. Moreover, the more new i-pad, i-phone, or blackberry are offered in the market, the better intention to use of many e-mail systems since most of these device are easy to operate. Universities’ instructors should be certain to train their students to be familiar with many e-mail software or hardware device to confirm that e-mail method is still considered to be the most advantageous means for communication in learning and teaching environment. Universities executives, instructors, software vendors should offer easy-to-use e-mail systems for the students. Nevertheless, there are several limitations to this research. First regardless of the significance of the relationships between factors in the regression model, the researcher cannot ignore the fact that this relationship may not apply to some universities. The e-mail systems may be limited to universities in rural areas. So, universities with limited Internet accesses may not be able to it. It should be noted that the model variables explained 27% of the variance on intention to use of the e-mail system, while the larger percentage on intention to use remain unexplained. 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Bagozzi, and P. R. Warshaw, “User acceptance of computer technology: A comparison of two theoretical models”, Management Science, vol. 35, no. 8, 1989, pp. 982-1003. [23] M. Hair, K. V. Renaud, and J. Ramsay, “The influence of self-esteem and locus of control on perceived email-related stress”, Computers in Human Behavior, vol. 23, no. 6, 2007, pp. 2791-2803. [24] V. M. Gonza¨lez, and G. Mark, “Constant, constant, multi-tasking craziness: managing multiple working spheres,” in the 2004 conference on Human factors in computing systems 2004, pp. 113–120. [25] Y. M. Cheng, “Exploring the roles of interaction and flow in explaining nurses' e-learning acceptance”, Nurse Education Today, vol. 33, no. 1, 2013, pp. 73-80. [26] A. Y.-L. Chong, “A two-staged SEM-neural network approach for understanding and predicting the determinants of m-commerce adoption”, Expert Systems with Applications, vol. 40, no. 4, 2013, pp. 1240-1247. [27] D. Lee, J. Y. Chung, and H. Kim, “Text me when it becomes dangerous: Exploring the determinants of college students adoption of mobile-based text alerts short message service”, Computers in Human Behavior, vol. 29, no. 3, 2013, pp. 563-569. [28] C. Nunnally, Psychometric Theory, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1978. [29] J. Miles, and M. Shevlin, Applying regression & correlation: A guide for students and researchers, London: Sage, 2001. 117 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) Applying the Technology Acceptance Model in a Study of the Factors Affecting Intention to Use Facebook in Education of the Thai University Students Penjuree KANTHAWONGS Bachelor of Business Administration (International Program) Kasem Bundit University 1761 Phatthanakan Rd., Bangkok 10250 Thailand e-Mail: penjuree_ka@bba.kbu.ac.th, penjuree@hotmail.com Penjira KANTHAWONGS. Ph.D Business Computer Department School of Business Administration, Bangkok University Phahonyothin Rd., Pathum Thani 12120 Thailand e-Mail: penjira.k@bu.ac.th Mr.Chaisak Chitcharoena Bachelor of Business Administration (International Program) Kasem Bundit University 1761 Phatthanakan Rd., Bangkok 10250 Thailand e-Mail: chaisak _ch@bba.kbu.ac.th, chaisak34@yahoo.com Keywords: Technology Acceptance Model, Facebook, Educational Technology, Thai, Intention to Use ABSTRACT Facebook becomes an important part in communication for both social and academic worlds. Teachers may be likely to adopt a technology like Facebook as a way to facilitate communication with students. Students are much more open to the possibility of using Facebook and similar technologies to support their classroom work while instructors are more likely to use “traditional” technologies such as email. The paper concluded that only perceived computer self-efficacy was found to be a significant determinant of users ‘s attitude towards usage of Facebook of university students in Thailand. Nevertheless, the researchers did not find relationships between perspective on Facebook in education, perceived usefulness, and perceived ease of use toward intention to use of the site. 1. INTRODUCTION Boyd and Ellison explain that social networking sites (SNS) are web-based services that people can create a public or semi-public profile within a bounded system, search for a list of other users with whom they share connection, and view their list of connections and those made by others within the system [25]. Furthermore, SNS would include profiles in which users may present themselves to get in exchange with other users. Profiles commonly include personal information like the user´s name, gender, hometown, group affiliations, interests, occupation, personal statements, favorite music, books or movies [26]. “Whether or not social networking sites (SNS) like Facebook is useful for education?” This 118 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) question should still be controversial. Although there are many SNSs such as myspace, Twitter, and Instagram, facebook is the most popular SNS in Thailand [27]. Moreover, the site is one of the latest examples of communications technologies that has been widelyadopted by students and potentially become a valuable resource to support their educational communications and collaborations with instructors. In the US, comparisons of instructor and student responses indicate that students are much more likely than instructors to use Facebook. Most interestingly, students are much more open to the possibility of using Facebook and similar technologies to support their classroom work while instructors are more likely to use “traditional” technologies such as email. Moreover, instructors tend to prohibit classroom uses of technologies that are frequently used by students especially the use of SNS like Facebook [1]. In Malaysia, Facebook (FB) is currently considered as the most popular platform for online social networking among university students. A survey of 300 undergraduate students at Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM), Penang was found that the students believed FB could be utilized as an online the findings on students' willingness to integrate technologies found that “… 54% (of institutions) reported that (teacher) candidates' lack of interest was not at all a barrier, and 41% reported it as a barrier to a minor extent” (p. 11). In sum, students are willing; faculty members are not. environment to facilitate the learning of English. However, teachers or language instructors had to integrate FB as an educational project with predetermined learning objectives and outcomes for the learning experience to be meaningful [2]. Although higher education institutions had a wellestablished trend toward non-adoption of new technologies, the movement toward hybrid and online instructions has altered this picture in recent years, since most institutions currently offer at least some online courses [3]. Many higher education faculty members remain laggards when it comes to adopting technology innovations. For example, a recent report [4] on educational technology use in teacher education programs by the National Center for Education Statistics in the US concluded that faculty member reluctance remains a major barrier to effective integration of technologies in teacher preparation. Some 73% said faculty members’ lack of interest was an impediment; about a quarter said it was a moderate to major issue. On the contrary, lesson already learned, 3) playing Facebook in classes, 4) an inability to hand in their assignments on time, and 5) failure to do as good work as expected [6]. Last but not least, based on the technology acceptance model (TAM), scarce research has directly examined power relations between TAM and Facebook’s intention usage, therefore, this research attempts to explore such a power of prediction of perspective on Facebook in education, perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, and perceived computer self-efficacy toward intention to use of university students. When it comes to the fastest-growing and most popular of the Internet-based technologies especially SNSs such as Facebook with young people, there are several reasons to believe this adoption trend among higher education faculty would be different from the past. One feature of SNSs such as Facebook is that they function primarily as communication tools and instructors may view them as akin to email, a technology in which most of them already use. A great deal of communication between students and teachers about courses already goes on via email. Teachers may be likely to adopt a technology if they perceive it as a way to facilitate communication with students. A second aspect is the social perspective. Teachers who see teaching as establishing a relationship with students may view “Facebook-like technologies as an efficient, even business-like way to accomplish that connection” [5]. Many teachers have their own Facebook pages and actively seek to link with their students. This modeling may help persuade teachers that SNSs of this kind are a practical solution to teachers' need to keep in close contact with students [5]. SNSs began in 1997 with the launch of SixDegrees.com. The site gave abilities for users to create profiles, listed their Friends and surfed the Friends list [7]. After that time, SNSs have hit the mainstream with a great impact. MySpace and Facebook have become very popular as Vincci Kwong (2007) says, “Both MySpace and Facebook are social networking websites that provide personalized and interactive services based on users' interest and activities on the web” (p.1) [5, 8]. Facebook is one of the most widely-accepted SNSs for college students and was by far the one website that helped “tip” SNSs into the mainstream culture. “MySpace launched in 2003 and built up an audience for the SNSs that followed” [5, 7, 8]. In Thailand, several researchers conducted research to investigate Facebook using behaviors and their impacts on the lifestyles of people studying at Chiang Mai University. The researchers found that the impacts on the learning performances of the students were 1) having less time for exam preparation, 2) no chance to review any In early 2004, Facebook was created. Mark Zuckerberg started Facebook, while he was a student at Harvard in 2004 at the age of 23. The general concept was to digitize the legendary (Harvard) freshman-year ‘facebook,’ and allow students not only to look at one another's photos but also to flirt, network, [and] interact. At first, 2. LITERATURE REVIEW 119 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) Facebook.com was limited to college students at Harvard with a university email address. Later, the Facebook phenomenon spread like virus when opened up to all college students. When Facebook opened its doors to people outside the university network, with over 350 million subscribers worldwide (according to Facebook.com statistics retrieved in March, 2010), Facebook, now has a diverse community of users at all levels of education and areas of society, including companies and universities [7, 8]. Implications and insights were provided to event practitioners and were discussed accordingly [10]. To understand event fans’ acceptance process of Facebook event page, several authors identified the TAM [11] as the theoretical foundation. It is a widely used theoretical model to explain potential users’ behavioral intentions to access a technology or a new system [12]. TAM is based on the well-known Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) [13] that attempted to explain how individuals construct behaviors. The original TAM proposes that perceived ease of use (PEOU) and perceived usefulness (PU) impact users’ behavioral intentions (BI) toward accepting a new technology or a system. Davis (1989) defined perceived usefulness as “the degree to which a person believes that using a particular system will enhance his or her job performance”. He also defined perceived ease of use as “the degree to which a person believes that using a particular system will be free of effort.” Both perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness have a strong positive influence on the acceptance of the technology [11]. The growing popularity of SNSs indicates that social communications can become a contributor to successful learning. Interaction in online courses identifying five components (socially designed interaction, instructionally-designed interaction, interactivity affordances of technology, student engagement, and instructor engagement) has been recognized as a key indicator of quality in online courses. The social and interactive nature of SNSs presents “the intriguing possibility that by enhancing social interactions with and among students through the use of an SNS such as Facebook, instructors can increase the overall quality of engagement in a given instructional setting and, thus, create a more effective learning environment. SNSs also provide easily-measured evidence of both student and instructor interaction” [9]. Based on TAM with the flow theory, this study presented three types of interaction factors, learner-system interaction, instructor-learner interaction, and learnerlearner interaction to construct an extended TAM to explore nurses’ intention to use the e-learning systems. The results showed that flow had significant effects on perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use, and perceived ease of use had a significant effect on perceived usefulness. The effects of flow, perceived usefulness, and perceived ease of use on intention to use were significant [14]. Chong studied a two-staged SEMneural network approach for understanding and predicting the determinants of m-commerce adoption and found that perceived usefulness had significant influence on consumers’ m-commerce adoption intentions [15]. Moreover, several researchers guided by TAM and reactance theory sought to study the determinants of college students’ adoption of mobile-based text alert short message service (SMS). The findings showed that the probability adoption the text alert SMS was not directly increased by perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness of the service, but was indirectly affected by the two antecedents through ones’ attitude toward the use of SMS [16]. Escobar-Rodriguez and Monge-Lozano attempted to understand the factors impacting the intention to use Moodle, which would allow them to determine which actions might be carried out to boost its use by University students in order to improve both their skills and grades. They found that perceived usefulness for professors, perceived compatibility with student tasks, and training did provide specific insight on the adoption of Moodle by business administration students In Thailand, a research showed that the students already knew and used Facebook. Notebooks, netbooks or Ipads were used to access this social network service. Moreover, Facebook was assessed around 1 to 3 times per day on average. Each time took 31 minutes to 1 hour. Totally, it was used 1.01 to 3.00 hours per day. The students began playing Facebook from 06.01 to 08.00 pm until 10.01 to 12.00 pm. The most favorite activities on Facebook done by the students included 1) viewing photos of their friends, 2) chatting with their friends, 3) reading their friends’ profiles or messages, 4) writing or changing their statuses, and 5) giving their opinions on others’ photos or statements. The impacts on the daily lives of the students were 1) sleeping and waking up later than usual, 2) performing fewer other activities, 3) becoming more isolated, 4) having headaches and body pains from spending too long time continuously playing facebook, and 5) taking less exercise [6] An extended Information Systems (IS)’ theory of the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) was adopted to explain the mechanism by which social media marketing influenced attitudes toward Facebook event pages. Several researchers found that users’ emotions exhibited on the Facebook event page did have a significant impact on the perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use, and perceived enjoyment of such social media marketing. However, only the last construct significantly influences users’ attitudes and intentions toward an event. 120 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) Additionally, the original technology acceptance model was expanded with learner related variables such as perceived self-efficacy. “Students with higher learning self-efficacy would tend to use more sophisticated selfregulated learning strategies” such as planning, monitoring, or help seeking [17]. According to Bandura, “self-efficacy” is defined as “one's beliefs and expectations regarding one's ability to perform a task required to achieve specific outcomes” [18]. Students’ self-efficacy was found to have an indirect positive effect on students’ overall course management systems use via students’ perceptions [19]. Researchers revealed that students with higher self-efficacy tended to have better information searching strategies [20]. Liang and Wu's study illustrated that nurses' self-efficacy plays an essential role in their motivation toward e-learning [21]. Self-efficacy can influence performance expectations and performance expectations also influence behavior [22]. Thus, we hypothesize, perspective on Facebook in education, perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, and perceived computer self-efficacy have the power to predict intention to use Facebook of university students Table 1: Multiple Regression Results – Part 1 De. Var.: IntentionToUse (Mean = 3.37, S.D. = .61, C. A. = .77), r = .58, R2 = .34 Hypo Ind. C. Mean S.D. β Var. Alpha these s Perspe ctive 3.78 .62 .70 .247 on FB in edu. P. Useful 3.27 .72 .75 -.028 ness H P. Ease of 3.06 .68 .71 .172 use Sellf Efficac 3.36 .60 .77 .309* y P < 0.05, N = 57 Table 2: Multiple Regression Results – Part 2 De. Var.: IntentionToUse (Mean = 3.37, S.D. = .61, C. A. = .77), r = .58, R2 = .34 Ind. t Sig. Support VIF Var. Perspe ctive 1.838 .072 No 1.420 on FB in edu. P. Useful -.221 .826 No 1.222 ness P. Ease of 1.266 .211 No 1.441 use Sellf Efficac 2.026 0.48 Yes 1.828 y P < 0.05, N = 57 3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND FINDINGS The target population was undergraduate students enrolling in Bachelor of Business Administration majoring in business computer, marketing, and management in the university in Thailand. A survey questionnaire assessing the constructs in the current study was developed from published scales of previous research as stated in the literature review. All of the scales were measured on a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree. The survey was collected from October to November 2012. A total of 57 self-administrated questionnaires were distributed to all students in the class and 57 usable surveys were returned giving an overall response rate of 100%. The response rate was more than 50%, mainly due to the fact that the instructor collected questionnaires right after the respondents completed the forms in the classes. The sample was females (72%) more than male (28%). The students’ ages vary between 19-22 years old. In this study, the psychometric properties of the instrument were used for checking reliability and constructing validity. The alpha coefficients of the reliability analysis ranged from 0.70 to 0.77 indicating that all of the scales were acceptable [23]. Construct validity was assessed by principal component analysis. The analysis produced four components. All results and multiple regression analysis are reported in the table below. Only computer self-efficacy was found to be a significant determinant of users’ attitude towards usage of Facebook, explaining 34% of the total variance. The relative strength of their explanatory power; however, was different. Computer self-efficacy (β= 0.309) was significant predictor of user’s attitude towards the use of Facebook. One group of researchers indicates that the multicollinearity problem becomes too serious when a VIF value is equal to or higher than four [24]. For this study, VIF values are acceptable for all items studied. Overall, the results indicated a statistically significant linear relationship between the constructs with a p-value less than 0.05. There was a positive association between the students’ attitude towards Facebook usage and computer self-efficacy.. Hence, a part of hypothesis (H) was supported. The regression analysis for identifying 121 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) the relationships between independent and dependent variables were shown in figure below. that the successful intention to use of SNSs in education should start with informing of usefulness and ease of use of the sites like Facebook for learning or teaching environment. However, there are several limitations to this research. Since this is the preliminary findings, the sample size of the research may be relatively small. Then, there should be the need for additional research incorporating larger sample size. Future research may involve respondents from various universities. Other potential measurement variables such as cultural aspects or emotional aspects may be added for further studies. Figure 1: conceptual model of students’ intention to use Facebook Perspective on FB in Education P. Usefulness β = .247 β = -.028 Intention to Use Facebook β .172 P. Ease of Use 5. REFERENCES β =.309* [1] T. Escobar-Rodriguez, and P. Monge-Lozano, “The acceptance of Moodle technology by business administration students”, Computers & Education, vol. 58, no. 4, 2012, pp. 1085-1093. [2] M. K. Kabilan, N. Ahmad, and M. J. Z. Abidin, “Facebook: An online environment for learning of English in institutions of higher education?”, The Internet and Higher Education, vol. 13, no. 4, 2010, pp. 179-187. [3] I. A. Allen, and J. Seaman. "Staying the course:Online education in the UnitedStates," 2 March, 2012; http://www.sloanc.org/publications/survey/pdf/staying_the_course.pd f. [4] B. Kleiner, N. Thomas, and L. Lewis, Educational technology in teacher education programs for initial licensure (NCES 2008-040), National Center for Education Statistics, Institute of Education Sciences, Washington, DC, 2007. [5] M. D. Roblyer, M. McDaniel, M. Webb et al., “Findings on Facebook in higher education: A comparison of college faculty and student uses and perceptions of social networking sites,” The Internet and Higher Education, vol. 13, no. 3, 2010, pp. 134-140. [6] T. Tantheeptham, “Using Facebook that Affected Chiang Mai University Students’ Lifestyles,” Chiang Mai University, 2010. [7] D. M. Boyd, and N. B. Ellison, “Social network sites: Definition, history, and scholarship,” Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, vol. 13, 2008, pp. 210−230. [8] V. Kwong, “Reach out to your students using MySpace and Facebook”, Indiana Libraries vol.26, vol. 3, 2007, pp. 53-57. [9] M. D. Roblyer, and W. Wiencke, “Exploring the interaction equation: Validating a rubric to assess and encourage interaction in distance courses,” The Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks, vol. 8, no. 4, 2003, pp. 24-37. [10] W. Lee, L. Xiong, and C. Hu, “The effect of Facebook users' arousal and valence on intention to go to the festival: Applying an extension of the technology acceptance model,” International Computer Self- Efficacy Note: Significant paths (p<.05) between constructs were reported with standardized beta weights. 4. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION Facebook becomes an important part in communication for both social and academic worlds. Teachers may be likely to adopt a technology like Facebook as a way to facilitate communication with students. Disadvantages and advantages of Facebook were explored. Students are much more open to the possibility of using Facebook and similar technologies to support their classroom work while instructors are more likely to use “traditional” technologies such as email. The site may be used as a primary communication tool similar to email. Furthermore, many teachers may actively seek to link with their students. This modeling may help persuade teachers that SNSs of this kind are a practical solution to teachers' need to keep in close contact with students. The researchers found that only perceived computer selfefficacy significantly positively related to intention to use Facebook of the university students. This result is similar to research by Tsai and Tsai (2003), Liang & Wu (2010), and Wu et al. (2010) that perceived computer selfefficacy significantly influence intention to use [20-22] Facebook of the university students. Nevertheless, Thai students do not perceived Facebook in terms of perspective in education, perceived usefulness, and perceived ease of use. It is possible that the educator reluctance remains a major barrier to effective integration of Facebook technologies in teacher preparation. Moreover, the results of this study confirm that Thai students were 1) having less time for exam preparation, 2) no chance to review any lesson already learned, 3) playing Facebook in classes, 4) an inability to hand in their assignments on time, and 5) failure to do as good work as expected [6]. Last but not least, university executives, IT trainers, software vendors should be aware 122 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) [11] [12] [13] [14] [15] [16] [17] [18] [19] [20] [21] [22] [23] [24] Journal of Hospitality Management, vol. 31, no. 3, 2012, pp. 819-827. F. D. Davis, “Perceived Usefulness, Perceived Ease of Use, and User Acceptance of Information Technology,” MIS Quarterly, vol. 13, 1989, pp. 319-340. W. R. King, and J. He, “A meta-analysis of the technology acceptance model,” Information and Management, vol. 43, no. 6, 2006, pp. 740-755. M. Fishbein, and I. Ajzen, Belief, Attitude, Intention and Behavior: An Introduction to Theory and Research, Reading, MA: AddisonWesley, 1975. Y.-M. Cheng, “Exploring the roles of interaction and flow in explaining nurses' e-learning acceptance,” Nurse Education Today, vol. 33, no. 1, 2013, pp. 73-80. A. Y.-L. Chong, “A two-staged SEM-neural network approach for understanding and predicting the determinants of m-commerce adoption,” Expert Systems with Applications, vol. 40, no. 4, 2013, pp. 1240-1247. D. Lee, J. Y. Chung, and H. Kim, “Text me when it becomes dangerous: Exploring the determinants of college students'™ adoption of mobile-based text alerts short message service,” Computers in Human Behavior, vol. 29, no. 3, 2013, pp. 563569. K.-H. Cheng, and C.-C. Tsai, “An investigation of Taiwan University students' perceptions of online academic help seeking, and their web-based learning self-efficacy,” The Internet and Higher Education, vol. 14, no. 3, 2011, pp. 150-157. A. Bandura, Self-efficacy: The exercise of control, New York: Freeman, 1997. G. Lust, N. A. Juarez Collazo, J. Elen et al., “Content Management Systems: Enriched learning opportunities for all?”, Computers in Human Behavior, vol. 28, no. 3, 2012, pp. 795-808. M.-J. Tsai, and C.-C. Tsai, “Information searching strategies in web-based science learning: The role of internet self-efficacy.,” Innovations in Education and Teaching International, vol. 40, no. 1, 2003, pp. 43-50. J. C. Liang, and S. H. Wu, “Nurses' motivations for web-based learning and the role of Internet selfefficacy,” Innovations in Education and Teaching International, vol. 47, no. 1, 2010, pp. 25–37. J.-H. Wu, R. D. Tennyson, and T.-L. Hsia, “A study of student satisfaction in a blended e-learning system environment”, Computers & Education, vol. 55, no. 1, 2010, pp. 155-164. C. Nunnally, Psychometric theory, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1978. J. Miles, and M. Shevlin, Applying regression & correlation: A guide for students and researchers, London: Sage, 2001. [25] D. M. Boyd and N.B. Ellison, Social network sites: Definition, history, and scholarship, Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, vol.13, no.1, 2007, p.2. [26] F. Stutzman, An evaluation of identity-sharing behavior in social network communities, International Digital and Media Arts Journal, vol.3, no.1, 2006. [27] Sydneysapper, retrieved 3 June 2013 from http://tulaneict4d.wordpress.com/2013/04/05/socialmedia-in-thailand/ 123 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) Using Virtual Classroom: Learning through Video Analysis to Engage Educators in Meaningful Facilitated, Online Distance Learning Cynthia Long and John Ristvey McREL Denver, CO 80237 United States to reflect on their fall lessons and think about how their spring lessons might be improved. ABSTRACT NanoTeach is a National Science Foundation sponsored Discovery Research K-12 project, (#DRL0822128), led by Mid-continent Research for Education and Learning (McREL) with assistance from partner organizations: Stanford Nanofabrication Facility, Georgia Institute of Technology, and Aspen Associates. NanoTeach is developing and evaluating a professional development model intended to assist high school educators in integrating nanoscience and technology into their curriculum in life, physical, or earth science to promote student understanding. Using instructional strategies from Designing Effective Science Instruction [4], NanoTeach supports educators in designing and implementing lessons that integrate emerging content in a manner that reflects effective science instruction. In this project, the emerging science content of nanoscience and technology intersects with the pedagogical shift to create a coherent content storyline to increase educator understanding and practice by seeing and listening to active science instruction in a classroom through synchronous video coding. The learning platform, Virtual Classroom: Learning through Video Analysis (VC-LVA), effectively integrates distance learning, collaboration, and discourse among educators, using technology. The purpose of VC-LVA is for educators to analyze delivery of science lessons through synchronous video coding of an authentic classroom and determine evidence of strategies used that support a coherent content storyline [3]. These strategies align with Designing Effective Science Instruction, Content Strategy 6: Sequencing the Learning Targets into a Progression [4]. Educators look for evidence of one main learning goal, determine if activities are aligned to that learning goal, and look for evidence that there are explicit links between the science ideas and the activities. Once the main learning goal of a coherent content storyline is identified, it is important to share it with students. The strategies that support creating a coherent content storyline for which educators collected evidence are (adapted from Roth, 2011):  Focus on one main learning goal  Link the learning goal (the main science idea) to ideas learned in previous lessons Keywords: Virtual, Classroom, Video, Distance Learning, Professional Development, Online, Educator, Storyline, Strategies 1. INTRODUCTION VC-LVA is an innovative component of the NanoTeach project, which was field tested in 20122013 (Figure 1). This component virtually brought together participating educators from sites representing four states across the country (Colorado, Texas, Georgia, Louisiana). Prior to the VC-LVA experience, educators in the facilitated group participated in an intense two-week summer professional development program and implemented at least one nanoscience and technology lesson during the fall semester. VCLVA for NanoTeach occurs prior to implementation of their spring lesson. The timing allowed for educators 124 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013)    Set the purpose using a focus question or goal statement (in kid friendly language) Refer back to the goal statement or focus question throughout the lesson Select activities and content representations that are matched to the learning goal PARTICIPANTS For educators, reviewing what a learning goal is and what evidence one might see or hear in a classroom paves the way for understanding how to help students, through facilitation and instruction, build conceptual understanding of even the most difficult concepts. In this way, students have the opportunity to build their knowledge and develop an overall conceptual understanding. A secondary purpose to VC-LVA is providing a tool and a model for educators to use for both self-reflection and peer review based on a video recording of their own lesson in order to improve their practice. Prior to conducting the VC-LVA in the virtual environment, facilitators worked with the educators to practice video coding and determining evidence during the summer face-to-face sessions. This prior experience made for an easy transition to analyzing video in a virtual environment. CHAT NOTES Figure 2: A screen capture from the VC-LVA platform used for the virtual, online sessions. The overall desired outcome for teachers in this component of the NanoTeach project is for them to use video analysis to put “words-to-images” [1], to learn or review the strategies that support a coherent content storyline, and to understand what this means when put into practice. The goal of the session is to support educators as they apply this understanding to the design, development, and delivery of their own lessons. Modeling good instruction is also a goal of the Virtual Classroom session. 2. THE INNOVATION Using an adaptation of a Cisco WebEx© online meeting system, the VC-LVA platform permitted the presentation of synchronous video viewing. Groups of three to six educators connected with a NanoTeach facilitator through an audio conference and the online, synchronous presentation. This 70-minute interactive session included ongoing discourse orally and through an online chat function. Using the platform tools, participants were encouraged to “raise their hand” using an icon indicator and asked questions and shared their ideas. This prevented participants from talking over one another and let all voices be heard. The facilitator reviewed the pedagogical content and strategies, the focus of the session, and guided the interaction by eliciting feedback, views, and examples from participants. We began each session by displaying and discussing the learning goals of the session. The specific goals for the VC-LVA are that educators: 1) understand that a content storyline is important to connect student learning from student initial ideas to subsequent ideas as they build a larger conceptual understanding; and 2) recognize that video analysis and coding allows us to examine educator/student interactions by identifying evidence of educator practice to create mental models of what good instruction looks like. Through facilitated interactions, educators reviewed and used an analysis instrument to record evidence from the video they observed. The instrument includes instructions and strategies that support a coherent content storyline. Teachers had the opportunity to record on the instrument itself or in a notes section on the platform. As educators watched the video, they recorded both the evidence they saw and/or heard from the student/teacher interactions on the video and the time-code at which it the evidence occurred. This allowed for meaningful discussion based on the evidence they recorded and their process of forming an image of what good instruction looks like. The Does the Video Matter? While the video coding strategies and VC-LVA can be used with any instructional video, we found that having a video using a teacher versed in creating a content storyline works best. There should be some evidence of strategies in play yet room for improvement. For the NanoTeach field test, we recorded a physics teacher conducting a culminating lesson on static forces adapted from www.mcrel.org/nanoleap. 125 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) facilitator has full control of the video which is shown with little to no delay. The video was paused several times to allow for discourse prompted by the facilitator. Each participant shared evidence they recorded and discussion ensued. To end this synchronous session, participants shared via the chat box two things they saw or heard the educator doing well during instruction regarding strategies that support a coherent content storyline or other ideas that resonated with them. They additionally shared one thing they wished they had seen the educator do during the lesson. To wrap up the session, participants shared how they were going to apply what they learned during the VC-LVA session to their own practice during their spring implementation. quality and satisfaction of the experience. What follows are excerpts of the participant perceptions of this experience (N=21) (Figure 3).  Over 95% of the VC participants agreed or strongly agreed that the session was well organized.  90% of the VC participants agreed or strongly agreed that the sessions were educational and a model of effective online instruction.  Over 85% of the VC participants agreed or strongly agreed that the overall experience was positive. 3. FINDINGS VC-LVA sessions for the field test were conducted in January and February, 2013. 10 sessions were held online using the VC platform with between two to six teachers present at each session. The sessions were typically 70 minutes in duration and included the following elements:  Welcome and introductions  WebEx basics  Learning goals and outcomes  Review of video analysis basics and the instrument  Review of content storyline and strategies to look for that support a strong storyline  Three clips of real-time video and participant coding  Discussion for each clip  Reflection  Two stars and a wish focused on the video  Wrap-up which included how teachers will apply what they’ve learned  Update on revised resource inventory  Questions Figure 3: Survey question to participants asking their perception of the Virtual Classroom: Learning through Video Analysis session. The following feedback was about the application of the VC sessions (N=21):  Over 85% stated that the VC helped them use the DESI Framework (content storyline) to improve existing lessons.  About 76% stated that the session helped them from a fair amount to a great extent develop or revise science lessons in their own classroom. For the VC-VLA session, participants used a video coding instrument which was developed for teachers to record evidence they observed in the video for each content storyline strategy. The participants watched a video recorded in a general physics class in a public school. The class consisted of approximately 30 students, tenth through twelfth grades. The lesson was adapted from NanoLeap [5] and was focused on forces and interactions. The educator, a veteran of 24 years, implemented this lesson at the end of a unit on forces. About one week after the Virtual Classroom (VC) sessions, the project’s external evaluator sent the participants an online survey to determine the overall 126 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) Figure 5: Survey question to participants asking the extent to which the Virtual Classroom: Learning through Video Analysis session helped them learn strategies for creating a coherent storyline in their lessons. Open-ended comments regarding effectiveness, impact, and application revealed that participants appreciated the interaction and exchange of ideas across different places and with science experts, as this was important for reflecting on their own practice; that the use of technology and the “chunking” of videos enabled real-time comments and immediate feedback grounded in the analytic tasks; and that the project and its tools had served as an impetus to improving their own teaching. Figure 4: Survey question to participants asking the extent to which the Virtual Classroom: Learning through Video Analysis session helped them to improve, develop, or revise lessons in their own classroom. Open-ended comments regarding impact: What impact do you believe the Virtual Classroom will have on your science teaching?  “Helpful. Good ideas that I plan to incorporate. I believe it will help sharpen my focus on goal, content, and connections.”  “It is always helpful to see the science behind science instruction and this virtual classroom helped illustrate this well”  “I hope to incorporate these ideas into ALL my lessons (not just nano).”  “The virtual classroom provided a venue on how to walk the students through the process of learning a concept.”  “I think exposure to this type of "reminder" helps us focus on effective learning strategies throughout the school year.”  “It gave me ideas that I could immediately use in my classroom.” The following responses are the number of participants that rated the extent to which the VC helped them learn about the strategies for creating a coherent storyline into their lessons to a great extent and a fair amount. (N=21)  Focus on one main learning goal: 62% great extent; 24% a fair amount  Link the learning goal to ideas learned in previous lessons: 57% great extent; 33% a fair amount  Set the purpose using focus question or goal statement: 62% great extent, 29% a fair amount  Refer back to the goal statement or focus question throughout the lesson: 62% a great extent; 29% a fair amount  Select activities and content representations that are matched to the learning goal: 48% a great extent, 38% a fair amount Open-ended comments regarding use: What was most useful about the Virtual Classroom experience?  Convenience of participation at home without driving to a specific location  Being able to communicate with people from other school districts  It is the interaction and exchange of ideas between and among teachers not physically together in one place.  Visual and audio interaction. Immediate feedback.  I liked that it was a small group setting.  Being able to ask questions and get immediate feedback. 127 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) 4. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH REFERENCES [1] Learning Forward. Standards for Professional Learning. (2011). Retrieved from http://learningforward.org/standards. [2] K. J. Roth, , S. L. Druker, H. E. Garnier, M. Lemmens, C. Chen, T. Kawanaka, R. Gallimore, Teaching science in Five Countries: Results from the TIMSS 1999 Video Study. Washington, DC: U. S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 2006. [3] K. J. Roth, H. E. Garnier, C. Chen, M. Lemmens, K. Schwille, & N. I. Z. Wickler, Videobased lesson analysis: Effective science PD for teacher and student learning. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 48(2), 2011, pp. 117–148. [4] A. Tweed, Designing Effective Science Instruction: What Works in Science Classrooms, Arlington, VA: National Science Teachers Association, 2009. [5] NanoLeap Project. Funded by NSF# ESI0426401. Retrieved from www.mcrel.org/nanoleap. Our preliminary data demonstrate there is great potential to use VC-LVA as a learning platform for expanding disciplinary and pedagogical content knowledge of educators and creating opportunities for virtual peer communities to participate in meaningful learning. Bringing together teachers virtually into small peer communities is a realistic and convenient approach that supports discourse focused on videos of authentic classroom instruction. The specific emerging science content addressed in this Virtual Classroom: Learning through Video Analysis program focuses on nanoscience and technology integrated with content storyline pedagogical strategies. There is promise, however, for this model to be applied to any discipline and pedagogy. Engaging in a facilitated review process of authentic classroom video with educators will be needed to support both current and future educators. VC-LVA has the potential to provide online, synchronous professional development to educators that are geographically distant, but have similar focus and interest, in a meaningful and engaging way using authentic classroom video in a platform that allows for multiple ways of communication. This approach is practical and meaningful, aligns with the Standards for Professional Learning from Learning Forward [1], engages educators in developing understanding and skills that inform their practice, and helps ensure that they and their students are inspired, engaged and motivated through relevant, contextually based and personally meaningful experiences that prepare them for lifelong learning in a technologically progressing society. The VC-VLA platform reflects the best use of academic standards, research, and innovative approaches to learning. While VC-LVA has shown promise in this professional development project, more research should be done to determine how a more intense treatment of learning with this platform might improve practice in a sustained manner over a longer period of time. Additional studies could be conducted to determine the extent to which teachers would be comfortable coding lessons that they developed with communities of practice in different geographic regions. Other research areas could include using VCLVA and measuring growth in areas that include different pedagogical content and subject matter. 128 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) A Tool Supporting Writing Technical Documents in English Using Corpora: Retrieving Functions by Cosine Similarity and Pattern Matching Yoshinori MIYAZAKI Graduate School of Informatics, Shizuoka University Hamamatsu, Shizuoka 432-8011, Japan Shosaku TANAKA College of Letters, Ritsumeikan University Kyoto, Kyoto, 603-8577, Japan and Yukie KOYAMA Center for Research and Development in Higher Engineering-Education, Nagoya Institute of Technology Nagoya, Aichi, 466-8555, Japan ABSTRACT In this paper, the development of a piece of Web application is reported which supports non-native speakers of English to write technical documents in English. Previously, this tool presented English texts extracted from corpora, with high similarities with the original English texts input by users. In this study, a new function was implemented to this tool for the retrieval by pattern matching algorithm, enabling users to specify parts of speech and synonyms. These functions, or, retrieving functions by cosine similarity and pattern matching, are found complementary. Another feature is also added to store input logs for retrieval by users. This paper also includes the result of user experiments. Keywords: Technical Corpora, Support to Write English Composition, Web Application, Cosine Similarity, Pattern Matching Retrieval 1. INTRODUCTION Because English is the most common language in science and technology, researchers including undergraduate or graduate students are often required to write technical documents in English. However, writing technical academic documents in English is quite challenging for non-native speakers (NNSs) especially in EFL settings [1], since technical documents usually contain specific words and phrases that we seldom use in general English. In this light, using corpora as a resource to support foreign language writing is appropriate and useful, especially for less proficient learners [2] and [3]. Our research group has worked on the development of a webbased application to help NNSs compose academic documents in English [4]. In order to facilitate a user's English composition practice, the application requires an English sentence as an input, not giving an English sentence translated from the Japanese input. Therefore, expected users are learners of English who have studied English for a certain period of time but make not only trivial grammatical mistakes but choose inappropriate words for the necessary explanations. The application retrieves authentic English sentences from technical corpora developed by Nagoya Institute of Technology (NIT) of Japan and presents them in a more accessible manner. The features of the system include: (a) retrieving sentences on the basis of calculated cosine similarities (using n-grams) to the input, (b) retrieving similar sentences again with the keywords replaced by their synonyms, (c) considering 129 domain-specific expressions of the relevant field, and (d) summarizing long output sentences in order to show their simple structures, of which (c) and (d) have not been adopted by other literature. In this study, a new module was implemented to this application for the retrieval by pattern matching algorithm. This feature was added to solve the problem that the conventional system sometimes outputs excessive texts which do not appear to be similar to the input. The module controls such outputs by specifying the grammar with normalized expressions stipulated by the authors. For example, when “[N] is conducted” is input, the application returns corpus sentences containing some noun followed by “is conducted” or its conjugated form (such as “study was conducted” and “experiments were conducted”). This usage is also applicable to verbs [V], adjectives [J], adverbs [R], prepositions [I], pronouns [P], conjunctives [C] and articles [D]. Another example is “aim- of * research~”, for retrieving sentences which have “aim” (not allowing its conjugated form (-)), “of”, an arbitrary word (*), and “research” (or its synonyms (~)), in this order. Another function is added to store input logs by individual users, for the purpose of future personalization and use for social learning. In the pilot experiment, the application was applied for the technical English texts composed by university students majoring in informatics. From the result of the experiment conducted, it was observed that many subjects issued their queries one after another, in the course of using both modules. The combined use of the two modules was also found complementary, from the histories of subjects. 2. LITERATURE REVIEW Up to present, there are various research projects going on which deal with developing systems to support English compositions [5] [6] [7] [8]. Many of them allow users to input Japanese sentences for their corresponding English. On the contrary, users are required to input English sentences, for the purpose of facilitating their English composition practice in our study. [5] is the study for presenting sample documents for the given Japanese. It first translates the given Japanese into English with commercial software, and extracts similar sentences from the corpus made from specific domains. The drawback of this system is that the selection of keywords is limited to verbs and nouns. Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) [6] has implemented a web-based composition system with the aid of a search engine. This system prompts users to issue queries with wildcards, representing the unclear parts provided by users, and directs the query to Google search engine to obtain expressions appearing often on the web. The cons are 1. this system is greatly influenced by the constraints of Google and 2. when a multiple number of wildcards are used, results are not obtained as users expect. [7] retrieves sentences from corpora similar to input English sentence, from the dependency of the input words. This site is open to public at http://escort.itc.nagoya-u.ac.jp/. [8] developed StringNet as a resource for investigating constructions and a range of multiple word expressions and for supporting NLP applications that traffic in constructions. StringNet supports discovery of grammatical dependencies in noncanonical configurations as well as lexical dependencies by adopting hybrid n-grams. 3. RETRIEVING BY COSINE SIMILARITY Outline First, let us introduce the web application which the authors had previously developed for presenting English texts extracted from corpora, with high similarities with the original English texts input by users. See the following sections for the details. This algorithm consists of three steps, for the retrieval of similar sentences: Step 1. [Replacement by synonym groups] Applies the morphological analysis to the input sentence and extracts keywords from the result. If the obtained keyword is in some synonym group(s), replace the keyword by the synonym group ID(s). This step corresponds to (b) mentioned above. Step 2. [Approximation of contextual-information] Computes ngram components and applies [9] and [10] for multi-word expressions (MWEs). The use of n-grams and MWEs enables the application to compute the similarities between sentences based on approximate contextual-information in the sentence (c). Step 3. [Extraction of similar sentences] Generates vectors from the input sentence and each of the corpus sentences, and quantifies the similarities (a). The technical corpora used in this study were developed by NIT 1. The extracted sentences appear with the option for its generalization (d). Selection of Keywords First, the morphological analysis using Tree Tagger2 is applied to an input sentence in order to obtain the part of speech and the lemma of each word. For the purposes of this study, we defined a keyword as a word whose part of speech is either a noun, adjective, adverb, or a verb. A word judged as either a preposition, determiner, or a cardinal number, retains the information of its part of speech. The delexical verbs are eliminated because these words are used quite often with different meanings and hence they might negatively affect the sentence identification process3. Keyword Replacement by a Synonym Group In composing technical documents, learners of English might end up using inappropriate words, phrases or collocations. Synonym groups are capable of working well even in such situations. Synonym groups are used as a union set of those collected from a book and a dictionary. The number of the group, which is 102, is small whereas the reliability is high, since the book is intended for helping to write technical documents. To reinforce the small number, the adoption of WordNet4 was attempted. The synonyms in WordNet are much larger in number, but with the treatment of various meanings. Therefore, the straightforward use of the synonyms might produce excessive or redundant results. To prevent this, we regarded a word as an input suitable for reference to WordNet only when the word was considered specific to technical documents. The Chi-square test for homogeneity was carried out after extracting words from a technical corpus and English textbooks in (junior)-high schools5. The resulting groups which were significant at 1% level were 2,943 in number. N-gram and Computation of Similarities An n-gram is a subsequence of n items from a given sequence. For example, a set of 2-grams of “Corpora consist of documents.” are “corpora consist”, “consist of”, and “of documents”. In this study, these are generated after a synonym group (ID) or information of part of speech replaces the original sentence. The degree of similarity is given by cosine similarity (vector space model) and expressed as a value between 0 and 1. First a vector v is composed. As a component of v, each of the keywords and n-grams (n = 2, and 3) is respectively added, while these keywords and n-grams are both obtained from the input sentence and corpus sentence. If the same component is already in v, the component is skipped. Next, let vectors vL be defined as having 1 (0) in the i-th element if the i-th component of v is (not) found in the input sentence (i =1, 2, …, the last component of v). Likewise, each vector of vC for sentences in the corpus is determined. Now the cosine similarity is computed as cos(v L , vC )  (v L , vC )  v L  vC  where (*, *) denotes the inner product of the two vectors, and || * || the length of the vector (2-norm). Weighting Weighting by Domain-Specific MWEs: A technical corpus does not always include sentences that contain typical technical expressions (e.g., introductory paragraphs). This shows that weightings should be effective by the degrees of the sentences having likelihood of being technical. [9] and [10] have successfully generated a list of domain-specific MWEs in technical corpora, and obtained 2,677 MWEs in ACL (The Association for Computational Linguistics) corpus. Some examples are: NIT Concordancer, http://lang.cc.nitech.ac.jp/conc/conc.pl 2 http://www.ims.uni-stuttgart.de/projekte/corplex/TreeTagger 3 We tentatively selected the 7 words as delexical verbs:“be”, “do”, 130 “give”, “take”, “have”, “make”, and “get”. The subjects : “DT system”, “this paper”, “figure CD”, “et al., CD”, “DT number of”  The predicates : “However”, “for example”, “case”, “therefore”, “finally” where “DT” stands for a DeTerminer, and “CD” a CarDinal number. The authors provisionally set a weight on Ci to [some constant] × [number of MWEs in Ci] / ([number of keywords in Ci] + 1). Weighting by Vector Components: 4 1  It is not unusual that a A large-scale English conceptual dictionary, http://wordnet.princeton.edu/ 5 English textbooks in high and junior-high schools in Japan used 2002 to 2005 academic year, which was compiled by ELPA (Association for English Language Proficiency Assessment). Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) word belongs to more than one synonym group. It turns out that some of them are the members of more than 10 groups. In such cases, distributing the weightings (such that they sum up to 1) is probably a reasonable solution. In contrast of 0 or 1 being given as each of the vector components, 1/k is allocated to the word belonging to k synonym groups. When more than one word (say, m words) in the n-grams belong to synonym groups, 1  m wS k (w) Options In addition to the functions above, two retrieving options are set up to realize flexible pattern matching. The first option is to suppress the inclusion of derivatives of words, by adding “-” at the end of the word. Another option is not just for its derivatives, but its synonyms altogether. This works by adding “~” at the end. This function is already equipped in cosine similarity retrieval, since we consider it essential from the perspective that users tend to make inappropriate word choices.  Algorithms In this section, the algorithm of pattern matching is explained. There are three steps, namely, pattern analysis, word analysis, and pattern matching, as a procedure to obtain matched sentences. was weighted, where S is the set of such words, m is the number of elements of S, and k(w) is the number of synonyms of the group the word w belongs to. Pattern Analysis: In the step of pattern analysis, the order of elements consisting of the input pattern is stored, along with its classification. This is necessary because their functions differ depending on the types (words, tags for parts of speech, wildcards, or options) of the referred element. For example, the input “is- [V] of” is interpreted as a word (is) without its derivatives, tag for a part of speech (verb), and a word (of) with its derivatives in its order. The correspondence table for the categories and their symbols is shown in Table 2, followed by some examples in Table 3. Generalization What are extracted from corpora have authenticity since they are actually used and refereed by journal referees. At the same time, they are sometimes too complicated to learn from due to their authenticity. Generalization is the procedure to summarize such sentences and show the general form of each authentic sentence by replacing specific words with their grammatical markers such as part-of-speeches. This procedure puts frequently observed subsequences into chunks and enables us to show structures of long sentences by repetition of the above replacement (examples are shown in the next section). The basic idea of generalization is as follows: (1) high-frequent words in a set of sentences should be retained, and (2) words occurring in various sentences should be also retained even though the frequency is not so high. On the other hand, (3) low-frequency words should be replaced to grammatical markers, and (4) words, whose frequencies probably are low, occurring in specific sentences should be replaced. Based on the idea, words to be replaced are selected. The generalizing procedure repeatedly replaces words in each sentence in the set with grammatical markers, in descending order of the computed value considering (1)-(4). For more details on this formalization, see [11]. Table 2: Correspondence between Categories and Their Symbols Category Symbol A word with its derivatives L A word without its derivatives W Tag for a part of speech P Wildcard X A word with its synonyms G Table 3: Examples of Classifying Words in Input Patterns 4. RETRIEVING BY PATTERN MATCHING Outline Pattern matching is the function to extract sentences from corpora which include a phrase (a pattern) specified by users. In this study, it is our objective to deepen users’ understandings by providing various patterns such as tags for parts of speech and wildcards. Input patterns Symbol From * to [N] LXLP [P] conclude- * PWX The aim~ of LGL Word Analysis: This step is executed when the input pattern has at least one word in it. Lexeme correspondence table (Table 4) arrays approximately 40,000 lexemes appearing in corpora. Frequency in the table denotes the number of sentences containing the lexeme. Also, “NULL” represents that there are no synonym groups the lexeme belongs to. Original forms of the words in the input pattern are gained by morphological analysis. The pattern consists of three components: English words, tags for parts of speech, and wildcards. When an English word is specified, all of its derivatives are defined to match the word (case insensitive). For example, the input “run” extracts all the phrases containing “runs”, “running”, and “ran” as well. Likewise, when “runs” or “running” is input, the same output returns. One may also specify tags for parts of speech, for instance, “[V]” for verbs, and “[N]” for nouns. Table 1 is a list of the tags. ID … L06696 Table 1: List of Tags for Parts of Speech Verb Noun Adjective Adverb [V] [N] [J] [R] Preposition Pronoun Conjunctive Article [I] [P] [C] [D] L06697 L06698 L06699 … A wildcard “*” represents an arbitrary single word. Another usage is “*^p” (where p is some natural number) for arbitrary p sequential words. Table 4: Lexeme Correspondence Table Frequ Synonym Lexeme Synonyms ency group ID … … ………… ………… computable 473 NULL NULL computation 896 NULL NULL al compute, assess, compute 1469 G0024 estimate, … computer 1629 NULL NULL … … ………… ………… Pattern Matching: Pattern matching is the last phase of the retrieval. If a word in the input pattern is not registered in the lexeme correspondence table, the pattern matching may be 131 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) skipped. Otherwise, matching procedure is adopted using regular expressions (of SQL) to the target database. Interface of Retrieving by Pattern Matching The following figure (Figure 2) shows an input form for pattern matching retrieval. 5. INTERFACE This section shows the details of the interfaces with their screenshots for both of retrieving by cosine similarity and pattern matching. Interface of Retrieving by Cosine Similarity One is given the following options for cosine similarity retrieval (in the form of CheckBoxes).  Corpus…One may choose an arbitrary number of corpora registered in the web application  Synonym Retrieving…When “Yes” is selected, sentences including synonyms of the specified words will also be extracted.  Size of synonym groups…This is selectable only when “Yes” is checked in the synonym retrieving option above. When “Large” is chosen, synonym groups created by WordNet is used, while synonym groups created by the aforementioned book are used for “Small” option. Figure 2: Input Form for Pattern Matching Retrieval In the pattern matching retrieval, all the corpora are automatically the target corpus. In the output screen, phrases which matched the input pattern are displayed in a descending order of frequencies of the phrases in the corpus. Figure 3 is the screenshot for the output screen when “[J] construction” was input. Output screen consists of 3 panes, or, a pane for displaying an input sentence, synonym groups, and similar corpus sentences. Highlighting in different colors helps visually understand the correspondence between words in the input sentence and corpus sentences. Figure 1: Screenshot for Output by Cosine Similarity Retrieval Similar corpus sentences are displayed in a descending order of cosine similarity. Also, the following naming rule is stipulated as IDs of each corpus sentence, in order to clarify which corpus the sentence was selected from (Table 5). In the table, “*” represents some one-digit number. Figure 3: Screenshot for Output by Pattern Matching Retrieval When one of the phrases is clicked, the specific corpus sentences containing the phrase are displayed in an ascending order of the number of the words in the sentences. Figure 3 is also the case when “grammatical constructions” is clicked after “[J] construction” was input. Table 5: Naming Rule of Corpus Sentence ID Corpus Corpus Sentence ID ACL A****** Nature N****** Biology B****** Scientific American S****** 6. EXPERIMENTS & DISCUSSION 132 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) Comparison of the Results by the Two Retrieving Algorithms At first, let us show the result of the fuzzy search by pattern matching retrieval. As an example, let us consider the case of combining “aim of” with “research”. Let “*” be used prior to “research” for some word such as an article. Also, let the words “aim” and “research” be attached with “~” as their suffixes for searching their synonyms or similar expressions (Table 6). User Experiments by Composite Use of Retrieving Algorithms The next experiment was conducted in order to investigate usefulness of the composite use of the two retrieving algorithms. The subjects are six university students majoring in informatics. Phase 1. Subjects translate a prepared Japanese sentence to English. The use of dictionaries is allowed. The original sentence is regarding an introductory remark on information science. Phase 2. Improve the English sentence composed in Phase 1. The use of cosine similarity retrieval is only permitted. Phase 3. S Improve the English sentence composed in Phase 2. The use of pattern matching retrieval is permitted. Table 6: Results of the Search “aim~ of * research~” Input pattern aim~ of * research~ Results (109 sentences matched) goal of our research 12 sentences purpose of this study 11 sentences aim of this study 11 sentences goal of this research 10 sentences …… …… The result of each subject is compiled in Table 9. “PH” represents “phase”, and if there are two numbers in this column, the two sentences created in the phases are identical. Now, let us show that the combined use of the two modules was complementary, along with the histories of subjects (their history data are omitted due to space constraints). The first is the result of the compositions by the subject B. They are: Next follows the result of the searching algorithm by cosine similarity. This retrieval was executed for the cases with/without the synonym option, based on the input “The aim of this work is to develop system”. Composition at Phase 1: Table 7: Result of Cosine Similarity Retrieval (without Synonym) CS Input: “the aim of this work is to develop system” The aim of this work is to provide some help to the 0.545 Akkadian learner . The goal of this work is to develop systems that can robustly extract information from massive corpora of 0.464 unrestricted （ " open " ） texts . The aim of this paper is to illustrate FAME , a 0.368 Functional Annotation Meta-scheme for Evaluation . The aim of the research presented here is to develop a 0.367 completely automatic method for constructing phonotactic descriptions . The purpose of this work is to support related work in 0.360 automatic word-sense disambiguation . 0.355 Applications of this work are also discussed . The aim of this SIGLEX workshop is to bring together 0.353 NLP researchers working on all areas of MWEs . “Recently, Information technology focuses the way that people apply information.” Composition at Phase 2 & 3: “Recently, Information technology focuses on the way that people use information.” The difference between them is “on” after “focuses” in Phase 2 & 3. From the study history, it is found that the subject checked the phrase “focuses the way” in Phase 2. Thus, cosine similarity retrieval enables users to extract corpus sentences similar to the input by using n-gram. After that, also from the history, the subject has confirmed that the expression “focus on” is frequently used in Phase 3. With single pattern matching retrieval, the subject would not have been able to find this phrase since it would be difficult to guess such a pattern without the knowledge of the conventional phrase. The next case is the subject E. Table 8: Result of Cosine Similarity Retrieval (with Synonym) CS Input: “the aim of this work is to develop system” The goal of this work is to develop systems that can robustly extract information from massive corpora of 0.629 unrestricted （ " open " ） texts . The goal of this study was to " evaluate the 0.609 psychological reality of phonotactic constraints . The purpose of this work is to support related work in 0.585 automatic word-sense disambiguation . The aim of this work is to provide some help to the 0.545 Akkadian learner . The purpose of this study is to construct a semantic 0.504 analysis method for disambiguating Japanese compound verbs . One of the goals of this work is to describe algorithmic 0.478 and data-structure changes that support the construction of PSTs over unbounded vocabularies . One of the purpose of this study is to make a 0.472 distinction between an event aald an event class using surprising features . Composition at Phase 1 & 2: “In recent years, we aim at the way people can exploit information in information technology.” Composition at Phase 3: “In recent years, we aim at ways people can exploit information on information technology.” The difference between them is “in” and “on” before “information technology”. In this case, there were no evident history of the subject in Phase 2 searching for the usages of the prepositions, but it is presumed that retrieving by pattern matching worked somewhat for the improvement of the composition. User Experiments by Composite Use of Retrieving Algorithms Lastly, the impressions or comments from the subjects are listed below. Pros of pattern matching retrieval ・ It is useful to target all the conjugated forms. ・ It helped observe roles of prepositions between words, by using tags for parts of speech. ・ It worked well when you have specific phrase you want to look into. ・ Its interface was easy to use. Table 7 shows that retrieval with no synonyms works well but also shows that such sentences would lessen if there are more words in the input sentence. In Table 8, it is found that there are more sentences with higher cosine similarities (CS). 133 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) Cons of pattern matching retrieval ・ The frequency of the matched pattern does not always help judge whether it may be used in different contexts. ・ The frequency information will be useful if used relatively to the others, but won’t be for absolute use. ・ The grammar of the patterns was complicated. ・ Wildcards don’t help unless it could mean an arbitrary number of words. ACKNOLEDGMENT This work was supported by Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (C) (24501185) and by The Institute of Statistical Mathematics for "Analysis of Multi-word Expressions of Science and Technology Corpora and Its Application to Education". We also owe special thanks to Shizuoka University student Shohei Yamamoto (Faculty of Informatics) for his help with the implementation of the application (module for pattern matching retrieval) which was indispensable in our study. Table 9: Transition of Compositions by Each Subject ID Composed sentences Recently, on information science, researchers focus on the method that people use information. Recently, on information science, researchers focus on the method that people make use of information. Recently, on information science, researchers focus on a method that people make use of information. Recently, Information technology focuses the way that people apply information. Recently, Information technology focuses on the way that people use information. In recent year, how to exploit for information about Computer science. In recent year, people focus of a way to exploit information in computer science. In recent year, people focus of attention to exploit information in computer science. People have attentioned the method exploit information on information science in the latest. People have attracted the method use information on information science in recent years. People have attracted the method use information on information science in recent years. In recent years, we aim at the way people can exploit information in information technology. In recent years, we aim at ways people can exploit information on information technology. In recent years, people watch the way that people exploit an information in information science. In recent years, people watch the way that people use an information in information science. A B C D E F PH REFERENCES 1 [1] S. Evans & C. Green, “Why EAP is Necessary: A survey of Hong Kong Tertiary Students”, Journal of English for Academic Purposes, Vol. 6, No. 1, 2007, pp. 3-17. ] 2 3 [2] A. Chambers, “Integrating Corpus Consultation in Language Studies”, Language Learning & Technology, Vol. 9, No. 2, 2005, pp. 111-125. 1 2,3 [3] C. Kennedy & T. Miceli, “Corpus-assisted Creating Writing: Introducing Intermediate Italian Learners to a Corpus as a Reference Resource”, Language Learning & Technology, Vol. 14, No. 1, 2010, pp. 28-44. [4] Y. Miyazaki, S. Tanaka & Y. Koyama, “Development and Improvement of a Corpus-based Web Application to Support Writing Technical Documents in English”, International Conference on Computers in Education 2011, 2011, pp. 263-270. [5] S. Takakura & T. Furugori, “TransAid-A Writer's Aid System for Translating Japanese into English-“, Institute of Electronics, Information, and Communication Engineers, NLC2002-11, 2002, pp. 7-14. [6] H. Oshika, M. Satou & H. Yamana, “A Translation Support System Using Search Engines”, Institute of Electronics, Information, and Communication Engineers, DE2004-88, 2004, pp. 237-242. [7] S. Matsubara, S. Egawa & Y. Kato, “ESCORT: English Sentence Retrieval System: Library Service Using Article Database”, INFOPRO2007, 2007, pp. 125-129. [8] D. Wible & N. Tsao, “StringNet as a Computational Resource for Discovering And Investigating Linguistic Constructions”, Proceedings of the NAACL HLT Workshop on Extracting and Using Constructions in Computational Linguistics, 2010, pp. 25–31. [9] S. Tanaka Y. Koyama, “Extracting Domain-specific Expressions from ESP Corpora in View of Syntactic Structures”, The Institute of Statistical Mathematics Cooperative Research Report 239, 2010, pp. 13-30. [10] S. Tanaka & Y. Koyama, “Towards Extracting Domainspecific Expressions on a Variety of Linguistic Levels Based on a Sentence Classification Model”, The Institute of Statistical Mathematics Cooperative Research Report 233, 2010, pp. 21-33. [11] S. Tanaka, Y. Miyazaki, T. Ikemoto & Y. Koyama, “Towards Generalization of Set of Sentences to Support Sentence Composition in English Using Large-scale n-gram Database”, The Institute of Statistical Mathematics Cooperative Research Report 254, 2011, pp. 1-19. 1 2 3 1 2 3 1,2 3 1 2,3 7. CONCLUSION This paper outlined a web application helping writing technical documents in English using corpora. In addition to previously developed function to retrieve similar sentences to the original English texts input by users by cosine similarity, a new function was implemented for the retrieval by pattern matching algorithm, enabling users to specify parts of speech and synonyms. Also, the function to store users’ input histories was reinforced for data analysis. For the future plan, the following itemized factors may be feasible.      Further fusion of the two retrieving functions by cosine similarity and pattern matching. Detailed analysis of the input histories of the experiment. A large-sized experiments with more subjects. Improvement of this application as a tool for social learning. Development of a function to help input words and to help learners with correct spellings. 134 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) CalcPlusWeb: A Computer Game to Stimulate the Reasoning in Mathematics Ilana A. SOUZA-CONCILIO, Claudio K. ANAGUSKO, Gracia M. C. ANACLETO, Beatriz A. PACHECO Mackenzie Presbyterian University, Computer and Informatics Faculty São Paulo – SP – Brazil significant for instructional design, because they can offer learning tools based on more varied and complex models, allowing the creation of repositories with dynamic educational products (learning objects) that educational institutions, educators and students access for consultation and study [3]. Examples of LOs can quote pictures, videos, animations, simulations, games, etc. [2]. ABSTRACT The traditional way of teaching must gradually adapt to new technologies and educative games have been shown to be a great tool to help the teaching-learning process. This article briefly describes a project that develops a game as Learning Object (LO) to assist in Mathematics. CalcPlusWeb is an online board game and was developed using the Java language. The game was tested by student of 5th /6th grades, with a total of 66 (sixty six) children. For the evaluation, a questionnaire was created evaluating the game usability and playability and the results were all positive. Keywords: Mathematics, Learning Object. Educational The use of games as a teaching and learning strategy in the classroom is a great resource. It creates situations that allow students to develop problem-solving methods, stimulates their creativity in a challenging environment while motivate them. According to Smole, Diniz and Milani [4], working with games is a resource that benefits the development of learning, different reasoning processes and interaction among students, since during a game, the player can follow the work of others, defend their points of view and learn to be critical and confident in themselves. Game, 1. INTRODUCTION In order to bring together the informal experiences of learners and the formal education, and to deal with complex concepts in a more ludic way, emerges at the end of the twentieth century, the concept of Learning Objects (LO), digital resource designed for educational purposes to assist the learning [1]. Koster [5] explains that when our brain is practicing something, we´ll dream about it, and that this is the spontaneous part of the brain “working on turning newly grasped patters into something that fits within the context of everything else we know”. He also says that the goal is to turn it into a routine. LOs are also known as "learning object", "instructional object", "educational object", "knowledge object", "intelligent object" or "data object". Regardless of the name used, this concept seeks to facilitate the decomposition of educational systems, general computer-based modules in relatively small and potentially reusable [2]. Therefore, educational games are of great importance in the life of a child. There are several games of many different areas and all of them help in fundamental for the ongoing whole-person formation of a child. Some challenges during Basic Education may be the lack between the concepts, their visualization and training. For example, in Mathematics, which is where many children find it difficult to assimilate certain concepts, the game can be a powerful tool to be aid in teaching. The LOs are part of an area known as Instructional Design. Filatro [3] defines it as "the process (set of activities) to identify a learning problem (a need), design, implement and evaluate a solution to this problem." Advances in computer science are 135 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) 1. The game works for two, four or six players – it can be played individually (one to one) or in group (two on two or three vs. three). 2. Each player (or group) receives thirty markers of a single color (blue or red). 3. The player (or team) who wins the "odd or even" starts the game. 4. Each player (or group) will launch three dice simultaneously and do a math operation with the values obtained in your move. Example: if the values obtained were 2, 3 and 1, two possibilities of moves are: 4 from the operation "2 +3-1", or 7 from the operation "1 +2 x 3". 5. It’s only allowed to use the four basic operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication and division). 6. The player (or group) must click on the board marking the resulting number from the calculation and the turn passes to the next player. 7. If the time runs out, the player (or group) will lose its turn. 8. If the chances of the player (or group) are finished, he will lose again. 9. If the player loses his turn, he will also lose a marker. 10. The player (or group) will have a limited number of hints. 11. The objective of the game is to form five or more markers together and straight. 12. If markers of the two players (or groups) had run out, the winner is the one who obtained the highest number of collinear markers in the sum of all your results. Based on all above statements, the main goal of this work is the development and test of an educational computer game using Java Applets to stimulate the reasoning in Mathematics. There are several online games for the same purpose [6],like the “FindPair M ath” game,where you select a card with a math operation and you have to find out in wich square on the board is the result. Other example is the “M agic Square” wich goal is to make all lines, columns and diagonals results in the sum of indicated values. In this article are presented the game development, the evaluation methodology and the results and analysis of the tests. The LO developed in this work consists of a board game, focusing on the area of Mathematics, which aims to develop some skills in students. Among them we can mention: development of reasoning, mental arithmetic, agility, cunning, teamwork, setting the basic operations with natural numbers and strategic actions. 2. THE COMPUTER GAME CalcPlusWeb CalcPlusWeb is an online board game (Figure 1). The objective of the game is to score on the board five (5) collinear numbers (they must be directly straight). Players may choose to play in three different difficulty levels: easy, medium and hard. What differs in each level is the player' s time, the number of hints per game and the number of chances to play. After the level is selected, each player or group will have each turn to play, alternating between a player (or group) and another. When the player has the time, he can perform three actions by clicking buttons. There is an order to be followed. The first action is to click the button "Play data", which randomly chooses three values between 1 and 6, symbolizing the game dices. The second is optional, the button "Help!" shows all possible operations (not yet played) for the selected dices; you can only press the button if the dices have already been released. The third action is the choice of the number on the board;pressing (clicking) the number, the marker will be placed on the color of the player if this move is accepted. The move can only be done while the time lasts. The game was developed using the Java language, including the technology for applets to be more secure and portable. It can be accessed through url: http://calcplus.webs.com. 3. PLAYABILITY AND USABILITY EVALUATIONS The playability and usability concepts are important to assure the quality of the software. Cybis [7] explains the difference between usability and playability: "Usability is when you go from The rules defined for this game are as follows (Figure 2): 136 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) point A to B, with fewer errors, unhindered. Playability is when you are getting from point A to B through an experience designed to be fun which means that you propose a set of targets with the correct level of challenge, characters and scenario graphically attractive and interesting story". · · · To determine whether a software offers good usability, Nielsen [8] proposes a set of usability guidelines, used for heuristic evaluation. And according to Grassioulet [9], the fun exists with the following components: optimized challenge; attention completely absorbed in the activity;clear goals;clear and consistent feedback that the goals are being achieved;activities that release the player of concerns and frustrations, at least temporarily; feeling of controlling the activity;disappearance of any feelings of self-consciousness, and the changing of time during the activity. All options for closed questions were created based in the Likert scale. The tests were performed in Santa Marina School, a private school located in Vila Carrão, east of São Paulo. Results The aim of the tests was three classes from 5th /6th grades with a total of 66 (sixty six) students. The game and rules were first presented then they all played the game and answered the questionnaire. Methodology An interesting fact was that 68.18% (45 students) of the students said that Mathematics is among their favorite disciplines, which may have contributed to the good result of the research. For the evaluation, a questionnaire was created evaluating the game usability and playability. The questionnaire consists of ten questions, eight of them closed (answer required) and two open response (optional). The first five questions were based on the following Nielsen heuristics: "Speak the language of the users", "Minimize the users' memory load", "Dialogue simple and natural", "Feedback" and "Avoiding mistakes". The last five questions were based on the concepts of [9] that evaluate the playability and entertainment. All students had some familiarity with the computer, half of them (33 students) answered that they use the computer every day, 25. 76% (17 students) use 2-4 times per week, 16. 67% (11 students)used 5-6times per week, and only 7. 58% (five students)use once a week. In general, the results were very satisfactory since most students scored positive (between 78% and 89%) in all of the questions. The questions were: · · · · · · · · After a few gameplays, was it possible to make the moves more quickly? Would you change any game feature? If yes, which one? Would you like to add any feature to the game?If yes, which one? An interesting fact is that only 16,67% students (a total of 11) suggested features to be changed in the game and only 10,61% (a total of 7 students) proposed new ones to be added. Is Mathmatics between your favorite disciplines? In your opinion, had the game motivated the logic reasoning in maths? The game uses simple and easy words to understand? All informations were available when needed? W ere there informations that weren’t important in the rules or during the gameplay? Was it easy to understand what was going on during the gameplay? Have you found any errors in the game? Was it possible to notice the evolution of levels difficulties? Thus, the students who answered that Mathematics weren’t among their favorite subjects praised and liked the game. And students who already liked this discipline, became much more excited about the proposal of the game. It was possible to analyze the children during the tests and some interesting details were observed. At the start of the game the addition operation was more used, so that the moves were made only at the edges of the board and most of the students did not use the division and subtraction operations. Some students were more focused on find a best choice to mark on the board than on winning the 137 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) [7] CYBIS, Walter; BETIOL, Adriana Holtz; FAUST, Richard. Ergonomia e Usabilidade: Conhecimentos, Métodos e Aplicações. 2ª edição, São Paulo: Novatec, 2010. game. For this reason, the players began to help each other, even though opponents. 4. CONCLUSIONS This work presents the development and evaluation of a game as Learning Object called CalcPlusWeb. This is an online board game that works with the four basic mathematical operations and natural numbers, with the aim to stimulate the logical reasoning and mental calculations in Mathematics. [8] NIELSEN, Jakob. Usability Engineering. New York, NY: Academic Press, 1993. [9] GRASSIOULET, Yves. A Cognitive Ergonomics Approach to the Process of Game Design and Development. Dissertação de Mestrado, Universidade de Gênova, 2002. The game was developed in Java language, and the Applets technology was used to provide access through the Web. The graphic interface was created based on similar games. After its development, it was evaluated by sixty six students from 5th /6th grades. The evaluation consisted on the following phases: game presentation, rules introduction, experiment playing the game and evaluation answering a questionnaire. The results were very positive in all playability and usability aspects evaluated. Among all the satisfactory results, it is important to point out that the game achieved its purpose and stimulated the child interest in Mathematics. 5. REFERENCES [1] WILEY, David. Learning object design and sequency theory, 2000. Thesis (PhD) Brigham Young University, Provo, 2000. [2] TORI, Romero. Educação sem distância: as tecnologias interativas na redução de distâncias em ensino e aprendizagem. São Paulo: Editora Senac São Paulo, 2010. [3] FILATRO, Andrea. Design Instrucional na prática. São Paulo, Pearson Education do Brasil, 2008. [4] SMOLE, K.S.; DINIZ, M.I.; MILANI, E. Jogos de Matemática do 6° ao 9° ano. Cadernos do Mathema. Porto Alegre: Artmed, 2007. [5] KOSTER, Ralph. A theory offun for game design. Scottsdale, AZ: Paraglyph Press, 2005. [6] GAMES ONLINE. Avaiable at http:// www.jogoonlinegratis.com.br. Acessed in April, 2013. 138 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) Figure 1: Initial interface presenting the game rules Figure 2: Game interface during a gameplay 139 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) Perceptions of Electronic Health Records in Mississippi Jennifer L. Styron, Ph.D. College of Nursing, University of South Alabama Mobile, AL 36688, United States of America and Barry Cumbie, Ph.D. College of Business, The University of Southern Mississippi Hattiesburg, MS 36906, United States of America ABSTRACT EHR Characteristics, Benefits, Challenges Electronic health records are similar in basic purpose to the traditional, paper-based records; however, by virtue of being digital they are readily accessed, duplicated, shared, and transported via networks, the least not being the Internet. AHRQ [2] defines EHRs as, “an inclusive system of information technology software, hardware, peripherals, and network connectivity that must be selected, acquired, installed, implemented, taught, maintained, and secured.” The digital aspect of EHR opens up many possibilities ranging from patients who are empowered and engaged in their own care to aggregated databases of treatment outcomes and efficacy. This study reports perceptions of Electronic Health Record (EHR) adoption among key constituents in Mississippi to inform health care professionals and administrators about factors that influence the adoption and integration of EHRs into practice. The results from a survey conducted at two statewide health conferences in Mississippi indicated a high degree of optimism in regards to successful EHR adoption, but less for specific practices and in rural areas. These results are relevant to healthcare decision and policy makers to determine needed professional preparation and programming, if any, for current and future healthcare professionals; and to identify workforce development challenges lending insight into the technology skills needed to adopt and utilize EHRs at a meaningful level. Further, the assessment identified potential factors that may be associated with the current level of adoption of utilization of EHRs. As with any major technological shift, there are several complex challenges, potential improvements, and development opportunities associated with EHR adoption. The expected goals of EHR adoption are reduction of health costs resulting from inefficiencies and duplications, quality of care improvement, better coordinated care across the continuum of healthcare services, promotion of evidence-based medicine, and improvement of record keeping and mobility [3; 4; 5; 6; 7]. Improvements in quality of care are expected from providing appropriate guidance to help guide medical decisions at the time and place of care and the reductions of medical errors, health disparities, incorrect patient information, and inappropriate and/or duplication of care. These outcomes work to advance the objective of patient-centered medical delivery [8]. Keywords: Electronic Health Records, Health Information Technology, Health Informatics, and Technology Adoption INTRODUCTION William Hovarth recounts the experience of the British Air Defense Command circa World War Two: “To make effective use of [new technological developments such as radar] required drastic overhaul of inappropriate operating procedures and outmoded combat organizations. This is the situation facing the health industry today ” [1, p. B-276]. He identifies the resistance among physicians to avoid interference and protect the privacy of their patients, yet points out the sharp rise of costs for consumers and hospitals as an impetus for change. Hovarth wrote this in 1968 speaking about the need for operational management techniques in the health industry. The situation today is similar; with EHR as an available technology envisaged to curtail rising costs, yet one that can disrupt organizational structure and medical practice, with risk of exposure of confidential patient records to new security threats. Hovarth issues a caution to management scientists, “For, if they are not careful, they may arouse unrealistic expectations of quick solutions to all managerial and organizational problems of the health field. These expectations could quickly turn into disillusionment in the face of the hard realities of dealing with the complexities in the organization of medical care” [1, p. B276]. Some 40 years later, we must balance the expectation of EHRs with the complex reality of the healthcare industry. Challenges associated with EHR adoption include compliance with federal legislation and state and federal privacy laws (HIPAA), EHR certification, technology development, rural and urban adoption, maintenance and support, and competitive choices [9; 10; 11; 12; 13; 14; 15]. In addition to the relationship with a complex health care environment, EHR adoption faces other significant adoption barriers including initial and ongoing investment; insufficient return on investments; lost productivity; increased legal exposure; increased management and administration effort; training and professional development; and changes on established business practices [13; 14; 16; 17; 18]. Further, these systems face regulatory scrutiny. The time and cost associated with the adoption of EHRs are significant and include the opportunity costs of productivity loss and taking resources from other investments such as new medical equipment [15]. Even with federal subsidy, provider adoption of EHR remains a complex problem, with basic adoption rates estimates around one in five [2; 19]. For one, EHR is but one component of a 140 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) complex and dynamic health care industry. The national EHR adoption mandate comes amid other health care reforms (e.g. universal health insurance coverage) and the intersections of emerging technologies including consumer health IT applications [20] and telemedicine, economic hardships, political uncertainty, judicial scrutiny, and environmentally related conditions (e.g. health concerns arising after the Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill in the Gulf of Mexico in 2010). As a whole, EHR adoption is not a singular problem but interdependent with many other equally important and resourceheavy issues. perform. Two constructs common to the Technology Acceptance Model [24] and Diffusion of Innovation Theory [25]: (6) EHRs are useful, and (7) EHRs are easy to use. The open-ended items are as follows: (8) What is the most advantageous aspect of EHRs?, (9) What is the most challenging aspect of EHRs?, (10) What aspect about EHR is not being adequately addressed?, (11) In 2014 Medicare and Medicaid will require EHR systems to be in place for practices to avoid a 1% non- compliance penalty. What impact will this requirement have on the practice community?, (12) What types of resources do you think are needed to spread the adoption and usage EHRs in the state?, and (13) What types of legal challenges (if any) have been identified with EHR adoption and use? Achieving a better understanding of adoption rates – at what stage and how they got there? – is a fundamental step toward improving healthcare outcomes. This problem is complex, given the background of EHR adoption, including the innate challenges of and training necessary when adopting a new technology, the special challenges of medical providers in rural and underserved areas, the nature of technology and the industry, and the overarching sociopolitical climate. This study therefore looks to gain insight into the nature of EHR adoption among by gathering perceptions from key healthcare constituents. Questionnaires were disseminated at two statewide conferences: the Mississippi Health Summit (Spring, 2011) and the Mississippi Rural Health Association Annual Conference (Fall, 2011). Following collection, data were analyzed for similarities and differences among responses to determine perceptions of potential factors that may be associated with the current level of adoption of utilization of EHRs. Recurrent themes among rural healthcare professionals were also drawn for open form questions to better understand the connection (if any) of these themes in accordance with Stage One Eligible Professional Meaningful Use Core and Menu Set Measures for Electronic Health Records. METHODOLOGY Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study is to investigate the perceptions of EHRs and the resources needed of health care professionals and administrators to determine the factors that influence the adoption and meaningful use of EHRs. Eisner’s Connoisseurship Model of Inquiry was used as the framework for this study and focuses on two key areas of connoisseurship and criticism [21; 22]. His approach is one of many frameworks in qualitative research and identifies that such research is both subjective and objective. In Eisner’s model of inquiry, connoisseurship suggests that the researcher captures the data and transform it into some type of public form in order to disseminate knowledge on the phenomenon studied. The second area to this model, criticism, implies that the research process of collecting data is a subjective and objective process (or “transactive” as defined by Eisner), thus the researcher needs not only to disseminate the information, but also provide a critique of findings in a positive and/or negative manner [21]. Participants Questionnaires were distributed to 279 conference participants attending either the 2011 Mississippi Health Summit at The University of Southern Mississippi in Hattiesburg, Mississippi (April 2011) or the 2011 Mississippi Rural Health Association annual conference held at the Clyde Muse Center in Pearl, Mississippi (September 2011). Participants at the Mississippi Health Summit (n = 165) and the Mississippi Rural Health Association (n = 114) annual conference included health-related professionals and public officials in the State of Mississippi. The research team received 50 completed questionnaires for a total response rate of 18%. FINDINGS Demographic Data The first section of the questionnaire was demographic to collect information about the participant including consent for participation, participant’s name, organizational affiliation, current position and title, the number of years in the current position, and other relevant experience. Participant names, titles, and organizational names were omitted to ensure confidentiality. Research Design A brief questionnaire was developed specifically for this study to identify common themes and issues associated with EHR adoption and usage. The questionnaire deployed was used to gather quantitative and qualitative data and consisted of demographic, five point Likert-scale, and open-ended questions. Items were based on existing adoption theory, although not intended to be a comprehensive theory-testing instrument. Of the 49 participants who reported organizational affiliations in this study, the highest (34%) were from state organizations (n= 17). Followed by medical centers (n = 11) and academic institutions (n= 11), each accounted for 22% of reporting participants. Slightly less than one quarter (24%) of the participants reported 10 or more years of experience with 50% (n= 25) being within the first five years of employment (n= 25). Participants indicated their level of agreement (from strongly agree to strongly disagree) to the seven items. The first set dealing with their perceived level of optimism regarding EHR adoption. The first I am optimistic about the rate of successful EHR adoption (1) in general, (2) in Mississippi, (3) in Mississippi’s stand-alone practices, and (4) in Mississippi’s rural healthcare settings. The next item, drawing from the Task Technology Fit Model [23] relates to alignment between tasks characteristics and technology characteristics: (5) EHRs currently match the tasks that the health care professionals Participants were also asked if about their relevant experience related to healthcare. Twenty-eight participants responded to this item. Of these, eleven (39%) reported practical experience including nursing, clinical physician practice, and clinical 141 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) administration; and eight (29%) reported education experience such as teaching, advising, and obtaining a graduate degree in a healthcare related field. Other categorical experience included four reporting health information management experience including computer programming, health information management, and electronic medical and health record management; three reporting state organization experience with the Mississippi State Department of Health (MSDH); two reporting assessment experience including administrative positions overseeing assessment and experience as an analyst; and four reporting other experience not directly related to healthcare including social security, serving as an education governing board member, public accounting and consulting. The second theme, improves clinical processes, is defined as any type of improvement to the current practices and processes of clinicians. Categories within the improving clinical processes theme included the ability of EHRs: to increase disaster preparedness, improve clinical measuring and reporting, increase decision support, promote the continuity of care and the coordination of services for a patient, increase clinician efficiency, provide enhanced referrals, and utilize electronic prescriptions also known as e-prescriptions. The third theme, increases record system functionality, is defined as those advantages associated with the increased functionality of using an electronic health record system. The categories included: improves clinician work flow, decreases error reduction, decreases duplication of services, increases patient quality care, and promotes quality care improvement. Additionally, the use of an EHR system as it relates to the system’s functionality is that is allows for remote access, and improves billing processes, increases portability, increases convenience, and increases the speed of which healthcare information can be accessed and retrieved. Descriptive Data Next, participants were solicited about professional opinions as related to the adoption and use of EHRs. Most participants were optimistic about the adoption of electronic health records in general however were less optimistic in specific relation to Mississippi. Table 1 provides an overview of descriptive data reported on electronic health record system adoption. Table 1. Levels of Optimism for EHR Adoption.* Minimum General 1.00 Mississippi (MS) 1.00 MS stand-alone practice 1.00 MS RHC practices 1.00 * n = 49 Maximum 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 Mean 4.02 3.63 3.10 3.08 Challenges Associated with EHR Adoption and Use Themes developed to address the responses to the most challenging aspects of EHRs and the aspects of EHRs that are not adequately being addressed include financial challenges, technology issues, policy concerns, and organizational factors. Each of these themes along with the respective categories associated with the theme will be provided below. SD .94 1.15 1.07 1.20 Approximately 48% of the 49 participants believed EHRs match current practitioner task while (32%) were indifferent. All participants agreed to some level that EHRs are useful with 64% of the respondents (n = 32) indicating strong agreement and 18% somewhat agreeing. When asked whether EHRs are easy to use almost half (48%) of the participants (n = 24) reported some level of agreement, while 36% (n = 18) were indifferent. The first theme, financial challenges, is used to define any challenge of EHR adoption and its use that is associated with a financial barrier. Categories found within financial challenges included the cost associated with the adoption (initial start up costs), implementation, software equipment, and maintenance of the system including equipment upgrades and software updates; the lack of broadband coverage; and the lack of resources needed to provide support help, training, and education on how to meaningfully use EHRs. The open-ended questions explored the most advantageous aspects of EHRs, the most challenging aspects of EHR, the aspect(s) of EHR that is not being adequately addressed, the impact of the mandate by Medicare and Medicaid to utilize EHRs in a meaningful way by 2014 to avoid a 1% penalty, the types of resources needed to spread the adoption and usage of EHRs in Mississippi, and the types of legal challenges (if any) that have been identified with EHR adoption and use. Responses from this section were organized into themes through three rounds; the first of categorical identification and response selection, then further refined the selected categories by compiling those categories that emerged with similar themes. The third round of analysis grouped categories into identifiable and explainable themes. Developed themes will be discussed in detail for each question. Technology issues were another theme and describe categorical responses that related specifically to barriers associated the technology needed to utilize an EHR system. Categories included the lack of a standardized program; EHR system relevance, compatibility, complexity, flexibility, and reliance; the ability of vendors to meet healthcare providers and clinical needs; the lack of convenience and ease of use associated with using EHRs; the difficulty (or lack of) in providing clinical customization; and the strain associated with required workflow changes needed to successfully utilize EHR systems. The third theme, policy concerns, is defined as those related to security, confidentiality, and workload concerns. Categories in this section included issues and concerns related to patient confidentiality, the ambiguity of a universal database for storage (risk of abuse and privacy breaches), system compatibility specific to linking across fragmented healthcare services, and increased documentation requirements by regulatory agencies. Advantages of EHR Adoption and Use The three predominant themes of perceived advantages of EHR adoption and use are that these systems improve data, improve clinical processes, and increase record system functionality. The first of these, improve data, is defined as any type of advantage in which the respondent thinks EHRs improve healthcare data that is available to practicing healthcare professionals. Categorical topics that were included in this theme include: centralized data, ability to share data, uniformity within the data, ability to have paperless data, and that the data related to an individual’s healthcare is compiled. Organizational factors, the final theme, describes the categories that are associated with the motivation and perceptions of healthcare workforce and the ability of the provider supply adequate training, education, and resources needed to successfully integrate EHRs into practice. Categories among 142 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) this theme included perceptions and willingness of healthcare professionals to “buy-in” or “adopt” EHRs, the lack of comprehensive data available within EHRs, deficiency in available training and education for healthcare professionals, lack of ability to implement systems based on provider size or geographic location, and the learning curve associated with the integration of an EHR system. participant responses did not fit into the emerging themes. The first theme was a decrease in the number of providers and healthcare professionals. Categories included the retirement of older physicians, the disincentive to accept Medicare and Medicaid beneficiaries in clinics, the decrease in the number of providers and practices available, increased service cost (as a result of non-compliant penalties) for those providers unwilling to adopt EHRs, and the disincentive for healthcare professionals to continue work in the field. Aspects of EHRs Inadequately Addressed In addition to identifying challenges associated with EHR adoption and use, participants were asked to identify the aspects of EHRs that are not being addressed. Because this question is an extension of the challenges associated with electronic health record adoption and use, four of the same themes were found which include financial concerns, technology issues, and policy concerns, and organizational factors. Additionally some responses did not fit into these four themes therefore a fifth category, other, was created to recognize and report these categories. The acceleration of adoption was also reported by many respondents as a result of the mandate to utilize EHRs as many providers and physicians would not want to face the noncompliance penalty. Increased compliance categories that emerged within the compliance theme included general compliance with Medicare and Medicaid, an increase of EHR non-use in provider medical liability, an increase in pressure on the vendors to meet deadlines, and an increase in accountability to adopt some type of EHR system and use it in meaningful ways. Financial concerns in relationship to aspects of EHRs that are not being adequately addressed included the needed technology support by providers to successfully purchase, install, maintain, and utilize EHR systems; the lack of resources of current providers to be able to provide appropriate training, education, and time release for current professionals; the costs associated with upgrades and updates to the system; and the lack of funding available for providers to integrate and utilize EHR systems meaningfully, specifically costs associated once the initial incentives currently available are removed or no longer available. Increased costs was another theme and included categories such as: additional costs associated with training, the economic impact the mandate with have on healthcare providers’ operating costs, and increased cost associated with adequate release time for healthcare professionals to learn how to use EHRs. The other category was identified to include responses that did not correlate with the emerging categories and themes associated with this questionnaire item. Responses in this theme included responses such as “not sure,” “little or no change,” or “huge and significant.” In addition, one respondent stated that the mandate will decrease the time with patients.” Although these responses appropriately answered the question, they did not fit within the emerging themes. Technology issue categories that responders felt are not currently addressed include the effectiveness of system usability, system compatibility with other EHR systems regionally, statewide, nationally, and internationally; the follow-up capabilities of EHR systems; the technology comfort levels of current healthcare professionals; system outages; challenges with eprescribing; the environmentally friendly aspect of being paperless; and how to safely transfer data to and from other sources. Resources Needed to Adopt and Use EHRs The three prominent themes for the types of resources needed to spread the adoption and usage of EHRs in the state include support, coordination and collaborative efforts, and financial assistance or incentives. Almost unanimously were the first three themes among respondents however a fourth category was established for other responses that did not fit into the three emerged themes for resources. In relationship to the aspects of EHRs that are not currently being addressed, public education (or lack of) was the only category associated within the organizational factor theme. Three respondents were unsure of the current aspects not being addressed with EHRs or did not provide specific information recognizable for placement into a category. One respondent stated, “Most of it is being addressed.” The second respondent stated, “None that I’m aware of.” Finally, the third participant stated, “Not sure.” In order to recognize these responses (while they do not provide any insight into specific aspects that aren’t being addressed by EHRs) the other category to ensure these answers were also reported. Support for resources to assist in the adoption and use of electronic health records included the following categories technology training and support, education, webinars, increased IT staff in the healthcare facilities, and broadband access. Coordination and collaborative efforts categories included collaboration with community organizations, statewide meetings, the need for a statewide coordinated system, applicant assistance while adopting and utilizing electronic health records, and participation and collaboration of insurance companies during the adoption process. Impact of EHR Requirement on Practice Community Participants were also asked to indicate the impact of the 2014 Medicare and Medicaid requirement on the practice community. This requirement will result in a 1% non-compliance penalty for those who do not utilize EHRs in meaningful ways. Themes emerging from participant responses included a decrease in providers, accelerated adoption, compliance, and cost. A fifth category, other, was also created for this item as some of the Financial assistance and/or incentives was the most commonly cited resource with categories including state and federal funding (incentives and assistance) to assist with the infrastructure, purchase, implementation, and maintenance of electronic health record systems, affordable technology training 143 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) and education for healthcare professionals, and the ability to add IT costs to capital payment models for cost reimbursement to Medicare and Medicaid in order to assist in the financial costs of adopting an electronic health record system. be particularly useful in rural areas where individuals may have to travel greater distances to receive medical treatment as their health records would be able to be easily retrieved and shared when utilizing an electronic health record system. Other responses included more involvement from public relations, documentation for electronic health records, and the removal of the EHR requirement allowing the providers to decide whether or not they should adopt electronic health records. Additionally, one participant responded that they were not sure of the resources needed to adopt and utilize electronic health records. Identified perceived challenges currently associated with the adoption and use of electronic health records included financial challenges, technology issues, policy concerns, and organizational factors. Financial challenges may significantly impact the adoption process for electronic health records. While incentives are in place to assist providers in adopting EHRs, these funds are not adequate to purchase, train, implement, and sustain electronic health record systems. Further, some healthcare professionals believe the costs of adopting and using electronic health records outweigh the non-compliance penalties that will go into effect in 2014. Additionally, many rural healthcare providers are older and findings indicate that these mandates decrease incentives for aging healthcare providers to continue practicing with could result in a reduction of the number of providers and healthcare professionals currently practicing in rural areas of Mississippi. Legal Challenges Associated with EHR Adoption and Use Themes relative to the types of legal challenges that have been identified with EHR adoption and use include confidentiality and privacy, data sharing and documentation, and system security. Participants consistently reported confidentiality of patient data and patient privacy as a legal challenge associated with utilizing electronic health records. In addition, the health insurance portability and accountability act of 1996, more commonly referred to as HIPAA, was another commonly reported legal concern in relation to protecting patient confidentiality and privacy. Additionally, providing patient’s the right to opt-out of electronic health records and health record sharing was also a cited concern. Along with financial issues are those challenges related to technology. Considerations include the relevance, compatibility, complexity, flexibility, and reliance of the system. Lack of standardized programs, convenience, and ease of use of the EHR systems continue to challenge the adoption and use of EHRs. Additionally, the difficulty associated with the required workflow changes, and any change to current practice in general, will create barriers to the adoption process. Maintaining patient confidentiality, the potential risk of abuse and privacy breaches, and increased amounts of documentation required by regulatory agencies are policy concerns of healthcare professionals. Further, the lack of standardized systems integrated within the state and the compatibility specific to linking across fragmented healthcare services presents challenges to the adoption process. Motivation and perceptions of healthcare workforce and the ability of the provider supply adequate training, education, and resources needed to successfully integrate EHRs into practice are also a challenge to adopting electronic health records. Without “buy-in” from key constituents, even with financial support, providers will find it difficult to properly adopt and utilize these systems. Data sharing and documentation was another theme that included categories such as data sharing and data access; the potential for unidentified health diagnoses or the lack of followup for abnormal results of labs and procedures; foreseeable problems with marginal charting by technology-challenged providers; the chance of late entry of notes; and the lack of standardized documentation. System security was also a theme and included the protection of individual identities, individual health records, and concerns about the likelihood of data breaches and computer hackers being able to obtain electronic health information more easily than with traditional systems and paper records. DISCUSSION Aspects that participants felt are not being adequately addressed included financial costs of adopting and supporting meaningful use of electronic health records, lack of resources to provide appropriate training and education for healthcare professionals, and the effectiveness of system usability and compatibility with other EHR systems regionally, and statewide. Additionally, down time required for system updates, upgrades and potential outages that may result from faulty or outdated equipment should also be evaluated. Such concerns will hinder the adoption and use of EHRs and may potentially cause providers to keep two sets of records (one paper and one electronic) that will result in increased workload and decreased levels of efficiency for clinicians. Healthcare professionals identified advantageous aspects of adopting and utilizing electronic health records which were consolidated into three general themes: improving data, improving clinical processes, and increasing record system functionality. Advantages of improving data included the ability of health records to be centralized, shared, uniformed, compiled and paperless. Additionally, the ability for EHRs to improve clinical processes including clinical measuring and reporting, enhancing available decision support, and promoting the continuity and coordination of care provide the potential for decreased duplication of services, the ability to better coordinate and ensure the continuity of patient care, and access to tools which could assist healthcare professionals in decision support. Finally, the ability of electronic health record systems to improve record system functionality provides the opportunity to alleviate time-consuming processes such as billing, can decrease errors in patient services, and may improve patient care by providing quick, convenient opportunities for health care providers to access medical information. These advantages may Identified themes relevant to the impact of the EHR requirement on the practice include an accelerated adoption model, a decreased number of providers and healthcare professionals, and increased compliance and costs associated with the adoption of EHRs. Participants had two opposite perspectives on the impact of the mandate. One group of respondents believed the 144 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) mandate would accelerate the adoption process and increase compliance with the mandate. Because financial incentives are built in for early adopters and penalties will not start for noncompliance until 2014, it may be beneficial for providers to get on board early to recoup some of the financial burdens of adopting EHRs within their practices. Categories within this theme include the additional costs associated with training, the economic impact the mandate with have on healthcare providers’ operating costs, and the increased cost associated with adequate release time for healthcare professionals to learn how to use EHRs. legitimate concern for healthcare providers and professionals. Communication problems can result in an increased risk for clinical negligence or medical malpractice and the ability for information to be entered electronically with no clear communication standard in place may increase the probability of such an issue arising. System security should also be included in legal concerns as the protection of individual identities, individual health records and the ability for illegal hacking and confiscating personal information being heightened with the use of multiple electronic health records systems. LIMITATIONS & FUTURE RESEARCH The other group of respondents pointed to a complete opposite perspective indicating that older physicians may retire due to the mandate that will decrease the number of providers and professionals in rural healthcare community. This is a cause for concern as the state of Mississippi already has the lowest doctor per capita of any state in the United States. This may lead to a greater disparity in provided healthcare to those citizens within rural areas and widen the gap between the services these citizens are provided. Further, the increased costs incurred by healthcare providers who may be already financially struggling to stay afloat may impact the number of providers and healthcare professionals within the state. State resources such as financial assistance and training and education may be one solution to assisting professionals in rural areas. While the study provides general perceptions of EHRs within the state of Mississippi it is not guaranteed that these perceptions are representative of the rural area population. Further, while the findings of this study provide insights for the state of Mississippi, they may not be useful in forming generalizations about other southeastern rural areas or national rural areas. Thus, caution should be taken when considering the potential implications of this study when compared to other state rural areas. Information derived from this study may serve as a foundation for future research studies involving the adoption and use of EHRs in rural areas on a state, regional, or national level. Convenience and maximal variation sampling techniques were utilized for the needs assessment with the selection of participants based on attendance at a statewide healthcare conference. This sampling was utilized to gather information from participants who displayed different attitudes and rates of adoption of electronic health record adoption and use. Among the resources identified that are needed to adopt and use electronic health records includes support, coordination and collaborative efforts, and financial assistance and incentives. Most respondents reported the need for technology training and support, education, and professional development opportunities such as conferences or webinars. Additionally, respondents indicated the need for additional IT healthcare care and broadband access to the list of support needed. CONCLUSION Based on the findings it is evident that that most healthcare professionals are optimistic about the successful adoption and use of electronic health records in general. However, when asked about their optimism for adoption in Mississippi, selfreported levels of optimism were lower than optimism levels in general. Mean scores for levels of optimism for Mississippi’s stand-alone practices and rural healthcare practices were low with rural healthcare practices reporting the lowest mean score (M = 3.08, SD = 1.20). This suggests that healthcare professionals in the state of Mississippi are generally optimistic about electronic health record adoption however are less likely to be optimistic about the adoption of EHRs within the state. There was also recurring theme of statewide collaboration including a statewide coordinated system, and partnerships with community organizations. Applicant assistance while adopting and utilizing electronic health records and participation of insurance companies during the adoption process were also mentioned as resources needed to successfully integrate EHRs. Financial assistance was the most commonly cited resource needed with categories including state and federal funding (incentives and assistance) to assist with the infrastructure, purchase, implementation, and maintenance of electronic health record systems, affordable technology training and education for healthcare professionals, and the ability to add IT costs to capital payment models for cost reimbursement to Medicare and Medicaid in order to assist in the financial costs of adopting an electronic health record system. Clearly the current incentive program by Medicare and Medicaid does not adequately support the adoption and meaningful use of electronic health records. Further, findings from this study suggest further research should be conducted to investigate perceptions of Mississippi’s rural healthcare practices, as reported levels of optimism were the lowest for this particular group within the state. Since rural healthcare settings typically have scarce resources, few providers, and large numbers of Medicare and Medicaid patients, it is imperative that factors that impede or facilitate EHR adoption, specific to this population, should be explored. Failure to better understand this unique setting and the challenges of EHR adoption and use will result in a greater disparity of healthcare services provided in rural areas of the state. Legal challenges associated with EHR adoption and use included confidentiality and privacy, data sharing and documentation and system security. As privacy is already a huge concern in regards to patient information with such acts as HIPAA in place it is not surprising that respondents felt confidentiality and privacy are appropriate legal concerns and will increase liability for breaches in information. Additionally the increased risk for unidentified health diagnoses or the lack of follow-up for abnormal results of labs and procedures, etc. is a 145 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) REFERENCES [1] Hovarth, R. J. (1968). Organizational and management problems in the delivery of medical care. Management Science, 14(6), B-275-B-279. [2] AHRQ (2010a). Health IT in small and rural communities, available from the AHRQ National Research Center at AHRQ.com, retrieved 25 October, 2010, from http://healthit.ahrq.gov/ [3] Ferris, N. (2010). Meaningful Use of Electronic Health Records. Health Affairs. 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Consumer health IT applications, available from the AHRQ National Research Center at AHRQ.com, retrieved 25 October, 2010, from http://healthit.ahrq.gov/ [21] Willis, J. R. (2007). Foundations of qualitative research: Interpretive and critical approaches. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications, Inc. [22] Eisner, E. (1997). The enlightened eye: Qualitative inquiry and the enhancement of educational practice. Columbus, OH: Merrill. [23] Goodhue, D. L. & Thompson, R. L. (1989). Understanding user evaluations of information systems. MIS Quarterly, 19(2), 213-236. [24] Davis, F. D. (1989). Perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, and user acceptance of information technology. MIS Quarterly, 13(3), 319–340. [25] Rogers, E. M. (2003). Diffusion of Innovations (Fifth ed.). New York: Free Press. 146 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) Expertise Evaluation using PathFinder Networks Scaling in Ranking of Satellite Images Adrian S. Barb Information Science Department, Penn State Great Valley Malvern, PA 19355 Email: adrian@psu.edu visual patterns and to the coexistence of visual patterns related to multiple semantics in each image. For example, Figure 1 shows some examples of geospatial images that contain visual patterns related to multiple semantics of interest. For example image tile in Figure 1(a) shows an example of a barren area which occupy more than 50% of the tile. While analysis would have little issues in assigning this barren as semantic metadata to this image, they would have a more difficult choice when evaluating the existence of urban areas or wetlands which occupy less than 12% of the image tile. Similar patterns are shown in Figure 1(b) and Figure 1(c) where grassland and shrubland may render subjective interpretations by coexisting with urban area and forest respectively. In this context, it is important to recognize and evaluate the degree of expertise of individuals that contribute to a community that evaluates images by semantics. ABSTRACT In this article we propose a methodology to evaluate the level of expertise of image analysts when searching domain-specific images by semantics. We apply our methodology to ranking high-resolution satellite images by semantics. Our methodology applies PathFinder Network Scaling methods to create concept maps for representing associations of semantics to regions of a feature space for each image analyst. The relevance of each node in a concept map is evaluated using a hits authority algorithm. The expertise of each image analyst is then evaluated by comparing to ground truth models using the Kendall tau rank correlation coefficient. Our system allows us to identify areas of expert disagreement by evaluating the relative difference individual models place on features as well as recommend areas of that needs to be stressed by novice image analysts. Keywords: data mining, Pathfinder Network, expertise, content-based image retrieval, ranking, geospatial images. 1 Several data reduction algorithms [14, 23, 12] can be applied to reduce dimensionality and correlation of data, as well as to maximize data information and increase understandability of the generated models [8]. Pathfinder Network analysis [15, 20] is a methodology that evaluates models’ structure by comparing the similarity of model constituents using co-occurrence measures. It can be applied for elicitation and analysis of knowledge structures in raw data. Each model is considered a network where concepts are represented as nodes connected by their strongest links to proximal/related concepts. The concept of Pathfinder Network analysis can be extended to image analysis where feature regions are concepts that explain a visual pattern. They have the advantage of better representing the localized rather than global characteristics of the model structure [6]. INTRODUCTION Supervised learning for domain-specific image ranking is a very important research area of machine learning. A critical assumption is that supervised training methods can guaranty successful exploitation of existing information to generate useful patterns that can generalize well when applied to new, not yet evaluated data sets. Part of such assumption is that the training data is covering the semantic domain at a high level of accuracy. Consequently, supervised methods rely heavily on the quality of semantic metadata as assigned by image analysts. Previous research [3] shows that such ranking models are likely to overfit [11] fact that may render the models as unfit to predict new, unlabeled data. A diverse range of researches [5, 7, 10, 21, 22] address the issue of ranking quality by providing several data mining algorithms, to represent the complex domain knowledge found in images. Among such methods, ensembles [17, 19, 24] address overfitting by building multiple models on subsets of the training data and combining the results to produce a more accurate predictive model. However these methods are highly dependent on the quality of manually assigned semantic labels by image analysts. In this paper we explore methods for evaluating expertise levels of image analysts using PathFinder Network Scaling methods in conjunction with additive associative models for ranking domain-specific images by semantics. We have chosen associative ranking due to their whitebox approach that allows us to pinpoint to the main areas of disagreement among image analysts. For each image analyst we generate cross-folder associative ranking models [2], which are averaged for better representation of experts’ models, reduced with a PathFinder network Attaching semantic information to domain-specific images, such as geospatial, is difficult due to complex 147 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) algorithm, and pruned of irrelevant association. This paper is organized as follows: In Section II we present the methodology used to evaluate the level of expertise, (a) in Section III we perform experimental evaluation, and then in Section IV we conclude the article with future work. (b) (c) Figure 1. Geospatial image tiles with multiple possible semantic assignments. 2 ( METHODOLOGY In this section we present our methodology for evaluating image analysts’ expertise when ranking satellite image tile by semantic. The key feature of our methodology is the construction of additive, associative semantic models by choosing feature spaces that maximize area under the curve (AUC) value on the training set. Features are grouped in categories of interest such as color, object shape, etc. so that each association mined contain only features from same category. Once a combination of features is selected, we model the assignment using sigmoid possibilistic functions. Further, sets of feature spaces are used additively to model the correlation to a semantic . To evaluate which subspace is the most relevant we also apply genetic operations at this level. ) ( [ ( ( Each semantic model is a set of associations between feature regions and a semantic of interest that are optimized to maximize the AUC value. For example, Figure 2 shows a mapping of a semantic into a twodimensional feature space formed from two object orientation features. When a new image is presented to the system, the features are computed and the relevance of the image to the semantic of interest is computed using the procedure explained below. The extracted features are grouped into natural categories C such as, object orientation, color, or texture. Each association rule maps region of the feature space into the semantic of interest . ) { ( )} where ( )] ( ) The function is an asymmetric double sigmoid possibilistic distribution (L - left and R - right) that models the relevance of a measurement to a semantic . Each half sigmoid is controlled by two parameters: (a) center (1) and (b) width (2) while is weight of the relevance retrieved by the g and it is shaped using the relevance assessments provided by image analysts for the semantic of interest. For details of this mapping function, the reader is referred to [5]. The relevance of an image to an association rule over a semantic is determined by the relevance of the feature values of the image over region of the feature space : Semantic Model for Image Ranking ( ) )) | ( ) (3) Further, for each semantic we create a semantic model { } defined as the set of mappings of subspaces of into a semantic space . The overall relevance ( | ) of an image with feature measure , to a semantic is computed by using a weighted average of relevance to each feature subspace : (| ) ∑ ( ) Finally, results are sorted in descending order of ( | ) and AUC is computed as an aggregate measure of (1) 148 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) ranking across all the recall levels for each model over a feature space . accumulated in the semantic metadata attached to each training image and derived by mining associations between features and a semantic . For more accurate results, we construct multiple such concept maps using cross-fold methods which are ensembled into one average model. Such ensemble conceptual maps are better fit for comparing and contrasting semantic models from different image analysts. To achieve a final concept map for a semantic-analyst pair, we apply a Pathfinder Network Scaling algorithm to simplify and evaluate each semantic model. The generated conceptual map contains feature categories as nodes and proximal relationships as vertices. This article extends the research in [4, 9] by creating concept map representations of semantic models for each image analyst with the goal of identifying similarities and differences to ground truth semantic information. We generate each concept map using a four steps algorithm: (1) co-occurrence matrices are constructed for each semantic-analyst pair using cross-fold experiments, (2) co-occurrence matrices are aggregated to generate a unique semantic-analyst matrix representation, (3) Pathfinder Network Scaling are applied to the resulting network to elicit internal knowledge structures, and (4) irrelevant nodes of the PathFinder network are pruned using a threshold on node strength. for Figure 2. Example of semantic model for a semantic of interest In the first step, the resulting feature subspaces are associated to feature categories as explained in Section 0. Then, the data mining algorithm in Section 0 is applied to cross-fold subsets of the training set. Each association in a model contains only features from one feature category C. The set of relevance measures ( ) is computed for each image in the training which is ranked in a descending order. The co-occurrence matrix CM is defined over the feature categories as a matrix and it is populated by incrementing each cell as follows: [ ] (1) for every , increment by and (2) for every sequence [ ] increment [ ] by a value of ( ) . In the second step, we generate a unique cross-fold co-occurrence matrix by summation and normalization of all the fold-specific cooccurrence matrices. In step 3, we apply a Pathfinder Network Scaling algorithm to the average network to reduce the irrelevant raw proximal vertices and convert the co-occurrence matrix into a least-weighted path of linked feature subspaces [9, 20]. Finally, in the last step, we compute the HITS authority score [16] of each node and we further simplify the PathFinder network by applying a threshold on authority of nodes at two standard deviations from the average. This network is then used to evaluate the expertise of an image analyst to ranking images by a semantic. Semantic Model Generation Although associative methods have the advantage in better interpretation, they are difficult to train and optimize due to the fact that the subspace generation is exponential to the number of possible subspaces. This makes brute force associative methods NP-hard [13]. To address this issue, we use a genetic algorithm [2] to reduce the complexity of the problem. Although genetic algorithms are greedy, they have the advantage of avoiding local maximum traps. The key feature of our genetic algorithm is the usage of genetic operations at both feature and subspace levels. At the feature level, we vary the set of features used to mine association rules while at the subspace level we vary the region for the same feature set that will be used in ranking. Using genetic operations we randomly choose and evolve combinations of feature using methods such as crossovers, shrink, constant, or grow mutations. Once a combination of feature is selected, we randomly generate and evolve features subspaces modeled by sigmoid possibilistic functions. Further, sets of feature spaces are used additively to model correlation to a semantic of interest. To evaluate which subspace is the most relevant we also apply genetic operations at this level. For a more in-depth description of the training algorithm, the reader is directed to [2]. PathFinder Network Analysis Once a semantic model is generated, we can convert it to a concept map that represents the knowledge 149 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) 3 Further, we selected a number of 1,124 tiles that were labeled by an expert with one or more labels from the Urban Area (L100), Shrubland (L250), and Other (L260). We will further refer to this expert as groundtruth. In this semantic assignment, 121 tiles were labeled Urban Area (L100), 128 were labeled Shrubland (L250), and 15 were labeled both. Further, 22 tiles were labeled with both Urban Area (L100) and Other (L260) while 8 were labeled with both Urban Area (L100) and Other (L260). Two other image analysts (expert1 and expert2), which are the subject of the experiment, performed the semantic assignment on the same image data set and semantic labels. For example, expert1 ranked 125 images labeled Urban Area (L100), 121 tiles Shrubland (L250), and one tiles with both. Similarly, expert2 ranked 123 images labeled Urban Area (L100), 118 tiles labeled Shrubland (L250), and nine tiles both. For each of the three image analysts, we trained semantic models on Urban Area (L100) and Shrubland (L250) using four-fold experiments. The information on each fold result was aggregated to construct average semantic models as described in Section 1. EVALUATION For our experiments we used the 2010 WROC satellite imagery data set of Wisconsin [1]. This data set contains 18”, 3-band GeoTIFF image tiles 15,678 x 11,105 pixels which was collected in spring 2010. Each of these images was partitioned into minimal overlapping 1000x1000 tiles. For each tile, a feature extraction algorithm was applied to include color, texture and object features. For each of these features average, quartile, standard deviation, skewness, and kurtosis were calculated resulting in a 292 feature vector for each tile. Each of these feature were assigned exclusively to 26 categories based on their meaning. For example, color features were assigned to eight categories for the RGB, HSV, and gray models. Also, object features were assigned exclusively to 14 categories based on area, centroid, bounding box, major and minor axis, eccentricity, orientation, convex area, filled area, Euler number, equivalent diameter, solidity, extent, or perimeter. The rest of categories were for texture and object phase congruency. (a) (b) (c) Figure 3. Aggregated model of semantic representation for the semantic Urban Area (L100) for the image analysts (a) groundtruth, (b) expert1, and (c) expert2. (a) (b) (c) Figure 4. Aggregated model of semantic representation for the semantic Shrubland (L250) for the image analysts (a) groundtruth, (b) expert1, and (c) expert2. 150 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) Figure 3 shows the resulting PathFinder Networks for Urban Area (L100) semantic models generated by image analysts using the Network Workbench Tool [18]. In this figure the sized of each node in the network in proportional with the authority score generated by the HITS algorithm [16]. For example, in Figure 1(a) node C18, which correspond to features related to object area, has the most relevance to ranking images by this semantic. However, Figure 1(b) shows that expert1 places more emphasis on features related to the category of features related to object bounding box (C11). We can conclude that this expert emphasize more features related to object solidity (C19) than features in the C18 category, which were expected if this image analyst matched the groundtruth expert. Similarly, Figure 1(b) shows the PathFinder network for expert2, which is much more similar to the one of the groundtruth expert. In both these networks features related to object area (c18) were the most authoritative .Overall these networks have less visible differences. We can also see some difference in the number of feature categories used in modeling semantics. For example, the groundtruth image analyst uses 19 feature categories to assess the presence of visual patterns associated with this semantic, expert one uses 18, while expert2 only 15. For example, expert2 does not use color features from the R spectrum (C01) although these features are considered relatively important by the groundtruth expert. Figure 4 shows the generated conceptual maps for ranking images by the Shrubland (L250) semantic. As shown in this figure, there are wider variations in identifying the most relevant feature categories for labeling images by this semantic. Figure 4(a) shows that the groundtruth expert places more importance on color features from the HSV encoding model (C03 and C05) and on object eccentricity (C13). Object phase congruency features (C24) are used predominantly by the expert1 while color saturation features (C05) are used by expert2. Table 1. Estimation of the level of expertise of image analysts groundtruth, expert1, and expert2for evaluating images by the Urban Area (L100) and Shrubland (L250) using Kendal tau rank correlation coefficient. L100 groundTruth groundTruth 1 expert1 expert2 L250 0.450735 0.733309 groundTruth groundTruth 1 expert1 expert2 0.416096 0.528562 expert1 0.450735 1 0.438968 expert1 0.416096 1 0.261851 expert2 0.733309 0.438968 1 expert2 0.528562 0.261851 1 To evaluate the expertise level of the image analysts (expert1 and expert2) we compute the Kendal tau ranking correlation between the pairs HITS authority scores. Results for this experiment are shown in Table 1. For ranking images by Urban Area (L100), the correlation between groundtruth and expert1 is 0.45 while the correlation between groundtruth and expert2 is 0.73. Although the two values show positive correlation of the two experts to the groundtruth, we observe that expert2 has a higher degree of expertise than expert1 when evaluating for Urban Area (L100). However, when ranking images by Shrubland (L250), the correlation between groundtruth and the two experts is rather similar at 0.42 for expert1 and 0.52 for expert2. This shows that expertise needs to be evaluated on a semantic assignment basis and different experts can discern different visual patterns with different accuracies. The evaluation of expertise brings also the advantages of pointing out expert training needs. For example, upon reviewing expertise levels of individual image analysts, training specialists can further evaluate the structure of each PathFinder network and focus the training procedure on an area of interest. 4 semantic of high resolution satellite images. We apply PathFinder network scaling methods to contrast and compare feature categories used by different image analysts when they assign semantic labels to domainspecific images. Our model has the advantage of being applicable in practice since it can suggest areas of high difference among experts’ perception of semantics, which can be used for training as well as for reaching agreement in organizations that perform such tasks. Our future work includes a more comprehensive evaluation on different domain-specific data and semantic sets as well as a more in-depth evaluation on accuracy of the resulting assessments. We also plan to evaluate methods of assessing the degree of truthfulness of ratings by ground truth image analysts. BIBLIOGRAPHY [1] The Wisconsin Regional Orthophotography Consortium (WROC), 2012. [2] A. S. Barb and C. S. Barb. Genetic methods for associative semantic ranking of landsat image regions by land cover. In Proceedings of Image Information Mining Workshop, pages 102–105, Oberpfaffenhofen, Germany, October 2012. European Space Agency and Joint Research Commissions. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK In this article, we have developed an approach to evaluate the level of expertise applied to image ranking by 151 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) [3] A. S. Barb and C. R. Shyu. A study of factors that influence the accuracy of content-based geospatial ranking systems,. International Journal of Image and Data Fusion, 3(3):257–268, September 2012. [4] A. S. Barb and Chi-Ren Shyu. Associative semantic ranking of satellite images using pathfinder network scaling ensemble methods. In Proc. IEEEGeoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium IGARSS 2012, 2012. [5] A.S. Barb and C.-R. Shyu. Visual-semantic modeling in content-based geospatial information retrieval using associative mining techniques. IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing Letters, 7(1):38 –42, jan. 2010. [6] I. Borg and P.J.F. Groenen. Modern Multidimensional Scaling: Theory and Applications. Springer Series in Statistics. Springer, 2005. [7] D. Bratasanu, I. Nedelcu, and M. Datcu. Bridging the semantic gap for satellite image annotation and automatic mapping applications. IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Applied Earth Observations and Remote Sensing, 4(1):193–204, 2011. [8] Christopher J. C. Burges. Dimension reduction: A guided tour. Foundations and Trends in Machine Learning, 2(4), 2010. [9] R.B. Clariana. Deriving individual and group knowledge structure from network diagrams and from essays. In Dirk Ifenthaler, Pablo Pirnay-Dummer, and Norbert M. Seel, editors, Computer-Based Diagnostics and Systematic Analysis of Knowledge, pages 117–130. Springer US, 2010. [10] M. Datcu and K. Seidel. Human-centered concepts for exploration and understanding of earth observation images. IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing, 43(3):601–609, 2005. [11] R.O. Duda, P.E. Hart, and D.G. Stork. Pattern classification. Pattern Classification and Scene Analysis: Pattern Classification. Wiley, 2001. [12] Kenji Fukumizu, Francis R. Bach, and Michael I. Jordan. Dimensionality reduction for supervised learning with reproducing kernel hilbert spaces. J. Mach. Learn. Res., 5:73–99, December 2004. [13] T. Hastie, R. Tibshirani, and J. Friedman. The Elements of Statistical Learning. Springer series in statistics. Springer, 2009. [14] Aapo Hyvärinen. Independent component analysis. Neural Computing Surveys, 2, 2001. [15] D.H. Jonassen, K. Beissner, and M. Yacci. Structural knowledge: techniques for representing, conveying, and acquiring structural knowledge. L. Erlbaum, 1993. [16] Jon M. Kleinberg. Hubs, authorities, and communities. ACM Comput. Surv., 31(4es):5, 1999. [17] K.J. Mackin, T. Yamaguchi, E. Nunohiro, Jong Geol Park, K. Hara, K. Matsushita, M. Ohshiro, and K. Yamasaki. Ensemble of artificial neural network based land cover classifiers using satellite data. In Systems, Man and Cybernetics, 2007. ISIC. IEEE International Conference on, pages 1653 –1657, oct. 2007. [18] NWB Team. Network Workbench Tool, 2006. [19] L. Rokach. Pattern Classification Using Ensemble Methods. Series in Machine Perception and Artificial Intelligence. World Scientific, 2010. [20] R. W. Schvanevelt. Pathfinder Associative Networks: Studies in Knowledge Organization. Norwood, NJ:Ablex, 1990. [21] C.-R. Shyu, M. Klaric, G. J. Scott, A. S. Barb, C. H. Davis, and K. Palaniappan. GeoIRIS: Geospatial information retrieval and indexing system - content mining, semantics modeling, and complex queries. IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing, 45(4):839–852, 2007. [22] O. Sjahputera, G.J. Scott, B.C. Claywell, M.N. Klaric, N.J. Hudson, J.M. Keller, and C.H. Davis. Clustering of detected changes in high-resolution satellite imagery using a stabilized competitive agglomeration algorithm. IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing, 49(12):4687 –4703, dec. 2011. [23] Michael E. Tipping and Chris M. Bishop. Probabilistic principal component analysis. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, Series B, 61:611–622, 1999. [24] P. Zhong and R. Wang. A multiple conditional random fields ensemble model for urban area detection in remote sensing optical images. IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing, 45(12):3978 –3988, dec. 2007. 152 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) Ebooks, Cost Savings, Creative Commons, and Enhancements to Lectures Dennis BIALASZEWSKI Management, Information Systems, and Business Education, Indiana State University Terre Haute, Indiana 47809, United States ABSTRACT and 18.6 million students in blended courses. [1] [2] Furthermore, findings show that many educators not only expect to increase their use of this approach in the coming years but also, several believe that blended learning is more effective than classroom-based teaching alone.[1] [3] In this paper we look at the changing trend in education as technology is being incorporated into assignments and lectures. Moreover, we will look at the use of ebooks in courses through an empirical study of a midwestern university. We will look how new copyright licenses such as Creative Commons has impacted assignments. CREATIVE COMMONS A movement towards open source thinking has led to a movement towards more free data availability for the student. Yet certain rights of the researchers gathering data should be maintained. . A result of these two actions is the Creative Commons licensing. This data availability has brought about several related changes. For example, there have been changes related to COPYRIGHT with data downloads easily accessible. The CREATIVE COMMONS licensing is starting to become commonplace. For example the website http://gs.statcounter.com/ allows one to download monthly data such as social media usage or browser usage by countries. Students can analyze trends in growth rates of mobile browsers and many other variables. This may lead them to further research into the demographics and technical advancements in the various countries. And although this “free” data can be used for research they cannot sell any of the results they obtain as the data is protected by the CREATIVE COMMONS licensing. The data can be used but not sold. Results of the research could not be published in any text that is sold because that would break the licensing agreement for the “free” data. However, this leads to many new KEYWORDS: ebooks, technology, Creative Commons, pedagogy, Information Systems, educational delivery INTRODUCTION There have been many changes in educational delivery as the field of education has adopted technology to transform methods of teaching. Education has gone from straight lecture of several years ago to incorporating experiential learning into the student educational experience. This experiential learning does not mean working with a business in the community but an access to a great deal of real world actual data for the purpose of analysis and research. Learning now takes places with a blending of lecture with technological advancements. “Blended Learning” is a combination of face to face mixed with technology based activities. Studies show a growing trend toward the use of this education model. Researchers estimate that by 2014, there will be 5.1 million higher education students solely in brick and mortar classrooms; 3.5 million students solely in online classrooms; 153 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) and a list of pages that contain SSD appear. The student just needs to click on the appropriate link and is taken directly to the relevant page. Of course not all ebooks are written to enable this but the majority of newly written texts are. Further links could be included to either access directly or copy and paste and the student can be taken to further detailed information related to SSDs. Links to relevant videos may be given that the instructor may access during a lecture. This availability also enhances class lectures as rather than project some Power Point of PREZZI images to the class, the instructor can easily bring up the text, scroll to the appropriate areas, and enter in appropriate links, and present relevant videos or sites to the class in a very organized fashion. This technological advancement makes lecture presentation easier as it relies on the built in organization and search inherent in the new ebook. Again, not all ebooks offer all conveniences but what many allow the reader to do is to make notes in the ebook, and highlight passages in various colors. For example, vitalsource.com uses the following color code for highlighting: Perhaps a yellow EBOOKS highlighted passage could be used for material they consider IMPORTANT and their own notes can be added, a red highlighting could be used Along with the availability of much more for NEEDS CLARIFICATION and again notes data at no cost, publishers and universities are can be added. For example, if a student has moving towards the utilization of ebooks. The some questions about that material he might ebook of the future is not just taking the printed include his question as a note at that point. A text and allowing it to be placed in a digital green highlight could be used for MAY BE ON format. The new ebooks include many links for EXAM so students might note that the instructor direct connectivity to a multitude of videos and hinted that this material might be on an exam. that can be accessed in the classroom or by the The color highlighting also can help the student without the drudgery of trying to enter in instructor with his/her class presentation as the some lengthy URL. The ebooks of the future instructor could add his/her own notes with will be very different than the old books of further clarification of material or add their own today. For example, if one was discussing important URL to go to at that point of their hardware in an introductory information lecture. They can use the e-book as a way to systems course, prior to ebooks, is a Solid enhance their own material with little additional State Drive was being discussed; quite some work. Notes can also be shared. time ago a student would look up the page Besides enhancing lectures these new numbers to find text information and then may books will dramatically reduce costs to see pictures in the text that raised the cost of the text. However, all one needs to do now 154 students. The costs to purchase of an ebook are much lower than the cost of a hard copy while reading the ebook is enter the term SSD developments for lecturing and course exercises. For example, a current ebook “INFORMATION SYSTEMS FOR THE FUTURE” by Bialaszewski [4] presents many student exercises whereby the student must use data that he may freely obtain in order to solve problems. The data from such websites is made available through a Creative Commons license. In the past, if data was accessible, tables might have been created, tables structured, and results printed in texts. This technique is somewhat limited and does not allow for original research to be performed by the student with original data. However, this new licensing allows for much more data to become available to the instructor, researcher, and student. The Creative Commons licensing allows one to use the data but one cannot sell the free data in any way. There are many more possibilities now for the researcher. Tables with data licensed through Creative Commons cannot be used to create tables in a text that the author could sell, however, exercises can be given to the student to create tables and perform other research using this free data. Again, of course the results cannot be sold. Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) book. Many ebook costs can even be lowered by opting to rent an ebook with a usual rental time of 6 months. However, these ebooks, at this time, are also offered in a printed version as some students still would rather carry around the text wherever they go. On the other hand, with the new ebooks, the student does not even need to carry around a laptop as the book could be accessed by just going to an open lab at the university or library. These developments also bring about the need for standardization. I have had no problems accessing material regardless of device used. When I lecture I just access the site and am ready with my lecture. Of course they are also accessible on mobile devices. If a student has their smart phone with them they then have their ebook with them. There is no need to buy special devices or particular ebook readers. Fonts can be adjusted. Although I confess, I enjoy using a wide screen desktop at home for my reading. Some may view these changes to be adopted gradually by some faculty. However, the question also is how adaptable are students to these changes, In the next section we will discuss survey results obtained from a study of the current situation at a Midwestern university. We will get a glimpse of how prevalent the use of ebooks are and how desirable the ebooks are for students at a typical large university. THE SURVEY METHODOLOGY AND USING EBOOKS An eighteen question survey was developed which covered areas such as the cost of texts, availability and preference of traditional printed version versus and ebook, propensity to purchase online, propensity to purchase used texts or to rent texts, as well as several related questions. Demographics were also collected such as gender, class standing, living on campus versus off campus and so forth. A method was devised for distributing the surveys randomly and originally 361 surveys had been collected. However, not all students answered all questions. It was also apparent that not all students took the time to carefully read all questions. For example, Questions 4 stated “I am taking ____________ courses this semester. “ There were students who entered in the value of 15 and perhaps they interpreted the question as how many credit hours are you taking this semester. However, it was decided to remove all surveys which had questionable responses rather than to assume an answer a respondent might have meant. All surveys collected with any question not answered were also removed. There was a strict removal process in order to ensure that the most accurate data was the only data included for the study. After removing any questionable data the data set contained 317 completely usable respondents. There were 176 undergraduate male respondents and 141 female respondents. There were 168 lower level (Freshmen or Sophomores) and 149 upper level (Junior or Senior) respondents. The respondents were primarily full time students as only 10 of the 317 respondents were currently taking less than 4 courses. There are 1 credit courses offered at this university and that may account for the fact that 81 of the 317 respondents stated they were taking either 6 or 7 courses during the spring 2013 semester. One interesting result was that 8 students stated that they did not purchase texts for any course this semester. It is possible to use all online sources or even use free texts. In the past I had used texts from Flat World Knowledge and at that time could obtain an electronic version at no cost. However, it may be more the case that they were renting texts and did not actually buy a text. It could also be the case that some of these 8 students just borrowed classmate’s texts. When I was an undergraduate a friend of mine never purchased a text for a Theology course because of a lack of money and just borrowed a text when needed for the length of a semester and so i know that it is being done. There were 235 respondents who stated that they purchased texts for 4 or more courses. However, there were only 35 respondents who stated that they were given an option to 155 purchase an ebook for 4 or more courses. This Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) which may include a video presentation of a result clearly shows that all faculty are not new technology. Lastly, exercises can be clearly gravitating to the use of an ebook!!! developed making use of the most current data Perhaps this is because some faculty available. This is something that we should have not been exposed to the use of ebooks strongly consider as it is understood that and how they might be quite useful to students students can now buy almost any test bank, and that they could improve lectures while also exercise set, or study guide that exists by cutting costs for students. I would like to add obtaining a source for them via the internet. that I firmly believe that my lectures have been Fraternities and sororities may help to make greatly enhanced with the use of an ebook. I them available to their members. These types am using the text INFORMATION SYSTEMS of breaches of ethics may be even more FOR THE FUTURE by Bialaszewski. I would prevalent when online courses are not strictly like to add that I recently served under contract monitored. I have had a student (not mine) tell for the College Board/Educational Testing me that in a course where there was no real Service for three years on a committee oversight on exams and exercises that their responsible for constructing the the College girlfriend took the course for them. With an Level Examinatiion Program (CLEP) exam in online text and using current data and exercises Introductory Information Systems. CLEP exams this activity would be somewhat minimized as assess college-level knowledge in several the exercises can easily change from semester subject areas that are administered at more to semester. than 1,700 colleges and universities across the United States created by the College Board. [5] SURVEY RESULTS There are 2,900 colleges which grant CLEP credit. [6] Being extremely familiar with what is A five point Likert Scale was used for several of covered in an introductory IS course serving on the questions. The scale used is 1 = strongly the committee constructing and analyzing the agree, (2) = agree, 3 = neutral or no opinion, 4 questions on this standardized exam I am = disagree, and 5 = strongly disagree. certain that the Bialaszewski text covers key Question 9 on the survey is “In general I prefer introductory course concepts. However, since it to use a printed textbook rather than an ebook.” is an ebook which can direct the reader to I was slightly surprised but not shocked by the websites with pictures and videos it is not result. The findings are: 141 strongly agreed, 75 necessary to use much “print” space to include agreed, 65 neutral, 24 disagreed, and only 12 pictures of new technologies. The student can strongly disagreed. Thus at this particular either click on a link or copy and paste the university at this time it is quite evident that URLs given into their web browser to get the students have not been gravitating towards the most current information about the new purchase of ebooks. Only 36 of the 317 technology. respondents disagreed to some extent with I can also state that using an ebook has preferring to use a printed text. That is only helped decrease the organization time for my 11.3% of the students in the sample disagreed lectures. I am fortunate that the classrooms with preferring a printed text even though all of that I use have a computer, internet connection, these students are continually using their and projector. Often upon entering class I login laptops, tablets, and smartphones. Constructing to http://vitalsource.com/Pages/home.aspx [7] a 95% confident interval for the population and select the text I am using for that course. I percent we find that we aew 95% certain that at can easily scroll to pages I am discussing or least 8% to at most 15% of the students of all highlight text that I feel students should spend students surveyed state that they disagree with more time researching. There is no need to a printed text being their choice. With ebooks develop Power Point presentations using this not being introduced in many classes the technology when lecturing. Moreover, I can copy a link from the references given at the end 156 students might be unaware that they could have access to their text on any device. In my own of a chapter and provide more indepth material Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) classes I do not require an ebook. The students are given an option to purchase a printed text. But after purchasing the printed text many students in class see how other students have been able to use their ebooks and have regretted their decision of buying a traditional printed text. However, my evidence is anecdotal as I have not surveyed my class on this matter. Some students may have had a bad experience using an ebook which perhaps was no more that the printed version placed in digital format. Although that may loosely may be considered as an ebook it may not have access to current data or current videos captured and it may even include pictures which may not translate well to all devices. However, these students were asked if cost was a factor, and i stated the question to be “If an ebook only cost 50% of the cost of a printed text I would still prefer the printed text” to make the savings more tangible. And as an aside, the ebook in Information Systems that I am using is actually less than one third of the price of most competing new hard cover texts purchased new. When costs of a 50% savings were being considered by the respondents the number who would disagree with a printed version being their preference rose from 36 respondents to 124 respondents and an additional 53 were neutral. The sample proportion who did not agree in some way that a printed version would still be preferred is 55%. Constructing a 95% confidence interval we see that we are 95% certain that at minimum at least 50% would not prefer a printed ebook to at most 61% would not prefer a printed text. However, many students have not had the opportunity to try and use an ebook. When factoring out only the subset of students who said they have used an ebook 138 of 205 were neutral or disagreed to some extent that they have a preference for using a printed version when cost is factored into the situation. That is, when costs are considered, and for those who have used an ebook, we obtain a sample proportion of 67% who are not agreeing with a preference for a printed text. Once again, we find that at least 60% would not agree to some extent to at most 74% would not 157 agree to some extent with a preference to a printed version. There is much more analysis to be completed for this research. Data was collected on many related topics and the relationships between questions and also relationships to demographic variables have not yet been presented. This analysis will be presented in a final version intended for journal publication. CONCLUSION Although there is much analysis that remains to be completed there are some important conclusions to be drawn. Whereas only student information was captured from one university it does give some insight to what may be the existing situations at other universities and begs for more research to be performed in this area. It is certain that many courses are not offering the option of using an ebook. It is also certain that costs for an ebook are much less than the cost of a printed text. Students seem to not prefer a printed text when there is a dramatic cut in costs and yet we are not always making ebooks an option for the students. Why is this not an option in more courses than currently available? I would conjecture that there has been limited training for long standing training for faculty and that they may not be aware of all technological possibilities. That is not to say that current faculty do not use technology. However, I would conjecture that universities are not spending the dollars on training and faculty development that they should be spending. The research presented in this study leads to much more research related to student preferences and their use of technology for learning. Moreover, this study leads to further research related to faculty preferences for teaching methodologies. Are faculty making conscious decisions to shy away from ebooks or are they unaware of the new possibilities that they bring. Ebooks lend themselves to using current data and videos. Are faculties more concerned with the content of the text of choice or are they more concerned with the ancillaries including test banks. Are administrators truly aware that large classes almost force faculty to Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) References moving towards objective testing and that test bank answers may be currently obtainable from sources over the net. Perhaps a line of future research this paper might lead to is to actually determine the percent of test bank answers that may be obtainable via the internet. When i served under contract for the Educational Testing Service we met in person in privacy to construct questions. However, we also submitted and critiqued potential questions via e-mail. However, we used Pretty Good Privacy (PGP) software as a data encryption and data decryption program. I wonder if a part time instructor teaching one course for say $1,800 would be willing to sell his copy of the test bank or just make a copy of the test bank if he/she was offered $10,000. I wonder if students knew a particular test bank was being used what they might be willing to pay for a copy of the test bank. I wonder how many universities actually explore whether any of their students might have a copy of their test bank and if there are firm penalties in place. Does this really happen in today’s world? Well, when i was a graduate student I saw an undergraduate student who had a printed copy of test bank questions and that was in 1972. I believe it still happens today but, again, I believe that is an area for further research. However, I do believe we all should be aware of how we can make use of current technologies and today money budgeted for faculty development may be more important than ever before. [1]https://moodle.elac.edu/pluginfile.php/138132 /mod_resource/content/1/RosettaStone_Campu sTechnologyWhitepaper_TechnologyTransform ingEducation.pdf [2] Statistics. Going the Distance. http://www.onlinelearningsurvey.com/reports/ goingthedistance.pdf. Retrieved 8/13/12. [3] http://www.webct.com/service/ViewContent?co ntentID=19295938. Retrieved 7/21/12 [4] INFORMATiON SYSTEMS FOR THE FUtURE - by Dennis Bialaszewski. Kendall Hunt Publishing, Dubuque, IA Copyright 2013 [5] http://clep.collegeboard.org/exams/about [6] http://clep.collegeboard.org/started [7] http://vitalsource.com/Pages/home.aspx 158 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) A Language Exchange Program: Sustainability Innovation in Language and Culture Engagement Trinidad FERNANDEZ Dept. of Linguistics Applied to Science and Technology, Polytechnic University of Madrid Madrid, Spain and Grisel GARCIA-PEREZ Dept. of Critical Studies, University of British Columbia Okanagan Kelowna, Canada and Joaquin SANTIAGO Dept. of Applied Linguistics to Science and Technology, Polytechnic University of Madrid Madrid, Spain
ABSTRACT 1. Spanish Educational Laws have been promoting the widespread use of English; as a result, Spanish Universities are looking for ways to give students more international training in order to prepare them for a future that will increasingly involve global problems and partnerships. Therefore, the Polytechnic University of Madrid, Spain (UPM), and the University of British Columbia, Okanagan, Canada (UBCO) have come together to offer opportunities for international collaboration and learning, thus facilitating virtual encounters among Spanish and Canadian students. The Language Exchange Program between the UPM and UBCO acts as a model for sustainability innovation in language and culture engagement as the students can interact with native speakers in communication tasks. This interdisciplinary initiative supports the latest methodological principles observed in the Common European Framework for Languages, such as autonomous and life-long learning, selfassessment and peer-assessment as well as the incorporation of new technologies to the learning process. Additionally the ‘virtual’ mobility is provided at no extra cost. This article presents the preliminary results of two virtual exchange programs that have been offering varied forms of study which are venue-independent, and have clearly expanded the range of scenarios for the students on both sides by promoting collaborative work and cultural exchange. INTRODUCTION Sustainability can be defined as the capacity to endure. It covers three spheres:social, environmental and economic. For humans, sustainability is the potential for long-term maintenance of well being, which has environmental, economic, and social dimensions. The philosophical and analytic framework of sustainability is connected to many different fields. As shown in Fig 1 all the three spheres overlap [1]. Key words: innovation, sustainability, second language learning, virtual exchange, new trends in education, international cooperation, interdisciplinarity. Fig 1: Three Spheres of Sustainability


159 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) In a globalizing world of limited resources universities play a vital role in preparing students to meet the sustainability challenges of the future. The imperatives of sustainability point not only to new course content, but also to new ways of teaching that content. As a project with relevance across the disciplines, sustainability presents a valuable paradigm for rethinking pedagogy. Sustainability embraces interdisciplinarity; a critical and thorough understanding of issues related to environmental sustainability necessarily involves contributions from a wide variety of disciplines throughout the natural sciences, the social sciences, and the humanities. However, the UPM encourages its graduates to reach a good level of proficiency in the English Language, which is now a growing demand in the workplace and a basic requirement for engineers, architects, scientists and researchers all around the world [4]. All UPM graduates have to prove that they can use the necessary language skills specified in the Common European Framework for Languages (CEFL) [5][6]as a basic condition to registering in the curricular English subjects and thus to obtaining their degree. W ithin this framework, the university is undergoing a deep changeover that is affecting both its curricular and normative structure and its teaching and learning dynamics. One of the ways in which the objectives of the new curricula can be met is by virtual exchange programs with English speaking universities. Accordingly, the UPM and the UBCO are facilitating virtual encounters among Spanish and Canadian students. The Language Exchange Program between the UPM and UBCO acts as a model for sustainability innovation in language and culture engagement. Using a case study to analyze the impact of virtual encounters on learning improvement and language-culture awareness, both effectiveness of the program and exploration of the nuances of a multi-dimensional perspective are assessed. More specifically, this exchange program links second language learning with intercultural contacts in a virtual way with a view to estimating the impact of the learning model proposed (see section 3). The three spheres of sustainability are concentric circles: social— people, communities, nations— economic— businesses, markets and policies and these two partly cover the environment sphere and are therefore bound by its features and limits. As we will see, our exchange program is associated to social sustainability, which in turn is linked to the other two spheres. Although the term social sustainability receives far less attention in literature than environmental or economic sustainability, the issues and concepts associated with social sustainability have been addressed for decades [2]. Social sustainability is the core element of sustainability since it is about creating and maintaining life quality for people. Financial and environmental factors are important, but they are both means to an end, rather than ends in themselves. Therefore, by working towards financial or environmental sustainability, work towards social sustainability is accomplished. Current perspectives on how students learn have resulted in significant redirections when designing new learning environments; likewise the Information Age has provided an excellent tool for teachers to create virtual learning spaces [7][8]. Virtual encounters not only reduce communicative distances between people, but they also serve as a tool to enhance language proficiency and develop intercultural awareness in Second Language Teaching and Learning (SLTL). The implementation of virtual exchange programs entails supplementing the physical mobility models for the program to be sustainable. Virtual experiences add new flexibility and time prospects to the universities in order to fulfil SLTL objectives. In this sense, a virtual program can offer more varied forms of study that can be shorter, timespecific and venue-independent, and in turn, it can offer the students more personalised opportunities. Additionally, distant learning programs provide different dimensions of mobility, and facilitate international collaborative work between lecturers in different countries and with different academic cultures [4]. Sustainability is studied and managed over different time and space benchmark and in many contexts of environmental, social and economic organization. Education for sustainable development means including key sustainable development issues into teaching and learning [3]. It also requires participatory teaching and learning methods – interdisciplinarity- that motivate and empower learners to change their behavior and take action for sustainable development. Interdisciplinarity can be a challenge, but it becomes easier with a more effective use of resources on one’s campus community and beyond, such a team teaching with colleagues from different disciplines or in different campuses. Consequently, education for Sustainable Development promotes competencies like critical thinking, imagining future scenarios and making decisions in a collaborative way. Education for sustainable development requires far-reaching changes such as autonomous learning, self-assessment and peer-assessment as well as the incorporation of new technologies to the learning process [3]. Universities around the world are looking for ways to give students more international training; however, exchange programs are expensive and difficult to handle, mostly through lack of sustainability criteria. The number of student exchange programs in the Mobility Office at EU Arquitectura Técnica de Madrid (EUATM) of UPM has substantially increased. There were five exchange programs in the academic year 2008/ 9, with only four students going abroad. However, in the academic year 2011/12 the number increased to 25 exchange programs mobilizing 119 students to different universities round the world. Nevertheless, this represents 0.035% of the total the enrolment at EUATM (UPM) in 201112 which was 3400. It is necessary to point out that the students travelling get a small grant that partially covers their expenses. On one hand, the program follows the latest methodological trends such as the development of autonomous and life-long learning and self-assessment as key to improvement. On the other hand, it incorporates new technologies and virtual systems to the learning process. Students will learn not only about writing and speaking but also about how to question the effects of globalization, intercultural communication by reexamining their assumptions about technology, culture and location. Hence emphasizing the analysis of culture will let the students understand the contextual and situated nature of communication processes. To raise cultural awareness as well as inspire linguistic confidence in the students is the ultimate goal in such encounters. Moreover, it is expected that their knowledge of L2 will considerably improve by sharing experiences with each other via e-mail or Skype [9]. 160 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) 2. B2. The matching with their peers at the Macquarie University was done considering the levels of both parties. EXCHANGE PROGRAM 1 The first program was between UPM University (Spain) and Macquarie University (Australia), and was represented by the EUATM students and the International Studies Department respectively. Students were offered the opportunity to improve their knowledge of the foreign language and culture they were studying:English and Spanish respectively. To that end, each participant was matched to a partner in the other university. Both participants were required to complete a number of writing and speaking tasks on a variety of topics dealing with everyday situations, with the description of emblematic sites and buildings or with career prospects, depending on their level, so that the Australian students should revise and correct the Spanish students’ writing assignments in English, and the Spanish students correct and give feedback to the Australian students in Spanish. Assignments were ultimately revised and assessed by tutors in both universities. Students in both universities were required to fill in a questionnaire related to the program. The information retrieved from their answers proved that a good number of students, at both universities, understood and embraced the objectives of the project and wanted to engage on the different writing and speaking tasks. Students were also enthusiastic to be able to communicate with native speakers, to practice their skills and to improve their Spanish or English. Most students liked the idea of being able to help their peers with their native language and most of them at both universities expected to continue their relationship beyond the project requirements. Some outcomes This program has helped students, not only improve their speaking and writing skills, but also gain a wider insight into the effects of globalization, intercultural communication and information technologies by making students re-examine their assumptions about technology, culture and location. At the end of the program, students filled out a questionnaire on what they had learnt about the Spanish and Australian culture. In this way, they were able to analyze their peer’s culture and customs, and raise awareness of other contexts and educational realities. It is important to note that all these achievements were at no cost contributing thus to the sustainability principles that led the undertaking of the project. Faculty members involved in the project in both institutions selected a range of topics including but not limited to:youth culture, current events, cultural heritage, curriculum background, curricular subjects taken, difficulties of second language learning, home descriptions, reasons that have made students choose their degree, etc. These topics were graded from the easiest to the most difficult depending on the students’ stated proficiency levels [10]. Given the fact that the two participating universities were situated in different hemispheres, resulting in an asynchronous academic syllabus practice, the project development was difficult to follow. Australian universities start their academic year in February whereas the Spanish year begins in September; students’ summer vacations were also in different time periods. The experience with the Macquarie University proved that effective collaboration can sometimes be difficult to attain. As we have stated above the time zone and different academic syllabi enactment on both the UPM and the Macquarie University was a difficult issue. On revision of the technologies, we concluded that some obstacles could have been overcome by incorporating virtual platform Moodle, in the second program, to the daily working of our operations as a unique ready-to-use resource for the written assignments, and Skype for the oral tasks. Actually, the excessive number of students participating in this program and the low number of tutors was not viable. Students profile and methodology The project included two target groups:UPM students in the EUATM1— those pursuing the Building Engineering Degree on their first and second year— and Macquarie University partners in the Department of International Studies taking the Intermediate Course II-SNP202, and the advanced courses SPN102 and SPN102 making a total of 260 partnerships, namely, 130 Building Engineering UPM Students and 130 Macquarie students, tutored by 5 lecturers at UPM and by 3 lecturers at Macquarie University. This was a compulsory activity for those students who had voluntarily registered in the English tuition courses in the Building Engineering School at UPM and for those students enrolled in the Spanish Courses of the Department of International Studies at Macquarie. For the written assignments we used *Nicenet and e-mailing and the oral communication tasks were done on Skype. In order to guarantee effective communication across different time zones and solve the drawbacks we had in Exchange Program 1, some changes were made for Exchange Program 2 (see section 3). 3. Results from Exchange Program 1 revealed that exposing students to global technological environments promotes interpersonal communication skills and supports the development of a positive attitude essential to the nature of this type of initiative (Fernandez, et al. 2010). In view of this fact, we extended the scope of the virtual exchange project so as to incorporate another university. The new partner involved was the University of British Columbia Okanagan, most specifically, the Department of Critical Studies in the Faculty of Creative and Critical Studies. This new collaboration paved the way for an ongoing project but this time experience from Program 1 evinced the need for some minor, although important changes, such as: To facilitate language transfer and improvement, two subgroups were further identified at the Building Engineering School. This further classification was based on the Common European Framework for Languages (CEFL) placement scale, so that students having an intermediate level were classified as B1 and those with an upper-intermediate level were placed as 



























































The former EUATM is now called Building Engineering School within the framework of the European Space for Higher Education.
EXCHANGE PROGRAM 2  161 Less number of students to a manageable size to facilitate instructor' s supervision. Some of the assignments were voluntary in order to facilitate constant exchange and contact between the students on both sides of the program. Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013)   Span-101, Span-102, Span-201 and Span-204 the students should be fluent enough to carry out a conversation in Spanish. This is achieved through courses in grammar, conversation and translation. The program follows a standard university four-year B.A. structure and length (four years, eight terms, 120 credits). The program offers courses per school year plus 2 first and 2 second year language courses in the summer, and is committed to creating opportunities for students to participate in international types of learning. Information technologies:the use of Moodle or emailing for written assignments and Skype for oral practices to ensure an easy and accessible channel for immediate communication. Voluntary participation:it is not of interest to make this practice compulsory. In view of the fact that motivation is one of the key success factors for student engagement in learning and knowledge sharing activities, in both universities we recruited only those students who wanted to connect with a pen-pal from Spain/Canada. Moreover, we followed a participatory design approach where all students had a sense of ownership of scheduling the times and activities they would carry out with their international counterparts. Regarding the motivational aspect of this latter virtual collaborative learning was the students’ involvement in the planning and evaluation of all learning activities and their desire to improve their overall language skills (see Methodology) Methodology The experience from Program 1 (Australia) allowed us to develop the methodology for Program 2 (Canada). One of the biggest drawbacks of the Macquarie University experience was communication across different hemispheres with different academic years (see section 2); since UPM and UBCO share the same academic year this problem was solved. W ith regards to time zones, Australia is 10 hours ahead of Spain and the situation with UBCO is very similar because Madrid is 9 hours ahead of Kelowna (the Canadian city where UBCO is); therefore, in order to guarantee effective communication across different time zones, students were encouraged to schedule meetings using online collaborative tools such as Microsoft Office Live W orkplace or Google W ave. W eekly status updates of these meetings were also requested. The third hindrance of Program 1 was the way the population was drawn into the study. All the students enrolled in a course were automatically included in the study without taking motivation into consideration; as a consequence we made this encounter voluntarily (see below). UPM students’profile W ith the incorporation of the Bologna Principles in the UPM syllabus design, all UPM Schools have introduced the compulsory subject English for Academic and Professional Communication equivalent to 6 ECTS2. As indicated in the introductory section of this paper, all UPM students are now faced with the necessity to proof a certain level of language proficiency before they obtain their degree, what is more, before they can officially enrol in the compulsory subject; more particularly, they have to submit written proof of an upper-intermediate level designated as B2 in the Common European Framework for Languages [5]. It is important to note that at the moment most UPM students have not acquired this stated level nor obtained the B2 diploma. In view of this situation, our program makes full sense as the perfect way to conflate both linguistic competence needs and intercultural exchange, bearing in mind that sustainability is a key issue in the midst of the current economic and social crisis. More particularly, Program 2 was aimed at delving into intercultural aspects and language learning based on a two group classification; namely an experimental group (the one participating in the program) and a control group. It was our belief that by developing the intercultural competence of the students who learn Spanish at UBC Okanagan and English at the UPM de Madrid, the students' overall language proficiency will improve. Additionally, by providing the students with virtual intercultural encounters their intercultural awareness could be raised. An experimental design with a pretest/post test procedure was used in order to determine the subjects’ intercultural and language proficiency followed by a guided program with virtual encounters. The intercultural development and language proficiency of the participants in the language-culture learning program would be compared with that of a control group of language learners (in the two locations) undergoing more traditional language instruction. Students from the 2nd and 3rd years were selected based on a personal interview with the program instructors. Language proficiency was important but not decisive in the selection and not L1-L2 language level matching was considered, given the fact that students were engaged in the tasks using one language at a time. Another key issue was to find a group of students with a high degree of motivation and an eagerness to learn about other cultures and contexts. UBCO students’profile The Spanish program in the Faculty of Creative and Critical Studies (FCCS) at the University of British Columbia in the Okanagan (UBC Okanagan) is aimed at students who are interested in acquiring abilities, experience and skills other than English language-based, and secondarily students who are pursuing a major or minor in Spanish. In addition to language skills, students pursuing a B.A. in Spanish are presented with literary master pieces of Spain and Spanish American, and gain a basic understanding of the Spanish and Latin American culture. The language-learning aspect of the program covers practical skills and daily application of Spanish, as well as skills that are transferable to a work environment and to an academic setting. After completing Fifteen Canadian students who were enrolled at the Spanish Language Program at UBC Okanagan were selected to match fifteen counterparts in the EUATM at the UPM, in Spain. These groups were divided into two experimental groups (15 students each) and two control groups (15students each). The groups received a guided program list of virtual encounters requesting information on topics such as early events in each country, national customs, accomplishments, global connections, provinces and territories, traditions, and national holidays. The control groups received a regular on-campus language class. These were the following tasks for the experimental group:


























































a) 
ECTS stands for European Credit Transference System. 1 credit in this system is equal to about 26 global work hours including teaching, testing, tutorials and student study time.
162 Pre-program tasks:students attended an information session where we explained the objectives of the study and advised then to use one language at a time when they were practising with their peers. Then students Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) completed a language background questionnaire, took an online language proficiency test were provided with a guided program of the virtual assignment. b) In-program procedure: students could practice their tasks before submission as many times as they considered fit, both on Skype, Moodle or email. After practices, they had to post in Moodle the written assignments (properly corrected by his/her peer). At the end they had to submit their instructors a record of their oral and written connections c) Final-program tasks:in the final stage all participants will be required to complete a language proficiency test a second time and a questionnaire 5. [1] J.D. Lousier, Sustainable Economy II: Sustainability Models. BC Institute of Social Ecology. http: //www.bcise.com/Papers/Nov-2010/sustainabileeconomy-2-sustainability-models.pdf , 2010 (accessed 5 February, 2013). [2] B. Littig, and E. Grießler, · Social sustainability: a catchword between political pragmatism and social theory”, Int. J. Sustainable Development, Vol. 8, Nos. 1/2, 2005, pp. 65–79. [3]UNESCO,Education for Sustainable Development www.unesco.org/new/en/.../education-for-sustainabledevelopment/,2005-2014(accessed 14February, 2013). [4] T. Fernández, T., J. Santiago, A. Tomaino, M. del Rí o, A. Casaravilla, “A Virtual Challenge: English-Spanish learning exchange between Australian and Spanish university students”. International Technology, Education and Development Conference. IATED, 2011. [5]Council of Europe, Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, teaching, assessment, 2001, Strasbourg: Cambridge University Press. [6] D. Little, “The Common European Framework and the European Language Portfolio: involving learners and their j udgments in the assessment process”. Language Testing, 2005, Nos. 22 (3) pp. 321-336. [7] G. García-Pérez, “Effectiveness of formative eassessment in large language classes”. Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on e-Learning. University of British Columbia Okanagan Campus, Kelowna, Canada. (27-28 June, 2011). Edited by Philip Balcaen. Academic Publishing Ltd. Reading. [8] M.L. Niess, M.L., K. John and S.B. Kajder, Guiding Learner with Technology,.2008, John W iley and Sons, Inc. [9] G. García Pérez, T. Fernández and L. Mueller, “W hen Three Cultures Meet: Enhancing Intercultural Communication through Virtual Story Telling”. IX International Conference on Education and Information Systems, Technologies and Applications: EISTA, 2011. [10] J. Seely, Oxford Guide to Effective W riting and Speaking. 2005, New York:Oxford University Press. W hile the students in the experimental groups were exposed to the guided program of virtual encounters, the control groups received regular in campus language class. Currently, we are working in Exchange Program 2. As a consequence, only general outcomes are available at the moment (see section 4). W e are now comparing the main differences observed in the experimental and control groups with a view to writing an article for a journal. 4. REFERENCES CONCLUSIONS The students were very pleased to have new friends that are native in the language they are learning and to gain insights into cultural codes that are hard to learn from text books or prepare for a trip overseas. Students gained conversational experience and confidence in communicating in English or Spanish, and have maintained or improved their language skills. Through these virtual encounters, participants gained a sense of ownership for being asked to give feedback to their pen pals. Furthermore, they developed a sense of learning community:groups sharing the same values that are actively learning together from each other. Unfailing students/tutors orientation means getting everyone to agree about the objectives of the program before it starts and this should be kept in the forefront as the program proceeds. At the same time, in keeping with the guidelines in the CEFL referring to self-assessment and autonomous learning, they become more aware of their own language development and of the problems they have with grammar and pronunciation, and start being more conscious of the mistakes they make. Our Language Exchange Program allowed UPM and UBC students to meet and exchange language and cultural insights in a relaxed environment at no cost. Adequate support and resources are also important; our program meets the required statements to be sustainable. Sustainability is at once an integrative discipline and a multidisciplinary project with statistical, scientific and humanistic underpinnings. Sustainability suggests place-based and project-based approaches to student learning. Teaching towards sustainability means that classroom and community are important. Teaching sustainability is both stimulating and challenging because of the interdisciplinary nature of the problems at stake. W e expect that when students graduate from university and are faced with the need to actually apply many of the theoretical knowledge that they have acquired in their classrooms, they should benefit from this program, which attempts to provide them with not only the basic ability to employ innovative and modern communication hardware and software, but also to develop self-teaching and self-learning skills at no cost. 163 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) Strategies for Improving Creative Ability Under the Context of Globalization in Higher Education Ching-jung Hsieh Lecturer, Department of Marketing and Distribution Management, WuFeng University Doctoral Student, NCYU private schools. Abstract The characteristics of teachers in an university will catch up with the change. The purpose of this study was to describe and explain This paper will the srategies for improving creative ability under the context improve creative ability under the context of globalization in of globalization in higher education. higher education to discuss the characteristics by global century. The 21st century is a globalization ,creative professional development and global The implications of globalization spread all over the world; not only economical and political, but also perspective. Creativity refers to the phenomenon whereby educational, social and so on, the whole world is now in the a person creates something new (a product, a solution, a same boat. work of art etc.) that has some kind of value. In addition, because we suffer from lacking What counts natural sources and hereafter pay more attention to the as "new" may be in reference to the individual creator, or to concept of protecting the earth, we need to create new ways the society or domain within which the novelty occurs. and products like electric vehicle to solve this situation. To What counts as "valuable" is similarly defined in a variety of build the strategy for improving creative ability under the ways. context of globalization is the most important one in dealing relationship between creativity and general intelligence; the with these problems, it should start with education; mental and neurological processes associated with creative especially, higher education. activity; personality type and creative abilityand so on In the process of finding their Scholarly interest in creativity ranges widely: the place in university environments, teachers should build and (Wikipedia). develop their professional development to catch up with the consider the interests, needs, value and ideology which are world. inextricably connected to reach the target of organization. A globalization lens provides a powerful conceptual In addition, the members of organization need tool to disentangle the highly competitive and changeable In order to achieve objectives, the members of organization conditions of students. can use innovative strategies and skills to create, maintain or The main purpose of this paper is to discuss and analyze the strategies of improving creative fight with their profits and the conditions of work. ability in higher education. (Kelchtermans, 1996; Kelchtermans & Ballet, 2002). This research mainly explores The the strategies for improving creative abiltiy under the context challenge of the teacher turns to be heavier and heavier than of globalization in higher education in a university, before. especially for globalization, creative professional themselves to survive in this competitive educational development and global perspective. environment under the rapidly change. The teachers of college need make progress for Accordingly, the responsibility for the teacher is not only teaching knowledge Introduction but also enlarging their critical ability and skill to meet the In the past few years, the educational environment was demands of the university. This paper mainly explores to rapidly changing because of the reduction of new-born baby; improve creative ability under the context of globalization in the structure of family resulted from new immigrants; the higher education in the university, especially for economic recession resulted from global financial storm and globalization, teacher creative professional development and the vacillating educational policy. These reason will global perspective. influence the operational way of most schools; especially, 164 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) westernization of America. Strategies for Improving Creative Ability Under the On the contrary, languages of many tribes disappeared through the broad use of English. Context of Globalization in Higher Education As Graham Vulliamy (2004) advocates, the nature of Traditionally, the responsibility for the teacher is to propagate doctrine, to teach the student and to solve the contemporary globalization is best viewed as a multifaceted students’ problem. Time changes, the society become rather than a singular condition, and it is associated with complex and multiple. various consequences at the economic, political and Teacher training program has to consider different aspects to train the future teacher facing sociocultural levels. this changeable society. influence on different aspects. M ore than this, Kathleen E. In order to adapt in the need of In this case, globalization presents its educational environment, the strategies for cultivating White (2003) prostates “that the four major dimensions of creativity under the context of globalization in higher globalization are: education; particularly for globalization, professional the economic.” Again, these lines explicate the multiple development and global perspective. aspects of globalization that enrich the content of I.The Context of Globalization globalization. the cultural, the social, the political, and Aside from this, Vulliamy also clarifies the “central In order to explore improving creative abiltiy under the context of globalization is, this article tries to discuss the feature of the objective changes taking place is the manner in historical context of globalization first. which, as a result of recent developments in John H. Coatsworth telecommunications using satellite TV and the linking of (2004) generalizes five globalization cycles. computers through cyberspace, economic and cultural The first globalization cycle began in 1492 and lasted until the early 1600s. activities can take place on a planetary scale in real-time.” The second cycle commenced in the late seventeenth century with the rapid growth of a second (Vulliamy, 2004) Undoubtly, telecommunication provides wave of European colonization that established the main instant information and communication. slave colonies in the New World. information of what happened in the world instantly and The third cycle ended We may get the synchronally. with a series of major shocks in the early nineteenth century, In addition, Otavio Velho (2003) points out, one of the including the wars of the French Revolution and Napoleon, which helped to set off the Haitian Revolution of 1791. implications to approach to globalization is that The most recent cycle began with the liberalization of “globalization can be no longer seen as a ‘foundation’ in international trade after the Second World War and opposition to others, but rather as a text, a cultural resource, intensified after a further liberalization of global trade in that may be activated by different agents and in different manufactured goods after 1967. Globalization cycles have contexts.” produced immense and measurable increases in human cultures constructs the variety of culture resource that relates productivity. to different dimensions of globalization. (Coatsworth, 2004) From this perspective the diversity of different For example, Korean Kimchi and culture have spread all over the world by Each cycle contributes to the spread of globalization and its influence, especially in economical and political the popularity of the Korean drama. In the other hand, dimensions. M andarin China attracts lots of people to learn Chinese Among them, colonialism and imperialism fosters the westernalization for those who under colonialism. because they will hold the 2008Olympic Game in Bai-Gin. In order to consolidate the authority of the planter, English We may discuss a topic from Korean and Chinese has embedded into daily life to those who have been viewpoints; thus, we may obtain opinions from different colonized. dimensions. The diffusion of English also reinforces the development of computer technology. It also contributes to 165 This is what globalization contributes. Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) practice, support student learning and ensure high Above all, an important aspect of the global information educational standards. revolution is that the advancement in computer technology Golding (2006) believes that professional development and the use of the Internet have facilitated the exchange of research findings worldwide. comprises active and reflective engagement in a range of (Vulliamy, 2004) Here, global information revolution accelerates the spread of professional experiences that are considered supplementary intellectual knowledge innovation. Owing to the multiple to the day-to-day responsibilities of a teacher. aspects and different dimension in the context of professional development is to enhance the skills, knowledge globalization, the medium of globalization to link and and understandings of teachers in order to influence student connect with those different dimensions plays a crucial role learning outcomes. to this extent. To this extent, to improving creative ability development include: The intent of Some approaches to professional Table.1:Aapproaches to professional development under the context of globalization needs to involve these multiple aspects Approach Definition Consultation to assist an individual or group of II.Creative professional development Higher Education provides a competitive and learning environment for students, to better prepare them to compete individuals to clarify and address with the elites around the world. immediate concerns by following M oreover, universities will require the faculty such as the teachers for make a systematic problem-solving progress in their skills of teaching and the ability of research. process Therefore, the teachers need to advance their professional development in the field of their major. Coaching Under the pressure to enhance a person’s competencies in a specific skill of making progress, this research will discuss the strategy, area by providing a process of professional development under creativity, required for observation, reflection, and action cultivating creativity of students in higher education. Professional development (Speck, 2005) refers to skills Communities of to improve professional practice Practice by engaging in shared inquiry and and knowledge attained for both personal development and learning with people who have a career advancement. Professional development common goal encompasses all types of facilitated learning opportunities, Lesson Study to solve practical dilemmas ranging from college degrees to formal coursework, related to intervention or conferences and informal learning opportunities situated in instruction through participation practice. It has been described as intensive and collaborative, with other professionals in ideally incorporating an evaluative stage. systematically examining practice There are a variety of approaches to professional development, including M entoring to promote an individual’s consultation, coaching, communities of practice, lesson study, awareness and refinement of his mentoring, reflective supervision and technical assistance. or her own professional In addition, there are many opportunities for teachers to development by providing and continue to develop creative skills and knowledge required recommending structured for rapidly changing educational environments. opportunities for reflection and Through engagement with a variety of professional development observation opportunities, teachers have the opportunity to enhance their 166 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) Global education has been the main trend in the 21st Reflective to support, develop, and Supervision ultimately evaluate the century. performance of employees students’ understanding in the complexity and value of through a process of inquiry that multicultural society; and moreover, it intends to construct encourages their understanding students’ global perspective so that the student may adapt in and articulation of the rationale the globalized environment and contribute to construct a for their own practices more equal and sustainable world (Kao, 2002). Technical to assist individuals and their raise the students’ competitive capacity to compete with Assistance organization to improve by other country and adapt to the globalization trend, the offering resources and ministry of education emphasizes the importance of information, supporting internationalization in an university in the upcoming networking and change efforts University Evaluation. The objective of global education is to deepen the In order to M any Universities set a goal to As for my own experience, I work in a university. I expand the students’ global vision so they can fit the should obey the school of culture and policy; for instance, requirements of M OE about Internationalization and the most important decision is every student when he globalization. Hsun-Fan Kao quoted Hanvey’s idea about graduate from the business college of this school. global vision which contains five different aspects: The student can learn the professional skill of creative digital consciousness, state of the planet awareness, cross marketing. Consequently, teacher must to improving and perspective-cultural awareness, knowledge of global retraining the professional development under globalization, dynamics, and awareness of human choices(Kao, 2002). the teachers in the business school need to learn the ability From this point of view, global vision includes both internal and skill of digital marketing before they teach the students and external facets in viewing the world, not only from and so on. personal point of view but also from the world’s, even from Professional development is a crucial the universe’s point of view. characteristic to maintain the position of teacher of the Besides, M s. Ying-Tai Long argues that global vision changeable educational environment in a rapid development. Accordingly, creative professional development is an should include humanitarian concerns for the world. important strategy required for improving creative ability points out that when tsunami in the south sea happened, all under the context of globalization in higher education. people in the world devoted themselves to secure the people III.Global perspective and help them; ironically, young people in Taiwan were celebrating the new coming year at the same time. Due to the invention of the airplane diminishes the She The geographical distance between people, the creative ignorance of concerning those who encountered big disaster information technologies break up the boundary between in other countries somehow reveals the coldness of the different nations and change the way of communication, young men in Taiwan. economic activities between countries reinforce the concern and care from those young men. opportunity to travel abroad; the idea of globalization seems it reveals the lack of global vision in young people in Taiwan. to be the main stream in the 21st century. The teacher should pay more attention in this situation, they This paper will Probably the distance detracts the In some aspects, discuss another strategy, global perspective, required for must teach the student to create their career plan or to judge cultivating creativity of students in higher education. by global perspective. From this perspective, global vision should include human concern to people in the world, and extensively, to the whole universe. 167 As a future teacher Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) should perceive and sense what is happening in the world up their globalization and professional development and to and share the feeling. set up global perspective is a big task for the teacher M ore importantly, the educators should develop their global vision to respect the difference training program. Aside from deepening the teachers’ between different culture and individual opinion, to concern understanding in the complexity and value of multicultural the issues about politic, economic, ecology, and the society, educational environment, it intends to improving the and to recognize the value of ourselves, the difference teachers’ professional development to continue the position between our culture and others, and to deprive from bias and of teaching, to awake the awareness of globalization culture discrimination. to run the school innovative and effectively, and to Teachers have to participate in international activities to broaden our own world view and construct students’ global perspective so that the teachers construct our global vision. Then, we can get rid of the may adapt in the globalized educational environment and geographical limitation of Taiwan to connect with the world contribute to construct a more equal and sustainable world. and get involved in the global village to construct a better world. Thus, global perspective is a significant strategy Reference required for improving creative ability under the context of Coatsworth, John. H. globalization in higher education. Welfare in History. (2004.) Globalization, Growth, and In Suarez-Orozco, M arcelo M ., and Zin-Hilliard, Desiree Baolian (Eds). Globalization: Conclusion Under the viewpoint of improving creative under the Culture and Education in the New M illennium. London: context of globalization in higher education, the power and University of California Press conflict can transfer peacefully, the teachers play an Corwin Press National Professional Development Center on important role in a university. Inclusion. (2008). What do we mean by professional When they find the educational environment has changed, the teachers have to development in the early childhood field?Chapel Hill: The face it and to develop themselves to adapt it. University of North Carolina, FPG Child Development For instance, the crisis of financial resulted in the reduction rate of recruit Institute, Author students; especially in private schools. Freire, Paulo(2002) Pedagogy of the Oppressed. The teacher want Taipei: to keep their job, they can match up the requirements of the Wu-Nan. school such as reducing an annual bonus. Golding, L. & Gray, I. (2006).Continuing professional In the other case, teacher training program is no longer limited in normal development for clinical psychologists:A practical handbook. education system. The British Psychological Society. Oxford: Blackwell It symbolizes an open, multiple, and progressive idea in education. In order to adapt in the Publishing multi-cultural and transitionary educational environment, Greene, M axine(1978). highly development in information technology, and the Life. form of global village, how to renew professional Hsin-Jen Chen(2007). development, to form or create the school organizational that is, the micro-politic. Journal of Educational climate and to build global perspective from viewpoint of Administration and Evaluation. creativity in an university is an important mission. Joyce, Natzke(1996). Capitalizing on the Differences in In the Wide-awakeness and the M oral New York: Techer College Press. A new field of school administration; other word, the strategies required for cultivating creativity Organizational Culture in Lutheran High Schools. under the context of globalization in higher education are Unpublished doctoral dissertation, M arquette University, globalization, professional development and global M ilwaukee. perspective. Hence, how to encourage the teacher to bring 168 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) Kao, Hsun-Fan(2002). A Study of Global Education in Teacher Training Grogram: A Development of Global Perspective for the Teacher. Normal Education Association. R.O.C. Taipei: Shui-Fu Corporation. Kelchtermans, G (1996). Teacher vulnerability: Understanding its moral and political roots. Cambridge Journal of Education Kelchtermans, G., & Ballet, K. (2002). The M icropolitics of teacher induction: A narrative-biographical study on teacher socialization. Teaching and Teacher Education. National Professional Development Center on Inclusion. (2008). What do we mean by professional development in the early childhood field?Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina, FPG Child Development Institute, Author Schein, Edgar H. (1992). How Culture Forms, Develops and Changes, in Ralph. Speck, M . & Knipe, C. (2005). Why can' t we get it right? Designing high-quality professional development for standards-based schools(2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks. Velho, Otavio. (2003) Globalization: Object, Perspective, Horizon. In Roland Robertson and Kathleen E. White. Globalization: Critical Concepts in sociology. New York: (Eds) Vol. 1. Routledge Vulliamy, Graham. (2004). The Impact of Globalization on Qualitative Research in Comparative and International Education. Compare, Vol. 34, No.3, September. Carfax publishing. 169 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) Designing, Constructing and Implementing a Low-Cost Virtualization Cluster for Education Daryl Johnson, Bill Stackpole CSEC Dept., GCCIS, RIT Rochester, New York 14623 And Sharon Mason & Bruce Hartpence IST Dept., GCCIS, RIT Rochester, New York 14623 between existing and new hardware platforms and the desire for new features that may not be supported by existing hardware. ABSTRACT Virtualization technology has become a mainstay of the enterprise and a critical element in the arsenal of commerce. It allows enterprises to grow and be managed more efficiently and with less dependence on specific hardware platforms. At the same time, complexities and changes such as those represented by virtualization constitute disruptive technologies requiring careful attention to ensure that systems continue to operate as expected. There are several options available when deploying these technologies; one that deserves significant consideration is the virtualization cluster. In other words, the use of virtualization allows one to maintain consistency across deployed systems. Typical hardware and software incompatibilities can be minimized. At the same time, complexities and changes represented by virtualization constitute a disruptive technology requiring careful attention to ensure that systems continue to operate as expected. In addition to these benefits offered by virtualization, adding another layer of abstraction may increase the difficulty of comprehending configurations especially for individuals who are new to the virtual concept[1]. For example, will the amount of server downtime increase because the network and system administrators lack the background or training necessary to run equipment?[2] Is the architecture well understood? Will troubleshooting efforts be delayed? While there are several options available when deploying virtualization technologies, one of the most significant to consider is the virtualization cluster. This paper will document the rationale, design, selection, and construction process involved in creating such a virtualization cluster. The efforts documented in this paper have shown that, with minimal funding, any educational institution can construct and provide a hands-on virtualization cluster environment to help teach students about virtualization and provide opportunities for undergraduate and faculty research. One can affordably build a sufficiently powerful environment using Commercial-Offthe-Shelf (COTS) components. A locally available virtualization cluster can enhance student success by providing hands-on access helping them to grasp the concepts and prepare them to make use of the technology. It may also servers to facilitate experimentation with many aspects of systems administration and security. Virtualization clusters typically include a collection of processors, memory, storage and networking that allow for the deployment of multiple virtual machines (VMs) in a flexible and easily reproducible environment. Large and expensive, such systems often extend well beyond the budget of a small organization or school. To address the cost issue, free or relatively inexpensive public, cloud-based virtualization providers might be used. While this may help to provide initial cost savings, it also limits access to students as users or consumers only, and does not provide them experience acting as a designer, implementer, or administrator of the virtual hosting environment[1]. With a cloud provider, someone else owns the hardware and controls access to the infrastructure. As a tenant, the user pays a fee for the privilege of temporary use of those systems. Should a cloud provider feel so inclined, it may take the opportunity to raise the price, change the technology, or even withdraw the service entirely. Clearly this represents a disadvantage for those dependent upon the service. Keywords: virtualization, cluster, education 1. INTRODUCTION Virtualization technology has become ubiquitous in enterprise environments and has enjoyed significant growth and a meteoric rise in deployment. It allows enterprises to grow and be managed more efficiently and with less dependence on specific hardware platforms or vendors. Virtualization acts to homogenize the hardware and networking infrastructure: two components that can be costly and challenging to upgrade over time due to incompatibilities 170 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) Further, it is important to have students gain experience and confidence designing, configuring, creating, and managing the technology. Understanding the theory of how the technology should work, and experiencing it in practice are two very different concepts to grasp. Student administration of a cluster provides an understanding of the limitations and capabilities of the system. Studying the theory in lecture, coupled with hands-on practice in the lab, is likely to yield students with a better understanding of the assets and liabilities of virtualization clusters as well as better long-term retention of the parts of the system that are important[3]. allowing many students to use the system concurrently. Desktop virtualization can help but it does not achieve the same virtual:hardware ratio. In an effort to address these points, the faculty researched approaches to collaboration spanning geographically remote sites. It was determined that a faculty and student constructed virtualization cluster would be an excellent mechanism, provided that it could built affordably. The primary uses of the cluster, at least as far as the current project was concerned would be teaching, learning and research of security and forensics topics. In order to facilitate a wide range of topics, the cluster would be located in a secure and isolated environment. It turns out that there are actually no limits as to what can be done with an architecture of this type. The public cloud approach also has the potential to negatively impact learning by requiring students to make an even greater mental leap from the physical environment to an abstraction[1]. The student is leaving the “I can touch it” environment for a very removed, hands-off “no one here knows what’s going wrong” situation. A locally managed cluster can help students more easily bridge that gap. Other virtualization technologies such as simple desktop virtualization can bridge this gap but often do not fit the needs of an entire department or advanced studies. 2. Two main objectives were selected. The first objective was to investigate how inexpensively one could assemble and operate a virtualization cluster and to prove that it could be accomplished within the budgetary reach of a cash-strapped organization. A secondary objective was to prove that a system could be constructed in such a way that, with little disruption, it could be reorganized to facilitate study and research of multiple virtualization technologies on the same physical setup. For example, the system could initially be deployed using VMWare products. After experimentation, other vendors (Microsoft, Oracle, and Citrix) or open source solutions could be deployed. BACKGROUND In 2007, RIT was awarded a Scholarship for Service Grant from the National Science Foundation. Through a series of hands-on workshops and site visits, this project shared the Department of Networking, Security and Systems Administration’s faculty knowledge and applied technical expertise in network and systems security and forensics with the faculty at three partnering institutions: Texas A&M University Corpus Christi, Hampton University and Oakwood College. As noted previously, our initial use of the cluster was for studies in security. This was accomplished via the virtual machines (VMs) deployed on the cluster. However, curricular topics such as security, quality of service, programming, etc. could vary depending on the faculty utilizing the cluster. The overarching goal of the project was to increase the number of information assurance professionals within the United States of America through applied teaching workshops. This grant promoted the adaptation of the RIT curriculum (with an applied approach and focus) to the partnering educators themselves, and indirectly to their students. The next section of this paper will address creating a virtualization cluster that has sufficient performance to support a reasonable number of students at a cost that is affordable. A hands-on environment will provide alternative views and perspectives on virtualization. During the course of the project two points became clear: 1) The group was interested in continued research and curricular collaboration, and 2) onsite laboratory facilities were challenging to develop, maintain and staff for most organizations. As an example of this problem, let us consider the budget typical of small academic departments. Small departments often lack the means to develop the necessary programs let alone build, outfit and maintain a lab filled with modern networking and storage equipment. This problem also becomes the central point in developing the low cost cluster approach. For several of the projects associated with the grant, RIT donated this equipment to the partner school. A cluster not only moves some hardware to a software environment, but encourages economy of scale in 3. GOALS FOR THE CLUSTER The goals of the project include creation of a template or reference design that is inexpensive, flexible, and distributable. Inexpensive means affordable by a wide variety of target populations that previously would have considered virtualization technology to be financially out of reach. Flexible means that the design would not just allow but would also support the inclusion of many different and competing virtualization technologies in an easily manageable way. This design should allow modification, expansion, and customization necessary to meet the needs of individual adopters. The design must be useful for teaching and training of students (and faculty) in the operation and technology of virtualization. The design should also increase 171 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) the awareness of others to the applications and limitations of virtualization. Ultimately the goal is to create a package that could be easily distributed and shared with many different target populations. The package would have a variety of capabilities. allowing some measure of classroom support for other nonvirtualization topics. 3.2 Other virtualization technologies The initial deployment was completed using ESXi. Subsequent experimentation allowed the team to work with Xen, Proxmox, and XDM virtualized environments. These technologies were compatible with the cluster hardware that was selected. Thus, the cluster design proves that supporting reconfiguration from one virtualization technology to another with minimal effort and hardware reconfiguration is an attainable goal. The design includes the ability to isolate the virtual machines running on the cluster in order to support working with malware and other offensive technologies. Secure and remote access to the cluster allows continued collaboration with external organizations and individuals. 3.1 Inexpensive The cluster hardware equipment budget was set at $15,000. All equipment was to be housed in the RIT NSSA lab facilities, with remote VPN connections provided for access. The virtualization cluster was based on 12 AMD hex core motherboards, each with 16G of memory and dual Gb Ethernet cards. These components were selected as they provided the best cost:performance ratio. A big part of a virtualization cluster is storage. In order to provide networked storage, an additional hex core motherboard with 16 G memory and an Adaptec RAID controller with solid state storage (SSD) cache and four 1.5 GB SATA drives made up the iSCSI target. For storage accessed by clients and virtual machines, the benefits provided by solid-state storage include decreased access time and increased performance. Virtualization Cluster Laboratory Daryl Johnson, Bill Stackpole, Bruce Hartpence & Sharon Mason June 2010 Cloud VPN Access Control VM1-1 Node 1 SAN SAN Switch Node 2 LAN Switch VM2-1 Node 12 Figure 2 – Virtualization Cluster Design 3.3 Storage Regarding storage, three options were explored: completely local storage, completely network-based storage, and some hybrid combination of local and networked storage. Local storage provides quick access time and does not require significant network performance or a dedicated storage node. A downside to local-only storage is that virtual machines stored on one node would be isolated, and only accessible to that node. This would preclude VM migration between nodes that might be desirable for reasons such as fault tolerance and load balancing. Figure 1 – Cost basis for cluster The initial configuration was based on ESXi from VMWare. The cost was kept down in part by utilizing desktop-class (rather than server-class) hardware. For example, a commercial deployment might use expensive blade architecture for servers while we used desktop motherboards, memory, and drives. This is reasonable given that the cluster is not intended to be deployed as part of a production environment with greater performance demands. The design can be scaled down to a 2-node cluster (at a cost of less than $2k) and at that level can still effectively illustrate many important aspects of virtualization technologies while Network-based storage provides a centralized repository for VMs and helps to facilitate sharing of VMs and images between nodes. Issues with network-based storage are typically related to difficulty in achieving reasonable throughput to the nodes requesting service. Many initial implementations of network based storage exhibit poor 172 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) performance. One condition is described as being "spindle bound" meaning having an insufficient number of physical drives to support the data access rates necessary for fluid performance of the VM. Another condition is described as being “network bound”, to mean insufficient network performance is available to support data transfer traffic between virtual nodes and the storage system. In addition to these conditions, other factors can also negatively impact network based storage performance. software RAID. A variety of open source and commercial operating system storage platforms were available, to include storage servers built on Linux (OpenFiler and FreeNAS), and Microsoft Windows (Windows 2008 Storage Server edition). The hardware configuration provided a platform that allowed for experimentation with competing storage techniques such as NFS, iSCSI, DAS, NAS, and SAN. We envisioned as a spinoff of this effort that a course studying advanced and alternative storage technologies could be developed. A hybrid combination of local- and network-based storage can bridge the gap between the two exclusive alternatives. A local repository can be provided in which images can be stored and deployed, while a shared repository can be utilized at the same time. Such a hybrid design can offer a balance between the speed and simplicity provided by local storage, while also offering access to more advanced features provided by a network-based storage solution. 3.4 Flexible Based on the rapidly changing virtualization landscape, it was clear that an environment allowing experimentation and the use of more than a single virtualization technology was needed. VMWare, Proxmox, Xen, and XDM all deserve examination and understanding. A remote lab system (RLES) had been built at RIT in 2007 at a much higher cost ($140k+) and suffered from one very debilitating characteristic: production demands[4]. RLES was created and intended to support students doing work in a virtualized OS, not for the deployment and understanding of the virtualization technology itself. RLES could not be shutdown and reconfigured without disrupting the service requirements of other students. The virtualization cluster was designed and intended to be non-production with the expectation of occasional or periodic service disruptions. Internet iSCSI Server 10.141.2.100 Router for inter-VLAN routing / IP helper / IPSEC/ SSL VPN iSCSI VLAN (Dual aggregate uplinks) Trunk Uplinks to room patch panel 1 SYST RPS STAT DPLX SPEED PoE Dual uplinks (trunk) from each PC to the switch Node 1 10.141.2.101 Node 2 10.141.2.102 Node 7 10.141.2.107 Node 8 10.141.2.108 2 3 4 5 6 1X 2X MODE POWER OVER ETHERNET 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 To Room Switches Catalyst 2960 Series PoE-48 48 11X 13X 23X 25X 35X 37X 47X 12X 14X 24X 26X 36X 38X 48X 1 2 3 4 740W Room Patch Panel Node 3 10.141.2.103 Node 4 10.141.2.104 Node 9 10.141.2.109 Node 10 10.141.2.110 Node 5 10.141.2.105 Node 6 10.141.2.106 Node 11 10.141.2.111 Node 12 10.141.2.112 The virtualization cluster was initially configured to boot from USB flash drives as these were less expensive than local boot disks. A library of flash drives, each with a different configuration, was to enable the virtualization technology to be “swapped out” with the ease of changing from one pre-configured USB drive to another. Datacenter with clustered nodes Multiple VLANS configured on each node VMs Virtualized DHCP/DNS Server Windows Server 2008 R2 10.141.2.50 Virtualized vCenter Server Windows Server 2008 R2 10.2.142.98 The hardware platform was designed to be consistent throughout the cluster. Flash drives with preinstalled versions of VMware ESX/ESXi, Zen, Proxmox or XDM could be replicated and those duplicates simply plugged into any of the nodes. As new or alternative virtualization platforms were released, additional USB drives could be configured and replicated. As an experimental laboratory, changing from one virtualization platform to another could be done in as little as 15 minutes by simply swapping out the drives and rebooting the system(s). Figure 3 – Hardware connections A repurposed Cisco switch forms the network backbone for the cluster. The design intended that the systems could easily be reconfigured to run any available virtualization software. The cluster was initially constructed using VMWare ESXi 4.x with VSphere and VCenter to support an estimated 200 virtual machines running concurrently. VMWare was selected as an initial option for academic institutions based on the VMWare Academic Program having a nominal pricing structure for academic research and classroom usage. While the concept has merit, the USB drives initially purchased were too small and too slow to perform adequately. Scavenged SATA drives from retired workstations were added to the local nodes to replace the initial USB flash drives as boot media and local storage. The utilization of the cluster has demonstrated that it can be a valuable platform for experimentation, development and awareness. Labs and exercises have been developed to provide experience to students in virtualization technologies. AMD was selected for the motherboard/processor combination for cost/performance reasons at time of selection. Memory was configured at 16 Gb based on the sweet spot of cost/Gb at the time. The network storage server hardware was selected to allow for flexibility. A hardware RAID card from Adaptec with an SSD cache module was installed. The motherboard supports 173 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) Thru these labs, students have been made aware of what virtualization can and cannot do. The cluster has also been used for thesis, independent study, and undergraduate and graduate research projects. It has been used in several classes for demonstrating security vulnerabilities and weaknesses and increasing awareness of privacy and confidentiality concerns. Other classes are being developing to study advanced virtualization, storage, and network technologies. Experimentation has been performed to support the possibility of using Macintosh hardware as the base platform allowing MacOS to also be legally virtualized. This can provide students with experience in a broader array of operating systems. Unfortunately, this feature cannot be provided for free due to the licensing requirements. Physical hardware in a virtual environment – Many physical devices and operating systems have a virtual equivalent. The way that a physical device succumbs to exploits or failures may be different then it’s virtual equivalent. This is particularly valuable in the cyber security realm where virtual equivalents may not fail as a physical device might fail. 3.5 Distributable The hardware design and specifications are available upon request (web link to follow presentation). The entire cluster design can be bundled and packaged for distribution to academic institutions. The reference design has been documented and can be easily replicated at other institutions on a variety of platforms. Regarding software, although many of the licenses are free, institutions with Microsoft MSDNAA and VMware agreements can benefit as academic licenses for those products can be acquired with minimal paperwork. To address this disparity, a reference design is being developed to allow for the inclusion of physical hardware to the virtual cluster. This will provide control over power and other physical actions as well as access to serial console interface(s) from the virtual systems. With such a configuration, students will be exposed to the capabilities and limitations of the actual physical device, both when operating correctly, and in failure mode. 4. FUTURE WORK Despite the success of the virtualization cluster, there are many improvements that might be explored. As an example, experiments have been started where Cisco switches and routers have been introduced into the virtual environment. Students can perform experiments and activities allowing them to control and configure those physical objects from within the virtualized environment. Free solution - Work is underway for implementation of a reference design of the base package that would not require fee-based licenses. Most of the function has been established but further testing and packaging are still necessary. PXEboot - USB booting is a functional solution for changing the hosts from one virtualization platform to another. A less labor-intensive approach would be to set the machines up to boot from the network via PXEboot. This would allow for remote reconfiguration of the cluster, without the requirement for a physical presence and could allow for webbased, menu-driven or scripted reconfiguration. PXEboot would be used to designate the kernel image to be loaded on the hosts for the virtualization architecture desired. Workshop – Currently in the proposal stage is a workshop to bring faculty from K-14 together for an introduction to virtualization technologies. The plan will be to introduce the technology, help build a small, extensible cluster (2-3 nodes), and then install and operate a virtualization environment in that cluster. The intent will be to send each faculty home with the small cluster that they built. This will provide K-14 faculty experience building a cluster and sufficient knowledge to use the technology in the classroom, for distribution of OS images for students to work on. It will also introduce the concepts of virtualization to a younger audience in the hopes of preparing them more completely for their transition to a college environment. Figure 4 – Phase II concept 5. CONCLUSION Academic units are often faced with the challenge of remaining current while dealing with shrinking budgets. Today, one of the most rapidly advancing areas is virtualization. Virtualization is both a process and a product – this is one reason that review of multiple technologies is so important – one should not be constrained to use only a single virtualization technology. Deploying contemporary Macintosh-based - The current implementation of the cluster is limited to x86 windows and Linux infrastructure. 174 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) virtualization architecture can create flexibility economies of scale but at considerable initial cost. and This paper describes an approach to clustering that is both flexible and low cost, putting virtualization within the grasp of organizations that previously may not have considered it possible due to either cost constraints, or lack of exposure to the technology. This project has the additional benefit of allowing almost any course requiring computing facilities to be taught on the same system. 6. REFERENCES [1] Burd S., et al “Virtual Computing Laboratories: A Case Study with Comparisons to Physical Computing Laboratories”, Journal of Information Technology Education, volume 8, pp. 55-78, 2009. [2] Kara Nance, Brian Hay, Ronald Dodge, Alex Seazzu, and Steve Burd, “Virtual Laboratory Environments: Methodologies for Educating Cybersecurity Researchers”, Methodological Innovations Online, volume 4:3, pp. 3-14, 2009. [3] Gaspar, A., Langevin, S., Armitage, W.D. "Virtualization Technologies in the Undergraduate IT Curriculum", IT Professional, vol.9, no.4, pp.10-17, July-Aug. 2007 [4] Border, C., “The Development and Deployment of a Multi-User, Remote Access Virtualization System for Networking, Security, and System Administration Classes”, Proceedings of the 38th SIGCSE technical symposium on Computer Science education, p 576-580, 2007. 175 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) How to Educate and Train Science Teachers in IBSE Experimentation Josef Trna Faculty of Education, Masaryk University Brno, Czech Republic, EU ABSTRACT (2) Structured level School experiments are a core tool of science education. Inquiry-Based Science Education (IBSE) is considered to be an innovative educational method which has a strong motivational effect on students and teachers. This method is based on experimentation. Experiments have different roles and characteristics in each of the four levels of IBSE. The presented research tries to answer questions aimed at: the characteristics of experiments at each of the IBSE levels, principles for applying IBSE experiments, and teacher training methods suitable for IBSE experimentation. A mixed research method combining a theoretical comparative analysis and design-based research, was used. The primary outcome of our research is the taxonomy of IBSE experiments. The study describes four types of IBSE experiments, including specific examples from hydromechanics. Principles for implementing IBSE experiments are also presented. The taxonomy of IBSE experiments and the principles for their implementation into teaching/learning science must be added to pre-service and in-service physics teacher training. This task is performed by the European project PROFILES. (3) Guided level (4) Open level Experiments play a crucial role at all four IBSE levels because they are the foundation of inquiry in science education. Five acquiring stages exist in developing teachers’ skills [9]. (1) Motivation Stage: the stage of teacher’s motivation (2) Orientation Stage: the stage of teacher’s orientation in the acquired skill (3) Stabilization Stage: the stage of new skill stabilization (4) Completing Stage: the stage of completing the skill and its inclusion in a wider contextual frame (5) Integral Stage: the stage during which a new skill is integrated into the skill structure The first three stages can be developed during the teachers’ preservice training; the fourth and the fifth stages are possible to complete during the teachers’ in-service training. Keywords: Experiments, Inquiry-based science education, taxonomy, science education, teacher training. Our study focuses on the education and training of teachers to use IBSE experiments at all four IBSE levels based on a connectivist approach. 1. INTRODUCTION Inquiry-based science education (IBSE) is an innovative educational method which has a strong motivational impact on students and teachers. This method is based on experimentation which has a decisive role in science education. The motivational role of experiments is based on the importance of experiments in science research [12] and the cognitive importance of experiments in science education [2]. That is why the teachers’ professional competence in using experiments in IBSE (hereinafter IBSE experiments) is a very important part of their pre-service and in-service training. Motivation, understanding, training, and experience in the use of IBSE experiments are integral parts of the pedagogical content knowledge [11] of science teachers and should be improved by the implementation of connectivist [10] educational and training methods. 3. RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND METHODOLOGY The aim of this study is to create the foundations for teacher education in IBSE experimentation in the form of a taxonomy of IBSE experiments and to determine of the role of IBSE experiments. Our research has applications in finding suitable training methods for teachers in IBSE experimentation. The research questions are: (a) Are experiments different at various levels of IBSE? In which characteristics do they differ? On this basis it is necessary to create a taxonomy of IBSE experiments. (b) What are the principles of the implementing experiments at various levels of IBSE? These principles should then be defined and applied to IBSE. 2. RATIONALE (c) What teacher training methods with connectivist elements are suitable for IBSE experimentation? The teacher training methods will later be used in practice. IBSE is based on understanding the process of science learning [6]. The main principles of IBSE are student involvement in discovering natural laws, linking information into a meaningful context, developing critical thinking, and promoting positive attitudes towards science ([5], [8]). A mixed research method combining a theoretical comparative analysis and design-based research, was used. The theoretical IBSE analysis led to the creation of the basic characteristics of IBSE experiments at various levels. The combined method of a video study and a questionnaire for teachers examining the In terms of teacher involvement, there are four levels of IBSE [1]: (1) Confirmation level 176 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) incidence of these four types of IBSE experiments in teaching followed. Using design-based research, we discovered specific patterns of IBSE experiments and verified their compatibility with different IBSE levels. Using action research, which was part of the design-based research, we modified the characteristics of each type of IBSE experiment. their inquiry by asking appropriate questions. Students generate an explanation supported by evidence they have collected through experimentation. The process of structured experimentation is determined by the teacher, but the solution is not known in advance; the teacher significantly affects the students’ inquiry by asking guiding questions and by determining the method of inquiry. Students express their creativity in discovering laws. 4. RESULTS Example: Floating and sinking 2. Students place small balls, which are made from different substances of known density, into water (Figure 2). 4.1 Taxonomy of IBSE experiments By comparing the role of experiments at all four levels of IBSE we found four basic types of IBSE experiments. Each type is supplemented by particular examples of physics experiments ([15], [14]). 4.1.1 Confirmation experiments: The outcome of this type of experiment is the confirmation of knowledge of principles, concepts, and theories. Students gain experience and specific inquiry skills, such as collecting and recording data. Students carry out confirmation experiments following their teacher’s detailed instructions and under his/her direct supervision. The expected results of the experiments are known in advance; the students confirm or verify laws. Example: Floating and sinking 1. Students gradually insert balls, which are made from substances of known density, into water (Figure 1). Figure 2. Balls with different density Students enter the substance’s name and density into the table. They record the behavior of the solids in the liquid (Table 2). The final analysis of the balls’ density leads to the conclusion that their behavior depends on their density in comparison with the density of liquid. Table 2. Worksheet – structured experiment Substance Density of the Behavior in water substance (sinking, hovering, floating) Figure 1. Glass of water; polystyrene, plastic, and iron balls 1 iron 7,8 g/cm3 The worksheet (Table 1) contains a table which identifies the substances and their densities. They are listed with the reference density of water with which the students initially compared the density of the balls. By immersing the balls in water, the students confirm the expected behavior. 2 aluminum 2,7 g/cm3 3 glass 2,5 g/cm3 4 plastic 1,0 g/cm3 5 ice 0,92 g/cm3 Table 1. Worksheet – confirmation experiment Substance 1 iron Density of the substance 7,8 g/cm3 Behavior in water sinking 2 plastic 1,0 g/cm3 hovering 3 expanded polystyrene 0,03 g/cm3 floating 6 dry spruce wood 0,33 g/cm3 7 0,03 g/cm3 expanded polystyrene 4.1.3 Guided experiments: Here, the teacher is the "guide” of the inquiry. He/she encourages the students using research questions and provides the students with guidance about their investigation plans. The students design procedures to test their questions and the resulting explanations. The students propose their own methods and guided experiments to address the research questions; the teacher cooperates with the students to 4.1.2 Structured experiments: In these experiments, the teacher has an influence on the procedure and helps students in 177 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) provide them with the research questions and gives advice on planning and implementing of the research. Example: Floating and sinking 3. The teacher only gives students a research question. They do not have given procedures and experiments. The basic research question might be: "Find the factors which determine the behavior of solids in a liquid." Students should seek out their own experiments and equipment (Figures 3, 4, 5). Figure 3. Solids only differing in shape Figure 6. Galileo thermometer 4.1.4 Open experiments: At this level, students should be able to come up with questions, design and carry out investigations using experiments, record and analyze data, and draw conclusions from the evidence they have collected. Because this requires a high level of scientific reasoning and places a high cognitive demand on students, it is generally more suitable for the development of gifted students. Students form their own research questions, methods, and procedures; they carry out open experiments on their own. Figure 4. Solids only differing in volume Example: Floating and sinking 4. An inflated rubber balloon is sealed in a plastic bottle closed by a cap with a valve (Figure 7). The air in the bottle and inside the balloon is compressed by a bicycle pump. The volume of the balloon decreases. When the overpressure has been relieved, the balloon returns to its original dimensions. Figure 5. Solids only differing in density Guided experiments are also very effective in the fixation and application phase of instruction. It is effective here to ask guiding questions such as: "Can a solid of high density float in water? Can a solid float in a liquid of lower volume than the volume of the solid itself? Does the behavior of solids in a liquid change with its changing temperature? Explain the function of the Galileo thermometer (see Figure 6)!" Students themselves generate and verify hypotheses leading to the solution of the problem identified by the teacher at the beginning. They perform additional experiments and measurements. In the end, they synthesize their research and discover their own way to resolve the problem. Figure 7. A model of a lung when diving in a hyperbaric chamber The experiment simulates the phenomenon that occurs when diving. The volume of air-filled body cavities (the lungs, the middle ear) is reduced to half at a depth of 10 meters and to a 178 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) quarter at a depth of 30 meters. The diver’s breathing apparatus automatically balances these conditions by increasing the pressure of the breathing gas. Rapid emergence (faster than 18 meters per minute) may cause barotrauma (lung rupture, fatal bleeding, and air embolism). and they adopt connectivistic elements in their behavior. So we came to the conclusion that it is necessary to introduce connectivism into teacher training. This is consistent with the standards and resources within UNESCO’s project “ICT Competency Standards for Teachers” [16] that provide guidelines for all teachers, specifically for planning teacher education programs and training. 4.2 Principles of IBSE experimentation We discovered the following principles for implementing IBSE experiments: the selection of experiments from daily life; an emphasis on student experiments; the creation of alternative student experiments; the functional use of ICT during experimentation. These principles must be verified and completed. We decided to educate and train teachers in IBSE experimentation in a web-based environment and use teacher collaboration to improve their skills in how to teach effectively [13]. We verified this training in our international project PROFILES [7]. Teachers create teams of 4-5 members and together prepare teaching/learning modules and solve problems during their implementation. They share ideas, experiences, and prepared materials together in a web-based environment. 4.3 Teacher training methods for IBSE experimentation Continuous professional development (CPD) of teachers is very important because the way is taught depends on the teachers. It is essential for teachers to acquire the necessary professional competency to apply IBSE experiments through the acquiring of a set of specific skills. Teachers need to be able to determine what level of IBSE can be used, and what knowledge and skills their students should acquire, at what level and in what order. 5. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS IBSE is an innovative educational method which supports the development of critical thinking and promotes positive attitudes towards science. According to research findings, IBSE experiments are very important motivational tools for increasing student interest. But the implementation of IBSE experiments in instruction alone does not lead to appropriate and sufficient learning outcomes and the development of student knowledge and skills. Teachers have to know how to apply experiments in their instruction. It is primarily necessary to improve primarily the implementation methods of IBSE experiments. Five acquiring stages exist in developing teachers’ skills applying IBSE experiments: (a) Motivation Stage: Acquiring professional interest and attitudes towards IBSE experiments (b) Orientation Stage: Acquiring the knowledge necessary for IBSE experimentation (c) Stabilization Stage: Solving simple applied tasks in applying IBSE experiments (d) Completing Stage: Solving complicated applied tasks in applying IBSE experiments (e) Integration Stage: Solving teaching situation problems in school practice (new skills are integrated into the existing skill structure) The completing and integration stages are conditioned by several years of experience on the part of the teacher which is why the complete acquisition of these skills is not possible by the end of pre-service teacher training. A subsequent research problem in IBSE is teacher proficiency in: combining experiments and problem tasks [3], simple experimenting [4], project teaching, etc. It is necessary to implement the principles of using experiments and their IBSE taxonomy in physics teacher training. Teachers have to acquire the skills necessary to implement IBSE experiments into instruction. It is not possible to complete the development of teacher professional skills in IBSE experimentation during pre-service science teacher training. That is why there is a need to educate and train teachers in understanding and training in the use of IBSE experiments during their entire CPD. We verified the development of this professional teacher competence using connectivist educational and training methods. In pre-service professional training at university, a teacher candidate is usually able to handle only the first three stages of skill development. An appropriate training method is an introduction to IBSE experimentation where the teacher candidate plays the role of a student. A video analysis of lessons has been successful as well. Later the teacher candidate, led by experienced teachers and university educators, uses IBSE experiments in their teaching practice at schools. At the end of the pre-service training the teacher candidate is usually sufficiently qualified for the first two levels of IBSE: confirmation and structured. During the in-service phase, a teacher can reach the other two levels of IBSE. A necessary condition is sufficient teaching experience. REFERENCES [1] H. Banchi, & R. Bell, “The Many Levels of Inquiry”, Science and Children, Vol. 2, 2008, pp. 26-29. [2] D.L. Haury, & P. Rillero, Perspectives of Hands-On Science Teaching, Columbus: ERIC-CSMEE, 1994. [3] A. Hofstein, O. Navon, M. Kipnis & R. Mamlok-Naaman, “Developing Students Ability to Ask More and Better Questions Resulting from Inquiry-Type Chem. Laboratories”, Journal of Res. in Sc. Teach., Vol. 42, 2005, pp. 791-806. [4] P.A. Kirschner, J. Sweller & R.E. Clark, “Why minimal guidance during instruction does not work: an analysis of the failure of constructivist, discovery, problem-based, experiential, and inquiry-based teaching”, Educational Psychologist, Vol. 41, No. 2, 2006, pp. 75–86. The discovery that today’s students (the “Net Generation”) have a different learning styles, preferences, and world views has lead to the origination of the new pedagogical theory of connectivism as a "theory of digital age learning” [10]. Connectivism reflects the influence of ICT on education. Young teachers are already members of the Net Generation, so the principles of connectivism are natural for them. Older teachers are influenced by contact with students and young colleagues 179 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) [5] W.C. Kyle, “What research says: Science through discovery: Students love it”, Science and Children, Vol. 2, 1985, pp. 39–41. [6] R. Narode, Teaching Thinking Skills: Science, Washington: National Education Association, 1987. [7] Profiles, PROFILES project, 2013, Retrieved May 20, 2013, from http://www.profiles-project.eu/ [8] S.J. Rakow, Teaching Science as Inquiry, Fastback 246, Bloomington (USA): Phi Delta Kappa Educ. Found., 1986. [9] J.M. Royer, Ch.A. Cisero & M. Carlo, “Techniques and procedures for Assessing Cognitive Skills”, Review of Educational Research, Vol. 2, 1993, pp. 201-243. [10] G. Siemens, Connectivism: A Learning Theory for the Digital Age. Elearnspace. 2005, Retrieved October 20, 2012, from http://www.elearnspace.org/Articles/connectivism.htm [11] L. S. Shulman, “Knowledge and Teaching: Foundations of the new reform”, Harvard Educational Review, Vol. 57, 1987, pp. 1-22. [12] J. Trna, „How to motivate science teachers to use science experiments“, Journal of Systemics, Cybernetics and Informatics, Vol. 10, No. 5, 2012, pp. 33-35. [13] J. Trna & E. Trnova, “ICT-based collaborative action research in science education“. In IMSCI'10. The 4th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics. Proceedings. Volume I, Orlando (USA): International Institute of Informatics and Systematic, 2010, pp. 68-70. [14] J. Trna & E. Trnova, “Inquiry-based Science Education Experiments“, In Inquiry-based Science Education in Europe: Reflections from the PROFILES Project, C. Bolte, J. Holbrook, & F. Rauch (Eds.), Berlin: Freie Universitat Berlin, 2012. pp. 212-215. [15] E. Trnova & J. Trna, “Hands-on experimental activities in inquiry-based science education”, In Proceedings book of the joint international conference MPTL'16 - HSCi 2011, Ljubljana (Slovenia): University of Ljubljana, 2011, pp. 293-298. [16] UNESCO, ICT Teacher Competency Standards Modules, Paris: UNESCO, 2008. Retrieved October 20, 2012, from http://cst.unescoci.org/sites/projects/cst/The%20Standards/ICT-CSTCompetency%20Standards%20Modules.pdf ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The study initiated within the project PROFILES: Professional Reflection-Oriented Focus on Inquiry-based Learning and Education though Science (FP7-SCIENCE-IN-SOCIETY-20101, 266589). 180 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) DISTANCE EDUCATION IN THE SERVICE OF HEALTH AND SUSTAINABILITY Glauco VILLAS-BÔAS Nucleus of Management Biodiversity and Health- Institute of Drug Technology Farmanguinhos - Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (Fiocruz) Av. Comandante Guaranys nº 447 - Jacarepaguá, Rio de Janeiro, ZIP/Zone 22775-903, Brazil Maria da Conceição MONTEIRO Nucleus of Management Biodiversity and Health- Institute of Drug Technology Farmanguinhos - Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (Fiocruz) Av. Comandante Guaranys nº 447 - Jacarepaguá, Rio de Janeiro, ZIP/Zone 22775-903, Brazil Regina Coeli COSTA Nucleus of Management Biodiversity and Health- Institute of Drug Technology Farmanguinhos - Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (Fiocruz) Av. Comandante Guaranys nº 447 - Jacarepaguá, Rio de Janeiro, ZIP/Zone 22775-903, Brazil Sheila Torres NUNES Distance Education – National School of Public Health (ENSP) - Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (Fiocruz) R. Leopoldo Bulhões, 1480 - Manguinhos, Rio de Janeiro - RJ, 21041-210 ABSTRACT The Management of Biodiversity as an Innovation in Drug Development is presented in the form of a professional qualification course for managers of local groups, using distance education. The course in the area of phytomedicine is designed to promote safe access and rational use of medicinal plants and herbal drugs, the sustainable use of biodiversity and the development of the productive chain for the national drug industry. The article demonstrates the importance of distance education in improving public health in Brazil, considering the size of the country and the possibility of building knowledge of the use of medicinal plants in rural communities spread over a vast territorial area, many of them in places where medical care and drug distribution are difficult for the authorities. Informatics technology and distance education enable highly qualified managers and researchers in urban centers to pass on their knowledge and so qualify professionals to develop the supply Chains of plants drugs from Brazilian biodiversity and contribute to the improvement of health and the reduction of social inequalities, always respecting local community knowledge. Keywords: Distance Education, Public Health, Phytomedicine, Technology Innovation, Social Inclusion. 181 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) 1. INTRODUCTION The National Policy on Medicinal Plants and Herbal Drugs (PNPMF) introduced in Brazil by Decree. 5813 of June 22nd, 2006, establishes for the first time the prospect of the sustainable use of biodiversity for the development of drugs of plant origin for the public health system and so meet the considerable epidemiological demands of the country. Taking into account the territorial dimension of Brazil and its demographic characteristics the importance of Distance Education Program in the implementation of the National Policy on Medicinal Plants and Herbal becomes apparent. The method enables the spread of information and skills from north to south and from east to west, integrating the national and regional innovation systems as an interactive process all the way from basic research to commercialization and diffusion of each drug. In order to support the Ministry of Health in the implementation of this Policy, a Center was established for Biodiversity Management and Health - NGBS, within the Institute of Drug Technology - Farmanguinhos a unit of the Oswaldo Cruz Foundation - FIOCRUZ. The program has, as its main objective, to ensure safe access and rational use of medicinal plants and herbal medicines by the Brazilian population at the same time promoting the sustainable use of biodiversity and the development of the productive chain in association with national industry. 2. IMPORTANCE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION IN PROFESSIONAL QUALIFICATION Distance education is shown as an important pedagogical tool for a Drug Innovation from Biodiversity Postgraduate Specialization (Sensu Lato). The course has as its main objective the qualification of local managers who then become able to contribute to pharmaceutical innovation from the Brazilian flora, and help create a research, development and innovation network with a solid database. The PNPMF foresees the training of human resources in order to develop the technical skills necessary to add value and quality assurance at various stages of the supply chain. The development of medicinal plants and herbal medicines can be configured as an important strategy for coping with regional inequalities across the country, and can provide a new socio-economic opportunity for populations of regions characterized by low economic dynamism and precarious social indicators. The course curriculum places emphasis on interactivity, incorporating local culture and global culture, facilitating access to knowledge building in a significant extension of the Brazilian territory. Distance education using digital technologies with the mediation of teachers (mentors / tutors), using systematically organized teaching materials provides access to knowledge and the development of habits, skills and attitudes for a population previously excluded. The expansion of therapeutic options offered to users of the Brazilian Health System (SUS), with guaranteed access to medicinal plants, herbal remedies and herbal medicine services, with safety, efficacy and quality, is an important strategy in the improvement of public health and social inclusion. The conceptual frameworks used were the inseparability between theory and practice; collective construction of knowledge, the teacher as a facilitator of learning, the formation of a work-force qualified for the job, 182 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) the students with an active role, a solid and well defined pedagogical model; learning materials designed especially for the course, and communication strategy adapted to the limitations of the students. The system of democratic administration of the FIOCRUZ is an example of a public management model, effective in terms of institutional results, effective in finding efficient solutions to the health demands of the population and transparent accountability to the Brazilian society. 3. BACKGROUND The participants are professionals who have a college degree and who are interested in working in the area of medicinal biodiversity. These professionals will be located in different regions of the country and, through distance education, can form the bridge between traditional knowledge of their local communities with scientific knowledge from academic and specialized centers, without either losing their essential characteristics. 4. RELEVANCE OF DESIGN The FIOCRUZ belongs to the Ministry of Health and is the leading non-university institution for training and qualification of human resources for science and technology in Brazil. It has 18 programs for post-graduate studies in various areas, a technical school and many sensu lato programs. The course was designed by professionals of the Center for Biodiversity Management and Health with the help of the Distance Education staff of the National School of Public HealthENSP, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation. The material was developed by professionals from FIOCRUZ, the Fluminense Federal University -UFF; the Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro - UFRRJ, the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro - UFRJ ; University Paris 8 /France and Experice Laboratory – Paris- France. Farmanguinhos, the largest official drugmaker attached to the Ministry of Health, is part of the Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (FIOCRUZ) as one of its technical and scientific units. It is responsible for the production of over one billion units per year of medicines distributed to the population by the National Health Service - SUS, as well as meeting emergency demands in Brazil and abroad for the production of medicines. Its mission is to contribute to the promotion of public health through the production of drugs, technological development and diffusion of knowledge. It is a center of research, development and Brazilian pharmaceutical production. It prioritizes the Brazilian population's access to government health programs. The coordinators of the course are doctors and masters of ENSP and Farmanguinhos. The course also includes, among its participants, tutors and learning mentors with experience in distance education and in the area of medicinal biodiversity, accompanying the development of students during the course. The relevance of this course is the possibility of training managers to develop structure and manage projects that facilitate public access to herbal drugs and articulate partnerships among institutions in the productive sector both private and public - municipal, state, and federal. Attention is given to social and regional, inclusion as well as sustainable use of Brazilian biodiversity, valuation, and the preservation of traditional knowledge through the effective participation of indigenous and traditional communities in Local Productive Units. Among the units of FIOCRUZ the National School of Public Health - ENSP and the Institute of Drug Technology - Farmanguinhos stand out, whose mission is to produce and disseminate knowledge and technologies aimed at the strengthening and consolidation of the Brazilian Health System (SUS) and contribute to promoting health and quality of life of the population. Both have as core values the reduction of social inequalities, the promotion of national innovation, and the right to health and citizenship. 183 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) Initially the course was developed in the face to face model in the city of Rio de Janeiro and currently is in its fourth class qualification. With the introduction of information and communication technologies applicable to open distance education, it is intended to increase the scope of knowledge of the use of medicinal plants and herbal medicines throughout the country, enabling communities far from major centers to themselves manufacture and distribute herbal drugs, particularly in remote localities where official drug distribution is difficult. and standardize of traditional educational processes. With the development of audiovisual communication in real time, videoconference or internet, one can think of qualification on a large scale, with teachers-mediators serving a larger number of students, interacting with them live and, with the help of assistants, organizing distance activities, The methodology adopted is designed to tackle complex and multidisciplinary issues taking as reference the historical social construction of knowledge. The course is multidisciplinary, involving the collective construction of knowledge, with researchers, managers and phytotherapists taking active roles to enhance and extend their knowledge on Medicinal Plants and Herbal Drugs. The course in the distance mode meets a demand from society to access knowledge of herbal medicines with quality and safety. At the same time, it meets the demand of the drug industry, for skilled labor. 5. METHODOLOGY Pedagogical planning, monitoring and course evaluation are developed by a multidisciplinary team. Planning is positive in nature and flexible as required for a course that will be offered in many diverse locations. Evaluation is made during the course with a mandatory test at the end when the student, to receive a final certificate, must submit a final conclusion paper to be evaluated by a panel of teachers. To participate in a virtual environment means to live in this environment, to express thoughts and to expound existing knowledge, make decisions, act, talk, exchange information and experiences and to produce new knowledge. 6. CURRICULUM Innovation - 45 hours Public Policy - 45 hours Biodiversity - 90 hours Innovation Management - 150 hours Science and Methodologies - 30 hours Total - 360 hours In this approach to Distance Education, teaching is to organize learning situations, to plan and propose activities, identify students thoughts, act as a mediator and advisor, provide relevant information, encourage the search for new sources of information, perform experiments, stimulate reflection on processes and products, provide the student with something meaningful, encourage learning interchange and promote the formalization of concepts. 7. CONTRIBUTIONS OF DISTANCE EDUCATION TO THE DEMANDS OF PUBLIC HEALTH Distance education contributes not only to the FIOCRUZ Human Resources Policy on Medicinal Plants and Herbal Medicines, apart of its wider mission to train professionals in Health Science and Technology but is also capable of meeting the needs imposed by the process of decentralization and municipalization of health resulting from the implementation of the National Health System in Brazil. Working with educational technologies transforms teachers into mediators, establishing a close relationship with the students, sharing their experiences and knowledge, showing solidarity and reducing the impact of isolation 184 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) The new challenges faced today by distance education include social inclusion, appreciation of identities, the construction of autonomy and introduction of citizens into scientific culture. These must be a priority in the construction of the distance courses, especially in the health field. 8. CONCLUSION The local development of innovative herbal drugs derived from Brazilian biodiversity, requires the qualification of local managers that include farmers, researchers, administrators and professionals. Distance education available through digital media networks makes possible the collective construction of knowledge for those who take active roles in this process. The use of modern technologies in teaching is expected to bring the necessary knowledge to local cultures, using distance education as a tool to establish a relationship between the mediator and the physical and social environment in which he or she operates. Network communication in the form of distance education requires new broad concepts that replace old norms and standards both in control and planning, and a new concept of dialogical relations. The main challenge is not to lead to a foregone classical conclusion but to a search for a true, as far as possible perfected, manner to address the demands of reality. The course provides a perspective of sustainable use of Brazilian biodiversity for the development of drugs of plant origin to be made available through the health system and successfully meet the epidemiological demands. The qualification of managers at the receiving end is certain to add value and contribute to quality assurance at various stages of the supply chain of herbal drugs ranging from cultivation and sustainable management of medicinal plants through to herbal drug production. The aim is to strengthen the productive base and, by local innovation, bringing competitiveness to domestic industry. Based on the concept "innovation as a social process," the formation of local production with the participation of the many actors involved in the production chain has been taken into account. The recovery of local knowledge of medicinal plants from each of the participants contributes to a model that takes into account the just distribution of the benefits generated as well as protection of the ecosystem. The development of the medicinal plants and herbal medicines sectors can be configured as an important strategy for coping with regional inequalities that exist in Brazil, and can provide an important opportunity for socio-economic betterment for populations in areas characterized by a lack of economic initiative and precarious social indicators. The establishment of a well-structured network in research, and development will lead to pharmaceutical innovation in each biotope. This same type of network could also be applied to other biodiversity-based industries with great potential for development (insecticides, repellents, cosmetics, nutraceuticals) that use information generated in the course of research and development, and thus extend the rational use of biodiversity. In this way, by creating productive chains within local communities focused on farming and trade of medicinal plants and herbal medicines not only can contribute to the improvement of health but also to the reduction of social inequalities. This new paradigm aims to substitute ingrained and outdated concepts that in the present global economy directly affect the formation of professionals in the health area. 185 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) The course, by the use of communication technologies, leads to a knowledge-based management network, which, by an interactive process, progresses from basic research to commercialization and diffusion of new herbal drugs. It fulfils the needs of government policies relating to Medicinal Plants and Herbal Drugs and of those institutions that are responsible for their execution. [4] MASSETO, M. T. Mediação pedagógica e o uso da tecnologia. In: MORAN, J. M; BEHRENS, M. A. Novas tecnologias e mediação pedagógica. Campinas, SP: Papirus, 2000. (Coleção Papirus Educação) [5] SILVA , M. T.; NUNES, S. T. Curso saúde do trabalhador: orientações gerais. Rio de Janeiro: EAD/Ensp/Fiocruz, 2006. REFERENCES [6] VILLAS-BÔAS, G. K. GADELHA & C.A.G.. Opportunities in the pharmaceutical industry based on the development of local biomes: basis for the discussion of a national policy. Cadernos de Saúde Pública. Rio de Janeiro, 23 (X):105-114, 2007. [1] BRAZIL, Ministry of Health 1st National Conference on Medicinal and Pharmaceutical Assistance. Preliminary Final Report. 2003. [2] BRAZIL, Decreto 971 of MS of May 3rd, 2006. Approves the National Policy on Medicinal Plants and Herbs (PNPMF). Diário Oficial, Brasilia, June 22nd, 2006. [3] GADELHA C. A. G. The industrial Health complex : Challenges for a policy of innovation and development. Brasilia: Ministry of Health. 186 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) A Framework for Achieving Web Accessibility for University Web Sites Qi Zhu Department of Computer Science University of Houston -Victoria Victoria, Texas, USA zhuq@uhv.edu ABSTRACT Web Accessibility Standards Web accessibility standards are used by the web developers with information and guidelines about how to create accessible websites. In the context of U.S. laws, whether a website is “accessible” is defined as on that follows the U.S. Section 508 regulations. Section 508 was included in the 1998 amendment to the Rehabilitation Act of 1973. It is mandated by law and applies to all websites of federal agency and organizations that receive federal monies [6]. By extension, this implies that all state governments and their respective agencies including the Universities, although there are currently no legal accessibility requirements for university sites [7]. Section 508 consists of 16 paragraphs that focus on dissolving barriers that inhibit persons with disabilities from accessing information technology (IT) resources. As the World Wide Web becomes one of the main communication channels between universities and their community of stakeholders, the need to provide equal access and equal opportunity to people with disabilities is no longer just an ethical issue but a legal obligation. This paper proposes a framework to achieving web accessibility for university web sites. Keywords: Accessiblitity, Disability,WCAG,WAI 1. INTRODUCTION The web is a widespread educational information infrastructure to delivery academic, administrative, and student services. It is gradually and continually displacing traditional forms of media and communication. The web pages often contain important information about academic resources, campus events, and administrative policies. Students could access to university web services such as distance learning, library, course registration, and activities or news announcements. A 2002 study found that 48% of university students are required use of the Internet in courses [1]. While not backed by law, the international standard Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG) is part of the World Wide Web Consortium’s (W3C) Web Accessibility Initiative (WAI) in 1999 [8], and it plays a critical role in establishing website accessibility standards. WCAG provides a set of checkpoints that web developers may follow to ensure that their sites are accessible to a wide variety of users. WCAG defines three levels of web accessibility, Priority 1 (P1), Priority 2 (P2), and Priority 3 (P3). The priorities do not cascade, therefore, a site may meet all the requirements of P3 and still fail to meet the P1 and P2 requirements. Each WCAG priority consists of various guidelines. Fourteen guidelines make up the WCAG framework. Each guideline is broken down into individual checkpoints. With the growing role of university web sites, it is important that these sites be designed and accessible to all the users, including those with disabilities. The Web Accessibility Initiative (WAI) of the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) defines web accessibility as “meaning that people with disabilities can perceive, understand, navigate, and interact with the Web, and that they can contribute to the Web. Web accessibility also benefits others, including older people with changing abilities due to aging [2].” The Section 508 and WCAG guidelines share several common requirements. Thirteen out of sixteen paragraphs of Section 508 could be found in P1 and P2 guidelines of WCAG. However, WCAG solidifies the need for web pages accessibility moves beyond Section 508, and achieve higher accessibility by implementing P1, and P2. Several studies found that about one fifth (20%) of the population has some kind of disability, including visual, auditory, physical, speech, cognitive, and neurological disabilities though not all of these people have disabilities that make it difficult for them to access the internet [3, 4]. Also in [5], it reports that 12% of all internet users have disabilities. It is essential that the websites are accessible in order to provide equal access and equal opportunity to people with disabilities. Furthermore, an accessible website can also help students with disabilities more actively participate in learning. Review of the Literature Regardless of the existing standards and legislation supports, a number of studies have found that many university web pages remain inaccessible to users with disabilities. Schmetzke had conducted a survey of 56 North American colleges that offer ALA-accredited programs in library and 187 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) information science and the home pages of 1051 community colleges [9, 10]. He found that only one web site was free of accessibility errors and 77 percent of university and community college web pages contained at least one accessibility error. Rowland and Smith evaluated a random sample of 400 U.S. prominent colleges, universities, and online learning institutions, and found that fewer than 25 percent of university home pages met the minimum accessibility criteria [11]. implementing, and evaluating. The whole process is repetitive and it adapts forward incrementally, see Figure 1. Next we explain each step in details. Figure 1: The framework for adaptive process Design Much of the literature revolves around how to achieve website accessibility. Sloan, Kelly, Heath, Petrie, Hamilton, Guidelines Implementing and Phipps emphasize that dissemination of accessibility standards and adoption of accessibility guidelines by web authoring tools are not enough [12]. They argue that web Evaluating pages should be viewed in a much larger social context and that the role of the web page cannot be separated from itsPublishing accessibility. Richards and Hanson look at web accessibility beyond its goal of helping a small population of disabled Guidelines and Templates users [13]. Disabled users represent users with attention, Some general strategies, guidelines, and resources are cognitive, and motor impairments. They stipulate that web available to make the web more accessible for people with accessibility can benefit a much larger group of users, such disabilities. Usually these guidelines are developed in a as young children and older adults. Petrie and Kheir studied forum by international participators including developers, the link between accessibility and usability [14]. They show researchers, experts, and end-users, and are widely that little data is available on the link between websites that recognized in many parts of the world. We list some wellare accessible and the sites’ usability. When implementing known guidelines in Table 1. accessibility, it should not be separated from usability. Vigo, Kobsa, Arrue, and Abascal also show that accessibility does WCAG 1.0 was published in the late 1990s by the World not imply usability. Disabled users of websites that meet Wide Web Consortium’s (W3C) Web Accessibility Initiative accessibility guidelines may still experience issues accessing (WAI) to provide an international guideline identifying Web web content [15]. accessibility for people with disabilities. There are three standards: Web Content Accessibility Guidelines describe From the designer and programmers’ point of view on how to make accessible Web content and Web sites; achieving accessibility, Rosmaita offers an “accessibility Authoring Tool Accessibility Guidelines cover how to use first” approach to web design [16], which stresses the web development software, content management systems, importance of not separating web design from web and multimedia design tools to create Web accessible; and accessibility, and that web accessibility should be built into User Agent Accessibility Guidelines describe how to make the design of the site. Centeno, Kloos, Gaedke, and browsers, assistive technologies, and other user tools Nussbaumer also argue that web accessibility needs to be accessible. included in the design process rather than be a post-design process [17]. They also show that designers cannot rely Table 1: Well-known guidelines for Web accessibility solely on authoring and design tools. Web accessibility Name of Guidelines Comments requires human intervention and inspection. Jackson lays a Web Content Accessibility The original and best-know framework for interdisciplinary teams to create accessibility Guidelines 1.0 guidelines for web content guidelines [18]. The interdisciplinary team includes Web Content Accessibility The current version of WCAG accessibility and web development members. Lastly, Gibson Guidelines 2.0 points out that with Web 2.0 becoming more prevalent, users Authoring Tool Accessibility Developing accessible development Guidelines 1.0 tools with disabilities may be unaware of how to interact with the User Agent Accessibility Developing accessible user tools dynamically created rich user interfaces [19]. This highlights Guidelines the need for accessibility to be considered as part of the Accessible Rich Internet Developing accessible web design process. Applications Suite applications using technologies United States Section 508 Guidelines Research-based Web Design and Usability Guidelines IBM Accessibility Center Guidelines 2.A FRAMEWORK FOR ACHIEVING WEB ACCESSIBILITY In this paper, a framework for achieving web accessibility is proposed for people with disabilities - people with auditory, cognitive, neurological, physical, speech, and visual impairments. The framework we propose uses the basic idea of Agile Software Development, encompassing a set of rules with the context of four parts: guidelines, design, such as AJAX and Javascript US regulations Web design from the research literature Accessibility checklists At that time, the Web consisted mostly of static information (HTML) and few interactive technologies are supported by either browsers or assistive technologies. The main purpose 188 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) of WCAG 1.0 was to help users to access the websites via alternatives such as auditory and visual content or to increase the likelihood that a person will find what they are looking for. However, the Web has changed dramatically for the past decade; it is not only an HTML world, but also CSS, SMIL, SVG, XML, PDF, Flash, and many more. A working group was formed by W3C and developed WCAG 2.0 as the second version in 2000. Like WCAG 1.0, WCAG 2.0 requirements are organized into three levels – A, AA and AAA, and levels are a sort of implementation order for authors; Level A is always required to achieve level AA; and Levels A and AA are both met in order to achieve level AAA conformance. TABLE 2: TYPES ACCESSIBILITY Design for Inclusion Even the importance of accessibility among Web developers and site commissioner is recognized. However, there are many challenges such as effective Web design techniques, complexity and cost for the design, and the ambiguous definition of “accessibility” [22].  Control changes to requirements as they appear throughout the life cycle in order to satisfy users’ changing needs.  Define the accessible system architecture OF Category Simulation Tools There are many different approaches of design processes for accessibility; here we propose one with core principles to include accessibility from the beginning of the Web design. We propose some principles for the design process based on [23]: Develop the product incrementally and present each result to users in order to correct possible misunderstanding and inconsistencies in a timely and efficient manner. Constantly evaluate the system through users. There are a wide range of tools and templates usable with the organization's authoring software, including content management systems (CMS), WYSIWYG ("What You See Is What You Get") tools, save-as-HTML conversion tools such as word processors, database-generation tools, site management tools. Some popular ones like Dreamweaver, NVU, GoLive, and FrontPage. In Table 2, we give some tools focusing on accessibility, and they are categorized into simulation tools and content conversion tools. There is no one set of practical guidelines for universal use, in addition, guidelines must be constantly kept up-to-date to new technologies, and finally, the guidelines must be developed and modified so that they can be easily understood and effectively implemented in real-world.   Implementing and Related Tools The implementation encompasses a set of coding and tools that lead to websites ready for publishing to the customer or end users. For new or redesigned sites, build accessibility in starting with the first draft. On the other hand, for existing sites, implement necessary modifications and revisions. The most important thing is to verify accessibility using accessibility checklists at key stages. Also an existing draft of guidelines for Accessible Rich Internet Applications (ARIA) is available by WAI for the accessibility of dynamic Web content for people with disabilities. It introduces the new technologies such as map controls, Ajax live regions, and new navigation to treat common Web structures as menus, primary and secondary content, banner information and other types of Web structures. Make accessibility a priority throughout the development process. Define the system structure and behavior with visual models that can be understood by users. In design process, content accessibility, navigational accessibility, and user interface accessibility of Web sites are considered as three primary goals of Web accessibility. Each goal can be divided into some sub goals, representing the requirements that need to be met so the Web component (content, navigation and UI) are accessible by the users with disability. It is important for designers to memorize and commit to accessible design processes and guidelines throughout the entire cycle of development. We include United States Section 508 regulations in Table 1 while guidelines from other national governments [20, 21] were not included since most other governments hold very closely to WCAG than the US government does. The current 508 revision is based on WCAG 2.0 for the regulations on web pages.   Content Conversion Tools AUTHORING TOOLS FOR WEB Tools Accessibility Designer Macromedia Usablenet Microsoft and Adobe Adobe PDF conversion Tool Daltonize The Accessibility Designer is a visualization tool allowing designers to grasp the weak points in their pages, and to recognize how accessible or inaccessible their pages are at a glance [24]. The Accessibility Designer will mark a page’s different areas by using colors and gradations to illustrate the accessibility, and the text information can be read to a user through a screen reader. Macromedia improves Web accessibility in the recent version of their vector-based animation tool “Flash MX” by including an enhanced user interface, supporting the rich-media, and having a new pixellevel snapping tool. Web developers also have the ability to add text descriptions to graphic elements and animated presentation. UsableNet extends Macromedia Dreamweaver’s functionality to allow the auto-checking of the web pages’ accessibility against 508 Accessibility Suite. considering 189 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) functionality of each step is briefly introduced and discussed. More research needs to be done in regarding to the details of each step such as guidelines, principles, challenges, and interrelated connection with others. Additionally, the implementation on some real websites could be studies. UsableNet also offers LIFT and LIFTPro to allow the developer to select the accessibility set, then exam the reports item-by-item to find the accessibility problem. Microsoft FrontPage 2003 and Adobe InSight also have more accessibility features built into the software. Another type of the tools is content conversion. Adobe InDesign CS5.5 software allows you to PDF files and Adobe Dreamweaver files into HTML, XML, or XHTML formats. In addition, tags and alternative text attributes can be added to InDesign documents to support. Because PDF and similar document formats can often present accessibility problems when created incorrectly, Adobe InDesign CS5.5 is very useful to create universally accessible alternatives to often inaccessible file content. Daltonize is a tool to correct the inaccessible problem with images by image processing algorithm for color-blind users [25]. The algorithm shifts red/green color dimensions to light/dark and blue/yellow coloration to be more distinguishable for the color blind users. 4. [1] [2] [3] [4] Evaluating Methodologies Evaluation tools can be employed to determine the conformance of web sites to accessibility checks automatically. The best known is Bobby, developed by the Center for Applied Special Technology and now owned by Watchfire. Bobby automatically evaluates the accessibility of web pages on a number of objective measures [10, 11]. Some more automated evaluation tools such as Cynthia Says, utilize WCAG and Section 508 accessibility guidelines [26]. Functional Accessibility Evaluator (FAE) evaluates web sites and provides authors with directed feedback about accessibility in several categories [27] and WebInSight that detects what impedes access to the web and offers suggestions to improve access [28]. [5] [6] [7] However, automated evaluations for accessibility have many issues. As the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) points out, “Some of the web-content accessibility checkpoints cannot be checked successfully by software algorithms alone. There will still be a dependence on the user's ability to exercise human judgment to determine conformance to the guidelines”. According to the research literature, human processes in evaluating are more effective than automated evaluations [29]. In particular, the best way for accessibility evaluation is to have experts (with vision) use a screen reader to evaluate a website [30]. [8] [9] [10] 3. CONCLUSION As websites become the defacto form of communication between universities and their community of stakeholders, it is increasingly more important to provide equal access to online resources. The growing awareness of web accessibility should be introduced to all educators, web developers, and website designers. [11] In this paper, a framework for achieving web accessibility is proposed for people with disabilities. The framework uses the basic idea of Agile Software Development to have four steps: guidelines, design, implementing, and evaluating. The [13] [12] 190 REFERENCES Jones, S., and Madden, M. 2002. The internet goes to college: How students are living in the future with today’s technology. Pew Internet and American Life Project. http://www.pewinternet.org/~/media/Files/Reports/2002/PIP_ College_Report.pdf.pdf . 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How interdisciplinary teams created company-wide section 508 accessibility guidelines for writers. SIGDOC (pp. 140-142). San Francisco: ACM. Gibson, B. 2007. Enabling an accessible web 2.0. W4A (pp. 1-6). Banff: ACM. Gulliksen, J., Axelson, H., Persson, H., & Goransson, B. 2010. Accessibility and public policy in Sweden. Interactions, 17(3), 26-29. UK Cabinet Office, 2005, eAccessibility of public sector services in the European Union. Retrieved Dec, 27, 2011 from http://www.dgaep.gov.pt/media/0601010000/uk/eAccessibilit y.pdf Lazar J., Dudley-Sponaugle A., and GreenidgeK. 2004. Improving Web Accessibility: A study of Webmaster perceptions. Computers and Human Behavior, 20(2), 269288. Sousa, K., Furtado, E. 2005. From usability tasks to usable use inerfaces. Proceeding of 4th ACM international workshop on task models and diagrams. Gdansk, Poland. usability for the blind,” Proceeding of the 6th international ACM SIGACCESS conference on Computers and Accessibility, Atlanta, USA. 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Mankoff, J., Fait, H., & Tran, T. 2005. Is your web page accessible? A comparative study of methods for assessing web page accessibility for the blind. Proceedings of the ACM Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, pp. 41-50. [15] [16] [17] [18] [19] [20] [21] [22] [23] [25] [26] [27] [28] [29] [30] 191 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) CreativEngineering for 2020 Mark M. Budnik Electrical and Computer Engineering, Valparaiso University Valparaiso, IN 46383, USA 1. TABLE 1: Objectives for the CreativEngineering Class 1. Students will be able to give examples of creativity in engineering 2. Students will be able to use tools and processes that help them to be more creative. 3. Students will be able to explain how individuals can be more creative. 4. Students will be able to explore the role of a leader in the creative process. INTRODUCTION The United States National Academy of Engineering's seminal work, The Engineer of 2020 – Visions of Engineering in the New Century was written to prepare industrial, governmental, and academic institutions for the future of engineering. The authors of the report state, “Emphasis on the creative process will allow more effective leadership in the development and application of next-generation technologies to problems of the future.” In 2011 and 2012, engineering undergraduates from the Valparaiso University College of Engineering participated in three-day off-site course focused on creativity, innovation, and leadership in the creative process. The course was taught by a member of the engineering faculty and included session and on-location tours (near Orlando, Florida) that were led by instructors from an external training organization. Pre- and postcourse surveys identify a significant improvement in the students' understanding of the roles of creativity, innovation, and leadership in the creative process. The 2012 class represented an approximately 25% reduction in the student cost of the trip while still significantly improving the students' creativity. Valparaiso University's College of Engineering partnered with an external training organization to develop the CreativEngineering class. This reduced the faculty load for the course. In addition, by working with a corporation known world-wide as a leader in creativity and innovation, publicity for the course was easier. The course was primarily taught by a faculty member while specific on-location tours (near Orlando, Florida) and sessions were led by instructors from the external training organization. Additionally, the faculty member served as class administrator for all the logistics related to traveling to and from the external training organization's location. The cost of the trip for students was $1,025. Twenty-two students enrolled in the course. Partial scholarships were available for needful students donated by an alumnus. The cost of the course (including travel and hotels) was $37,100. The cost difference was covered through the Dean's Annual Giving Fund. The cost breakdown of the trip is summarized in Table 2. 2. BACKGROUND The intent behind The Engineer of 2020 – Visions of Engineering in the New Century was two-fold. First, it provided guidelines for the future of undergraduate engineering education in the United States. Second, it presented the attributes required for engineering undergraduates in 2020. Strong analytical skills and the ability to work under increasing constraints were considered mandatory. In addition, The Engineer of 2020 identified a number of skills typically absent in most engineering undergraduate curricula: practical ingenuity, creativity, communication, business management, and leadership. TABLE 2: Cost of the CreativEngineering Class Airplane tickets Hotel rooms On-site tours of external training organization Venue and food/beverage minimum External training organization led session Theme park tickets for class activities Textbooks College of Engineering shirts Supplies Snacks Total To address these needs, the Valparaiso University College of Engineering is developing a series of courses on the creative process dedicated to enhancing the undergraduate students' knowledge and capacity for creativity, innovation, entrepreneurship, and leadership. $7,100 $5,400 $4,900 $2,000 $12,900 $3,200 $300 $800 $300 $200 $37,100 An outline of the course is shown in Table 3. The course was held over a four-day fall break and began with students' transporting themselves from Valparaiso University's campus to the airport in Chicago (approximately 100km). An early evening flight was selected to avoid students having to miss any other classes. At the airport, students received the course textbook [4], a reading assignment for the flight, 3. 2011 CLASS OFFERING In 2011, CreativEngineering was offered for the first time. The objectives for the class are shown in Table 1. 192 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) additional details about the course's activities, and a pretrip survey. The survey questions asked them how creative they believed themselves to be and how they would self-assess their ability to meet the four course objectives shown in Table 1. The students answered all questions on a Likert scale (1 being Not At All and 5 being Yes, Definitely). On Sunday morning, the class met briefly at the hotel for breakfast and a short review. The students and faculty member then returned to the Orlando airport to begin their trip home. At the end of the semester (approximately seven weeks after the trip), students were given the same survey. In addition, a control group of undergraduate engineering students that did not participate in the CreativEngineering class completed the survey. The results for the class and the control group are shown in Figure 1. After the class, the students showed a significant improvement in their responses to all five questions. Of special note, the averages for questions two through five (students' assessment of their ability to meet the course objectives) demonstrated a 0.9, 1.7, 1.8, and 1.6 point improvement, respectively. TABLE 3: Agenda for the CreativEngineering Course Wednesday  Fly to Orlando and hotel check-in  Course orientation Thursday  Seven hour on-site tour led by external training organization  Informal social event  Review of tour and brainstorming session Friday  Four hour Inspiring Creativity lecture session  Engineering scavenger hunt in theme park Saturday  Review of Friday's session  Engineering scavenger hunt in theme park  Review of scavenger hunt results Sunday  Course wrap-up  Fly back to Chicago and return to campus 2011 Control Group 2011 Pre-class Survey 2011 Post-class Survey Are you creative? On Thursday, the external training organization led the class on a seven hour behind-the-scenes tour of their facilities. Details were provided on both the creative aspirations and technical operation of several of their most popular attractions. The day ended with a ninety minute review session led by the faculty member. After first discussing the tour, an open-ended question was given to the students. With all of the success of the external training organization, what was still to be done? How could the attractions, facilities, and resort continue to grow and evolve over time? Can you give examples of creativity in engineering? Can you use tools to be more creative? Can you explain how to be more creative? Can you explain the role of a leader in the creativity process? 1 2 3 4 5 FIGURE 1: Averages of student self-assessments performed before and after the 2011 CreativEngineering class. Data is also provided for a control group of students that did not participate in the class. On Friday, the class received a four hour lecture session on inspiring creativity from the external training organization. Lessons included rules for brainstorming and various brainstorming techniques. Additional topics included the role of leadership during the creative process and how to keep the creative process moving forward. Afterwards, the students self-selected into smaller teams and participated in an engineering scavenger hunt at one of the external training organization's theme parks. As directed by the scavenger hunt, students looked at the attractions and observed their engineering challenges. 4. 2012 CLASS OFFERING From the 2011 assessment data, it was apparent the CreativEngineering class resulted in a significant improvement in the students' perceptions of their creativity and their ability to use and lead creative a process. While this improvement in the students' perception was real, it did not necessarily result in a sustained, quantifiable improvement in their creative process work. Therefore, in addition to adding lessons on creativity throughout their classes, it was also decided to make the CreativEngineering course an ongoing experience that students could take during each of their four years of undergraduate study. Saturday started with a review of Friday's lessons and activities. The class then traveled to another external training organization theme park to partake in a second engineering scavenger hunt. After five hours, the students and faculty member met for a review session. The faculty member acted now as a facilitator, allowing the students to lead the discussion and ask and answer each other's questions. After ninety minutes, the students were dismissed to spend the remainder of the day on their own in the theme park. For the 2012 iteration of the class, the decision was made to reduce the student cost ($1,025 in 2011) and the Dean's Annual Fund contribution ($15,200 in 2011). 193 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) This necessitated the development of an entirely new curriculum with our external training partner. The seven hour tour (which visited four different theme parks) was replaced with a five hour tour (which stayed at one theme park). The four hour lecture session on inspiring creativity was replaced with two different three hour "laboratory" sessions (Teamwork in the Creative Process and Leading the Creative Process. Finally, a third scavenger hunt was added to the trip. Student costs were reduced to approximately $775 (approximately 25% reduction) and the Dean's Annual Fund contribution was reduced to $3,750 (approximately 75% reduction). answered these additional questions (see Figure 3). The average student ratings for the Overall Trip and the Scavenger Hunt Experiences were 4.89/5.00 (almost unanimously Excellent). Likewise, the students rated the behind-the-scenes facility tour very highly (4.72/5.00). The two "laboratory" sessions (Teamwork in the Creative Process and Leading in the Creative Process) were not rated as highly with average scores of 4.44/5.00 and 3.50/5.00, respectively. Excellent Figure 2 shows how the 2012 CreativEngineering class's pre- and post-trip survey results compared to the 2011 class and control group. In each case, the 2012 margin of student improvement in the five questions decreased from the 2011 offering of the class. This was understood as a possibility with the cost reduction changes made in the 2012 trip. However, the improvements in the students' assessment of their ability to meet the course objectives (questions two through five) still saw a 0.9, 1.2, 1.1, and 1.5 point improvement, respectively. 2011 Control Group 2011 Pre-class Survey 2011 Post-class Survey Good Average Trip Overall (4.89) 16 2 0 0 0 8 Teamwork in the Creative Process Session (4.44) 0 0 0 2012 Pre-class Survey 2012 Post-class Survey 4 Leading the Creative Process Session (3.50) 1 Are you creative? 1 Facilities Tour Tour (4.72) 0 0 Can you give examples of creativity in engineering? 0 Can you use tools to be more creative? 2 Poor 16 2 0 0 0 Scavenger Hunts and Experience (4.89) Below Average 5 10 6 15 2 4 8 12 16 Number of Students 20 FIGURE 3: Histogram of student ratings of individual components of the 2012 CreativEngineering class from Excellent (5) to Poor (1). Can you explain how to be more creative? It is the belief of the authors that replacing the 2011 lecture session on inspiring creativity with the laboratory sessions in 2012 is the predominant reason for the reduced improvements in the self-assessments shown in Figure 2. However, this substitution was the largest factor in reducing the overall costs of the 2012 course. Can you explain the role of a leader in the creativity process? 1 2 3 4 5 5. FUTURE IMPROVEMENTS FIGURE 2: Averages of student self-assessments performed before and after the 2011 and 2012 CreativEngineering class. Data is also provided for a control group of students that did not participate in the class. In the EISTA 2013 presentation, additional details will be provided on the two trips, and cost reductions taken for 2012. Information will be provided on the behind the scenes facility tours and creativity/leadership sessions. Finally, the four year curriculum will be presented as Valparaiso University's College of Engineering rolls out its plan to facilitate instruction in the creative process for students during each of their four years of undergraduate study. For 2012, additional questions were asked in the post-trip survey. Students were asked to rate each part of the course as either Excellent (5 points), Good (4 points), Average (3 points), Below Average (2 points), or Poor (1 point). 70% of the students participating in the 2012 trip 194 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) Digital music math: technology as a STEM teaching tool for Aboriginal students Joyce VAN DE VEGTE Electronics & Computer Engineering Technology Camosun College Victoria, BC, Canada vandevegte@camosun.ca 24 and 32% aged 25 to 44 lack high school certification, while only 10% of non-Aboriginals aged 20 to 44 do [3]. ABSTRACT A series of learning units was developed as a high-interest STEM teaching tool for a group of Aboriginal high school students. The units integrated e-learning, classroom learning and technology in a way designed to spark interest in subject matter, and to help students see links between mathematics and engineering and the real world. The series, entitled “Digital Music Math,” culminated in a field trip to the local college to construct an electronic game, and each learning unit was connected in a material way to this final project. The federal government is beginning to recognize the importance of the science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) dimensions of this issue in particular. In December 2012, new funding was announced for the Indigenous Education Coalition (IEC), through the Federal Economic Development Agency for Southern Ontario, specifically for the purpose of providing innovative STEM training to First Nations and other Aboriginal students [4]. As Nicol et al have observed, “school mathematics has often functioned to exclude Aboriginal students and others from advanced studies of mathematics” [5]. The work described in this paper began as a challenge to engage and motivate Grade 7 to 11 students at the LÁU,WELNEW Tribal School in Brentwood Bay, BC, in their mathematics and technology studies. Ten male and five female students participated in the pilot project. Keywords: e-learning, STEM, digital music, math, Aboriginal, First Nations 1. INTRODUCTION Teachers often lament how difficult it is to convince students that math is useful. Many students cannot see past rows of times tables and right-angled triangles to anything that pertains to their own lives. In this regard, Aboriginal students are no different from non-Aboriginal students. Where Aboriginal students do differ from their non-Aboriginal peers is in their numeracy, reading and writing scores, and their high school graduation rates. The Fraser Institute’s 2011 Report Card on Aboriginal Education in British Columbia, for example, reports that Aboriginal students score 15% to 20% lower than average on standardized tests, and experience delays in advancement on average twice as often [1]. These statistics are of course not an indictment of student performance but rather an indication of how poorly the education system serves Aboriginal students. 2. PLANNING PARTNERS Cora Oliver, a Grade 10 teacher at the LÁU,WELNEW Tribal School, was able to provide essential information about her students’ backgrounds and abilities. She arranged for both classroom and laboratory space to be available at the Tribal School for all meetings, and reviewed proposed teaching materials to assess their suitability. Cora was also a teaching partner in all activities. A local employer and strong community supporter, Schneider Electric, agreed to provide printed circuit boards and electronic components for the project. In Canada, high school dropouts are more likely to live in poverty, are 2.5 times more likely to be unemployed, receive 85% of government welfare spending, and form 80% of the population of federal jails [2]. The urgent need to find better ways to connect with Aboriginal high school students is manifest when this information is paired with a few additional statistics: 40% of Aboriginals aged 20 to 3. LEARNING STRUCTURE AND TOOLS Learning units were designed around a final project, an electronic musical memory game, to be constructed 195 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) during a field trip visit to Camosun College. The hope was that the promise of a field trip and the idea of soldering and programming an electronic device would be motivating and would help to maintain student interest in the subject matter. To this end, each two-hour lesson was linked in some way to the electronic game the students would build. An outline of the lessons is provided in Table 1. The musical memory game requires the soldering of electronic components onto a printed circuit board, as well as the programming of the PIC microcontroller that controls the game’s operation. Digital audio software The digital audio editor Audacity [6] was used to support the lessons. With a bit of guidance, the interface was fairly straightforward for the students to operate. Within the Audacity environment, students were able to record sounds from tuning forks and also their own voices, and then study the shapes of both the signals and their spectra. Audacity could also generate signals such as chirps, noise and tones, and cursors allowed users to make measurements. Electronic musical memory game The game circuit is depicted in Figure 1. The game is driven by a PIC microcontroller. A short musical introduction is played with a speaker, after which a single LED lights, accompanied by a tone. If the player presses the correct button, the microcontroller proceeds with a sequence of two LEDs and tones. As the player faithfully reproduces the required patterns, the sequences lengthen. A high score produces a short happy tune; a mistake produces a short sad tune. Lesson Title Location Lesson Activities Lesson 1 Sound Lab


discuss the concepts of sound, frequency and spectrum calculate the frequency of a repeating wave use digital audio software to examine the signals and spectra for tuning fork and voice sounds Lesson 2 Sine waves Classroom

discuss the concepts of amplitude and period relate period and frequency Lesson 3 Music notes Lab



relate piano notes and frequency using an online piano use digital audio software to examine piano note signals and spectra identify harmonics compare frequencies of piano notes Lesson 4 MP3 and compression Classroom



discuss digital images, pixels and the concept of compression calculate compression ratio listen for differences between CDA/MP3 versions of the same song calculate how many songs can be stored in an iPod Touch in CDA or MP3 format Lesson 5 Programming concepts Lab


the concept of a computer program and a programming language view the C program for the musical memory game identify the parts of the program that determine the songs and notes played use an online piano to connect notes in the computer program to sounds
Lesson 6 Your own song Classroom/Lab

Lesson 7 Lesson 8 Lesson 9 LEDs, resistors, and other electronic parts Lab Building an LED circuit Lab Field trip (6 hours)




College Lab write a sequence of notes in the format required by the computer program to play a song selected or composed by the student introduce musical notation and link to computer program notation introduce the electronic circuit components needed for the musical memory game use metric prefixes interpret resistor colour codes measure resistance using a multimeter introduce the breadboard for circuit construction

determine the correct resistor to pair with an LED of a particular colour build an LED and resistor circuit on a breadboard measure voltage using a multimeter




select electronic parts solder parts to a printed circuit board personalize the songs in a computer program program a microcontroller test the electronic musical memory game
Table 1. The lessons. 196 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) Figure 3. Audacity spectrum for “ooo” sound Figure 1. Electronic musical memory game. Online piano Figure 4 shows a screenshot of the online piano used in the lessons, another free resource [7]. Very few of the students had experience playing the piano, so the online instrument was a favoured element. With both Audacity and the online piano running, students were able to record piano notes and study the signals and spectra in real time. Figure 2 shows what the Audacity screen looks like and Figure 3 gives an example of a spectrum for a spoken “ooo” sound. Real-time interaction with signals is a great strength of Audacity as a tool for learning. Once they have mastered the simple record procedure, students can quickly and easily experiment with all manner of sounds, even goofy ones. Moreover, none of the students had previously conceived of the idea that his or her own voice was linked to the time-varying waveform observed on the screen. The digital music math lessons exploited only a small fraction of the capabilities of the software and, because it was freely available, students could continue to use it beyond the end of the project, at school or at home, to experiment with other features. Figure 4. Online piano. Later in the lesson series, students used the online piano to invent a song. The labelling of the keys according to note and octave allowed a relatively simple translation between the song being played and the computer program code that would enable the same song to be played in the electronic musical memory game. Integrating related ideas about music notes from several sources permitted students to gain confidence with the technology. They could play and hear a note, see what the signal looked like in Audacity, view where the note’s code (e.g. C3) appeared in the computer program, and link the note they were hearing to its representation in formal musical notation. Digital music and MP3 compression Music is intensely interesting to most high school students. Many of them carry digital music players. Very few have ever considered how the songs they listen to are stored. The basic ideas behind MP3 compression are appealing and easy for students to grasp because of the strong links to human perceptual abilities. A classroom demonstration of a loud sound concealing subsequent quieter sounds is useful. Figure 2. Sample Audacity screen for “ooo” sound 197 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) Electronic hardware and software The final project, the construction and programming of the musical memory game, gave students a great deal of personal satisfaction. They began the day with an unpopulated printed circuit board, a handful of components and a lesson on soldering, and at the end of the day they took home a working electronic game to show off to friends and family. Beyond the project alone, students had a glimpse of the hardware and software that are “inside the box” for so many items they use every day. Student workbook and teacher solution guide A workbook was designed to help guide and focus student activity. The workbook contained the instructions to follow, worked examples, and spaces for student calculations and entries. Workbook excerpts from two lessons are provided in Figures 5 and 6. Figure 6. Excerpt from Lesson 3. The technological tools allowed many STEM themes to be explored – math (scientific notation, ratios), pure science (tuning forks, sound), technology and engineering (spectrum, MP3 compression, programming, electronic circuits) – at a level suitable to Grade 9 and 10 high school students. Many of these themes are traditionally considered to be specialized and advanced, but immediate feedback through the use of technology made the concepts quite accessible, even to junior high school students with lower than average math facility. The Digital Music Math workbook is available upon request, as is the accompanying fully-annotated teacher’s guide, including solutions for all exercises. 4. REFLECTIONS The alternation between laboratory and classroom activities added variety that helped to maintain student attention. In addition, lessons were designed for high interest. Many lessons involved hands-on elements, such as tuning forks, electronic components, breadboards and multimeters. And, even though computers are really no more “hands on” than pencils, the e-learning activities based on the online piano and digital audio software created similar high attention levels among the students as did the manipulations of more concrete objects. Another, lesser, motivator was the completion of the workbook pages for each lesson. Access to concepts was further facilitated because numerical grading was not applied for this lesson series. Neither students nor teachers had to be concerned about whether everyone was learning at the same rate. Observation suggests that freeing students to explore and enjoy activities produced useful learning that was permitted to vary by student. The choice of music as a core theme was a good one for an Aboriginal classroom: The Canadian Council on Learning [8] reports that Aboriginal youth (37%) are more likely than all Canadian youth (27%) of a similar age to participate in art or music, with more Aboriginal girls than boys participating. One of the goals of the day-long field trip visit to Camosun College was to encourage students to visualize themselves as future college students. Their teacher confirmed that her students “got a glimmer that this was something they could do.” 5. STUDENT AND TEACHER FEEDBACK The students loved the Digital Music Math lesson series, especially the field trip to Camosun College and the building of the electronic game. Students said: “I really Figure 5. Excerpt from Lesson 1. 198 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) had a lot fun,” “My favourite part was recording my voice on the computer,” “I liked learning how to solder,” “I’d do it again in a nanosecond!” 7. FUTURE WORK In future iterations of the Digital Music Math project, greater attention can be given to cross-cultural issues. As Aikenhead points out, many students experience school science learning as “assimilation into a foreign culture,” and “the problem of alienation is more acute for Aboriginal students whose worldviews, identities, and mother tongues create an even wider cultural gap” [12, pp. 2-3]. Cora Oliver, the teacher, felt the students got a lot out of the lessons. She observed that students did well when they could see connections, and that interesting tidbits hooked student interest. In her own teaching, she strives to make math a hands-on activity because so many of her students are kinesthetic learners. Cora notes that her Grade 7 students exhibit on average a Grade 3 math level and if she were to use the lesson series again, she would be inclined to do so with higher level students and to extend the series to allow more time for repetition and review. To this end, a number of directions may be explored with the help of Aboriginal educators to attempt to align the Digital Music Math lessons more intelligently with research findings: 6. CONNECTIONS WITH RESEARCH • The 2010 “Handbook for Educators of Aboriginal Students” [9] encourages: frequent interaction between students and faculty, cooperative, collaborative and social learning, active learning techniques, prompt and constructive feedback, learning tasks that respect cultural differences, high expectations, and diverse learning experiences. It also recommends a “focus on experiential learning rather than exclusive reliance on teacher-led discussions focusing on texts” [9, p. 20]. The Digital Music Math lessons align with many of these principles. • • Perso uses the phrase “inclusive pedagogy” when she recommends that “teachers and students should interact and negotiate meaning as equals, since this will result in students empowering themselves to succeed rather than waiting for and expecting teachers to ‘drip-feed’ knowledge in an effort to maintain control and authority” [10, p. 45]. Freedom to explore unique uses of the technological tools within the lessons promoted this kind of equality and helped to narrow the “power distance” between teacher and student in a culturally-responsive way. Aikenhead [12] describes the concept of “coming to knowing” in participatory learning and its implications for power sharing in the classroom. Perso’s “integration of culture” [10, p. 41] inspires the possibility of integrating lesson elements that are culturally stronger, e.g. students might elect to program a drum sequence instead of song. Cajete advocates that teachers involved in Indigenous education “practice contexting information in culturally sensitive and holistic ways” [13, p.139], and proposes that storytelling practices will connect strongly with Aboriginal oral culture. 8. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author wishes to thank Cora Oliver, the LÁU,WELNEW Tribal School, Schneider Electric, Dianne Biin, Marla Weston, Ian Browning, and Camosun College for their support of this project, and to acknowledge the welcome she received in the traditional territories of the Tsartlip, Pauquachin, Tseycum and Tsawout peoples. 9. REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY Perso points also to the importance of shared experiences of teachers and students in strengthening a “shared mental context” for learning. Interestingly, the students’ teacher reports that her students’ recollections of the field trip are particularly strong because their school bus became stuck in the snow during an unusual snowstorm in the region. [1] P. Cowley, S. Easton and M. Thomas, Report Card on Aboriginal Education in British Columbia 2011, Studies in Education Policy, Fraser Institute, March 2011. http://www.fraserinstitute.org/uploadedFiles/fraserca/Content/researchnews/research/publications/report-card-aboriginaleducation-in-british-columbia-2011.pdf [2] B.Trypuc and A. Heller, Breaking the cycle of failure, Charity Intelligence Canada Report, September 2008. http://www.charityintelligence.ca/images/Ci_Educati onReport_08.pdf Finally, the 2008 “Learning Indigenous Science from Place” report [11] suggests incorporating a balance of academic and fun activities. The report notes that presenting lifeless facts for rote learning turns students away from sciences, and that for Indigenous peoples rigorous mental learning is always balanced with fun, humour, and laughter. 199 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) [3] J. Richards, Closing the Aboriginal/ non-Aboriginal Education Gaps, C.D. Howe Institute Backgrounder, No. 116, October 2008. http://www.cdhowe.org/pdf/Backgrounder_116.pdf [4] Harper Government Supports STEM Education for First Nations and Aboriginal Students, Federal Economic Development Agency for Southern Ontario, December 2012. http://www.feddevontario.gc.ca/eic/site/723.nsf/eng/ 01572.html [5] C. Nicol, Designing a model of culturally responsive mathematics education: place, relationships and storywork, Mathematics Education Research Journal, Mathematics Education Research Group of Australasia, November 2012. [6] Audacity digital audio editor, 2012. http://audacity.sourceforge.net/ [7] Play-Piano online piano, 2009. http://www.play-piano.org/. [8] Canadian Council on Learning, State of Learning in Canada: A Year in Review, Ottawa, March 2010. http://www.ccl-cca.ca/pdfs/SOLR/2010/SOLR2010-Report-FINAL-E.pdf [9] Thompson Rivers University, Handbook for Educators of Aboriginal Students, 2010. http://www.tru.ca/__shared/assets/albaa_handbook2 3430.pdf [10] T. Perso, Cultural responsiveness and school education with particular focus on Australia’s First Peoples: A Review & Synthesis of the Literature, Menzies School of Health Research, Centre for Child Development and Education, Darwin Northern Territory, 2012. http://ccde.menzies.edu.au/sites/default/files/Literatu re%20review%20Cultural%20Responsiveness%20a nd%20School%20Education%20March%202012%2 0FINAL.pdf [11] H. Michell, Y. Vizina, C. Augustus and J. Sawyer, Learning Indigenous Science from Place, Research Study Examining Indigenous-Based Science Perspectives in Saskatchewan First Nations and Métis Community Contexts , November 2008. http://aerc.usask.ca/downloads/Learning%20Indigen ous%20Science%20From%20Place.pdf [12] G. Aikenhead, Integrating Western and Aboriginal Sciences: Cross-Cultural Science Teaching, Research in Science Education, 2001, Volume 31, Number 3, pp. 337-355. http://www.usask.ca/education/people/aikenhead/rise _article.pdf [13] G. Cajete, Look to the mountain: An ecology of Indigenous education. Durango, CO, Kivakí Press, 1994. [14] M. MacLean, and L. Wason-Ellam, When Aboriginal and Métis Teachers use Storytelling as an Instructional Practice, A Grant Report to the Aboriginal Education Research Network, Saskatchewan Learning, 2006. http://www.education.gov.sk.ca/storytelling: [15] University of Victoria, UVic STEM (science, technology, engineering and math) project, Centre for Aboriginal Health Research, 2009. http://cahr.uvic.ca/programs-research/projectsevents/stem/ [16] P. Chigeza, Accommodating Indigenous students’ cultural resources in science classrooms, Curriculum Leadership, Volume 9, Issue 2, February 2011. http://www.curriculum.edu.au/leader/accommodatin g_indigenous_students_cultural_resour,32832.html?i ssueID=12344 [17] S. Matthews, P. Howard and B. Perry, Working Together to Enhance Australian Aboriginal Students’ Mathematics Learning, Mathematics education research: Innovation, networking, opportunity, Proceedings of the 26th Annual Conference of the mathematics education Research Group of Australia (MERGA 2003), 6-10 July 2003 http://www.merga.net.au/documents/Keynote_Matth ewsEtAl.pdf [18] V. Klenowski, S. Tobias, B. Funnell, F. Vance and C. Kaesehagen, Culture‐‐fair assessment : challenging Indigenous students through effortful mathematics teaching, AARE International Education Research Conference, Melbourne, 28 November ‐ 2 December 2010. http://eprints.qut.edu.au/39326/1/c39326.pdf 200 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) Writing is Dead! Long Live Writing! Twitter; an original Way to Engage ESL Learners Zahida Chebchoub UAE University UFP Department, University College, AlAin, United Arab Emirates but we need to teach our students how to be clear and concise at the same time. Furthermore, no one can deny the effect and the increase of mobile technologies in our daily life. According to Gonsalves [1],“the number of mobile technologies with Internet access predicted to reach 1 billion worldwide by 2013.” Moreover, microblogging such as is the case with Twitter promotes collaboration among peers. Wankel [2] writes : ABSTRACT Throughout the years writing has developed in different ways. Because languages are alive, they mutate constantly and thus dictate to us their own new rules. The medium of writing also changes under the effect of philosophical thought, technology, and social needs. The culture of writing, which has always protected our collective memory and recorded everything that pertains to our life is changing. In the past, learners were taught the art of writing and the art of calligraphy. These days, of course, language and language art teachers are continuing in this direction. But writing has reached a turning point; it will not continue to be the way it has always been. Writing has become a digital art. Our youth have embarked on this technological wave that perceives writing in a different light. Twitter, Facebook, emailing and so on are there to remind us of this fact. As teachers, need to adapt our methods to these youth’s ways and find ways to attract them to writing through “technology”. In my article, I propose ways to help ESL learners develop the culture of writing by incorporating the art of writing with the features of the digital era, namely through the use of Twitter. “According to Dewey (1916), learning is a cognitive and social process that develops through conversation. Communication, therefore, is an essential part through all learning processes and microblogging can extend our possibilities’’ In several colleges and academic institutions worldwide, mobile computing devices such as iPads and smartphones have become the norm rather than the exception in regular classrooms. They have profoundly changed the core of learning and teaching. But some of us worry about “language decay” that might be caused by an extensive use of electronic means of communicating. But we need not worry; Crystal [3], a renowned linguist (not a digital native though; born in 1941… )reassures us with the points he has put forward in his book: Txtng: The Gr8 Db8 (logogram for Texting: The Great Debate): 1. Typically, less than 10% of the words are abbreviated in text messages. 2. Abbreviating is not a new language; instead, it has been present for many decades. 3. Children and adults both use SMS language, the latter being more likely to do so. 4. Students do not habitually use abbreviations in their homework or examinations. 5. Sending text messages is not a cause of bad spelling because people need to know how to spell before they can send a text message. Sending text messages improves people' s literacy, as it provides more opportunity for people to engage with the language through reading and writing. This is especially useful for school-age children. We need to find ways to attract digital natives to writing through “technology” and develop the culture of writing by incorporating the art of writing with the demands and features of the digital era. (Hand-written letters and assignments on immaculate, lined A4 papers… almost obsolete just like landline telephones). Our role as educators is to engage learners not always because we have selected a particular topic or way of expressing it but because learners have expressed and shown interest in the topic and how to express it. We also need to encourage students to focus on and write in the target language. Whether we want it or not, we have to adapt our ways and style of teaching to the digital world. By doing so, we will be able to attract our students to the skill of writing which will be perceived as an art that goes along the lines of their aspirations. Keywords: Writing, E.S.L., Twitter, Native Speakers of Arabic as ESL learners. 1. INTRODUCTION We used to come to class with a pencil case filled with pens, pencils and erasers. Our youth now come to class equipped with iPads, Smartphones and Laptops. Our youth have grown up in a digital world environment: Writing has become a digital art. Our youth have embarked on this technological wave. Twitter, Facebook, SMS and Emails are here to remind us of this fact. If we do not embrace these media in our role as language teachers, we might be perceived as somewhat out-dated or “oldfashioned”. Because, most of us are not digital beings by birth, we sometimes try to impose our way of dealing with writing the way we had been exposed to it in the not so far distant past. For the majority of language teachers, writing is still perceived as a pen-paper activity. But things have evolved so much these past ten years or so. Mobile technologies are spreading in classrooms. With an iPad in their hand, learners can discover places, meet people at the touch of a finger; "Students are birds. Their wings are their iPads1”. Our youth use social networks and platforms to express their ideas, to exchange them, to discuss them. They do it of course in their first language. Our role is to harness this and use it to benefit second language learning and teaching. Whether we want it or not, we have to adapt our ways and style of teaching to the digital world. By doing so, we will be able to attract our students to the skill of writing which will be perceived as an art that goes along the lines of their aspirations. Of course, students have to abide by the number of words required by their instructor or by specific examination boards for writing an essay 1. H.E. Sheikh Nayhan Mubarak, Chancellor of UAE University, at the First International Mobile Technologies Conference, 201 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) 2. TWITTER; A POSSIBLE SOLUTION I would like to propose a practical way that engages our students to write by using a social platform; TWITTER. Our present era is the era where conciseness is the rule; Twitter allows 140 characters long tweets. The Internet is about words and visuals. The greatest benefit of Twitter is that it can teach students how to write in a concise way since it allows only 140 characters. In a way, students will learn how to put together or formulate ideas and thoughts more clearly. Wankel [4]reports also that this social platform can help teachers in various “issues of language, art, creativity, innovation, literature, technology, and much more.” Learning occurs mainly and efficiently through interactivity between learners and teachers, in a way it is like cooperative learning. For this, it is vital to take into account the learner’s knowledge, beliefs and cultural and social background. When content is relevant to the life of learners, they will feel engaged and will gladly express their opinions. But sometimes, Twitter is the pet-hate of some; indeed, if you mention the word twitter to language and literature professors and teachers, some, if not the majority, might look at you with disdain; how dare you pronounce this word! Twitter allows tweets of 140 characters only. “No Twitter in my language and literature class” would they scream. Some writing/language and literature instructors press their students into writing more than what is required. They applaud students who when asked to write 500 words, end up writing 1000 words. To them, wordiness should be achieved at all costs. But I would like to develop the philosophy of “concise wordiness” whereby students abide by the number of words but are clear and concise at the same time. Of course, students have to abide by the number of words required by their instructor or by specific examination boards for writing an essay but we need to teach our students how to be clear and concise at the same time. As an interactive platform, Twitter promotes effective learning through the interactivity between learners and teachers, cooperative work as well as the inclusion of learner’s knowledge, beliefs and cultural and social background learners. All these factors make learners feel engaged in the learning process. 4. WHAT CAN AN ESL INSTRUCTOR DO WITH TWITTER? An ESL instructor may find it useful to ask students to brain storm ideas. Indeed, instead of asking students to jot down ideas on paper, we can ask them to do so in tweets and exchange their tweets with other students in a writing class, even across a whole school or learning institution. Studnets may also write a daily diary: ESL learners can compose a daily tweet as part of their journal writing. At the end of the academic semester, the class teacher can gather all the tweets and use them for a class discussion to encourage students to reminisce the events that were important for them throughout the semester. TBLL, also known as “task-based language learning”, allows students to concentrate on authentic language use. Because it is related to their daily use, twitter is a good platform for this. Another advantage is that in this particular activity, students are assessed on task outcome rather than correctness of language. This is crucial for developing fluency and confidence in the acquisition of the second language. An example of a TBLL activity would be to ask students to follow tweeting feeds about their dream job. Then, students can write a tweet about it and say whether they still want to have that job or not. I have used it in class this past semester whereby I asked students to follow tweets about their dream job. Then, they were asked to choose a job/career and describe it in a tweet. I also let students follow each other and evaluate each other’s dream job by searching information about the job, hours of working in a particular job, benefits, and academic requirements. Finally, I asked students to vote on the best job or the worst one. In another activity, I asked students to search for a weird/strange/unusual job and describe it in a tweet. Other activities an ESL instructor may incorporate into Twitter ae as follows: Twitterature:A possible activity would be to let students choose a play. Afterwards, the teacher can bring to class a simplified or abridged version of the play. Students read the play in class or this can be assigned as homework. Then, the teacher can divide the roles/characters of the play amongst students (one may have two or three versions; selected according to two or three distinct cultures or times; one group could represent grandparents time, another parents time and the third present time OR two or three cultures chosen by students). Each character in the play has to write tweets according to her/his version. Nanolitterature: this is useful as it helps learners learn engage in literary prose or verse experimenting with short sentences. Because a tweet allows only 140characters, learners will have to look for synonyms and so on. Translation: Our students often follow newsfeeds in their first language; as ESL instructors, we should use this to benefit our students’ second language skills: ask them to translate some of the most interesting feeds from Arabic into English. M ovie/book/newspaper or magazine article review:students could twitter their thoughts on an article they have read or a video they have watched. Role play:In groups, students create their own characters and create Twitter accounts with the new character and its profile. Then, they will write tweets as their character would have written them. Anagrams: give students a number of letters for them to rearrange into words. Organize a class contest on the fastest tweet responses. Dictionary work: let students look for synonyms/antonyms/homonyms and homophones for a word. Then ask them to write a tweet with words they have found. Topic and concluding sentences: Practice writing topic and concluding sentences for paragraphs as tweets can only be 140 characters long. 3. THE BENEFITS OF TWITTER Widely used: twitter’s popularity makes it relevant to language learners, Conciseness: Its 140 characters limit makes it an “original” and trendy tool Slog2 (SM S +blog): twitter is a micro-blogging tool that mixes aspects of SMS text messages and blogs. Moreover, its conversational and concise style offers opportunities to practice specific language skills. Its distinct style is based on the brevity of tweets (each message is limited to 140 characters. In addition, a major advantage is that abbreviations such as “gr8” for “great” are not generally used in tweets. Furthermore, using Twitter is a casual way to communicate and imitates the fast sequence of what people say in a normal conversation Transfer ofskill: many students already use Twitter in their own language. Most of them would wish to extend it to their target language; especially English since many tweeters use this language as the medium of communication. Twitter is also a part of social, business, scientific and academic discussions. Furthermore, it has already become a major platform in digital communication. Rapidity: the conciseness of twitter writing means that it is fast. So it is easy to add to other learning activities, be it in the classroom or for homework. Go global: Twitterers very often make their tweets “public”; Tyson et al [5] report: “Nearly 90 percent of Twitter users make their updates public, so everyone can read them” Indeed, today’s youth are for exchange of information globally 2 An expression I have created from “SMS” + “Blog” 202 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) The use of“multi-skill”3 to introduce/review grammar points: This method will help students practice listening, reading, speaking and writing. You read a short passage or dialogue that contains a particular grammar aspect or structure (this passage can be on a listening track). Then you give the typed transcript to groups of students. They discuss the grammar point together in their group. Afterwards, they write tweets using the grammar point. Live projection of the tweets will engage a class discussion (correcting errors, explaining the grammar point, etc.) Practice verb tenses: Practice verb tenses by asking students to write tweets about daily tasks/past events/future events Poem writing:Short forms of poems such as Haiku poems can be a fun activity. A student starts the first line/verse. Then the next student writes the next by following the same idea in the previous tweet. M axim writing: Arabs love to write maxims, proverbs and sayings. In fact, Arab literature whether oral or written relies very much on conciseness when it comes to proverbs. Our students like to write maxims and proverbs in their first language by using twitter. We should encourage them to do the same in their target language. Summary writing: Twitter is an excellent tool for summary writing as it teaches learners to be concise which quite the essence of summary writing is. Students can read 100-word paragraphs. Then they summarize each paragraph into one tweet. Correcting Tweets: Students sometimes resent having their language errors underlined with a red pen. However, with tweets, they do not mind having their errors shown or corrected. In fact, they like to have linguistically correct tweets (anybody can read them and especially their friends so they want to feel proud of their writing). This can be done collaboratively or individually. 5. CLASSROOM RESEARCH ON THE USE OF TWITTER WITH TWO GROUPS OF ESL LEARNERS (PREINTERM EDIATE LEVEL) M ethodology: informants: one control group (18students)and one experiment group (17students) data: digital story writing and multi-skill using twitter with the experiment group story writing and multi-skill using the classic pen and paper method with the control group Experiment group/digital story writing: Writing the story in tweets:45 minutes I asked students to choose a fairy tale. They chose “Cinderella”. Then, I asked them to recall the events in the story; this was a good speaking practice activity. Afterwards, I let them log on to twitter, using the twitter account used specifically for our class. I asked them to change parts in the story to reflect their present day life. One student wrote a line to start the story. Then, another student continued and so on until all students had contributed at least one tweet to the story. The tweets were projected live onto the smartboard screen. Editing the tweeted story:45 minutes Two days later, I asked students to correct errors in the tweeted story. In particular, I asked them to check spelling, punctuation and grammar errors. Students worked in groups of 5students. Control group:Story writing/classic pen and paper way: Writing the story:45 minutes I gave a piece of A4 paper to one student and asked her to write the first sentence of the “Cinderella” fairy tale. I told students they could change the events of the story if they wished to do so. Then, the first student passed the paper to another classmate and so on until everybody had contributed at least one sentence to the story. Editing the story:45 minutes Two days later, I made copies of the written story and brought it to class. In groups of fives, students corrected the mistakes. Results: The following table shows the amount of editing undertaken by the experiment and the control groups: table 1:pre & post editing results (percentages of edited errors) Experiment group:multi-skillwith the present progressive vs. the simple present & comparative adjectives vs. superlative one: Students listened to a short audio file where the speaker used the present progressive and present simple as well as comparative and superlative adjectives. Then they were given the script to discuss and explain the grammar points. Students worked in groups. To show they understood the grammar points, they were asked to write tweets. Control group: multi-skill with the present progressive vs. the simple present & comparative adjectives vs. superlative one: Students listened to a short audio file where the speaker used the present progressive and present simple as well as comparative and superlative adjectives. Then they were given the script to discuss and explain the grammar points. Students worked in groups. To show they understood the grammar points, they were asked to write sentences on handouts given out by the teacher. Results:the following table shows the amount of correct grammar usage by students in both groups: table 2:percentages ofcorrect answers T 6. CONCLUSIONS The results showed significant improvement in the experiment group for the following reasons:Students feel confident about using mobile technologies; they are part of their daily life. They did their best to edit the tweets as they know that tweets are public. 7. REFERENCES 3 Multi-skill: an expression I have coined for an activity that involves all the language skills. 203 [1] Gonsalves, A. (2009). One billion mobile Internet devices seen by 2013. Information Week, December 9. Available at http://www.informationweek.com/news/internet/webdev/sho [2] Wankel, Charles (Editor). Cutting-edge Technologies in Higher Education, Volume 1 : Educating Educators with Social Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) M edia Bradford, GBR:Emerald Group Publishing Ltd, 2011. p 32. [3] Crystal, David. (2009) Txtng: The Gr8 Db8. Oxford University Press, USA [4]Tyson, William; Zemsky, Robert (Foreword by). Pitch Perfect Communicating with Traditional and Social M edia for Scholars, Researchers, and Academic Leaders.Sterling, VA, USA: Stylus Publishing, 2010. p 172 204 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) Multiple Perspectives - Assessing Student Learning in Distance Based Education though Asynchronous Online Discussions Dr. Donna DUELLBERG Regional Education Services Officer United States Coast Guard Honolulu, HI 96813, USA and Mary Ann SWENDSEN Graduate Student University of Arkansas Honolulu, HI 96813, USA and Christine HANSEN, Ph.D. Dept. of Humanities, Hawaii Pacific University, Honolulu, HI 96813, USA education programs. Specifically, random pulls from asynchronous discussion boards across multiple learning platforms were analyzed for the presence and frequency of the following cognitive skills: regurgitation; clarification; understanding; application; analysis and evaluation; and creating. In addition, a comparison of the presence and frequency of the aforementioned cognitive skills was be made across online/non-traditional schools divided into categories using the following graduation rates: 1-20%; 21-40%; and 41-60%. (The researchers did not have access to the discussion boards of schools with higher graduation rates). This work is important because graduation rates at many colleges and universities have come under increasing scrutiny. To be good stewards of dollars invested in education, administrator and student stakeholders would like to be able to identify specific types of cognitive skills that-- when effectively targeted in the online classroom-- are likely to lead to increased graduation rates. ABSTRACT Evaluation of progressive cognitive skills on asynchronous discussion boards was investigated as a contributing variable for raising institutional graduation rates of online institutions which target veterans and other military related populations. This approach is formalized theoretically through an examination of Herzberg's motivators suggesting completing challenging work increases intrinsic academic satisfaction and thus, the likelihood of graduation. Statistical analysis of level of cognitive domain presence was tied to academic institutions falling into three different graduation rate categories: 1-20%; 21-40%; and 41-60%. The researchers found that a statistical significance existed between the mean cognitive skill demonstrated on discussion boards in each graduation rate category. In fact, a positive correlation existed: The higher the institution graduate rate, the higher the occurrence of higher cognitive skills, to include analysis and application. This investigation is timely in light of current nationwide concerns about institutional graduation rates. Instructors are online facilitators and are not generally directly involved as either stewards or investors of educational dollars. Nevertheless, if there exists some direct relationship between graduation rates and the active engagement of certain cognitive skills, instructors may play a role in targeting those skills. However, instructors are not economic stakeholders, strictly speaking. Keywords: graduation rates, cognitive skills, discussion board, metacognition, online, distance education, internal locus of control 1. INTRODUCTION After presenting results, we offer discussion and a possible theoretical explanation of intrinsic versus external motivators in light of certain cognitive skills selectively engaged on the discussion board in light of Herzberg's motivators1. External motivators have a Three different perspectives (professor, student and administrator) of current online modalities assessed the degree of student learning (via cognitive skills demonstrated on discussion board posts) in distance 205 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) short term impact on behavior, but intrinsic motivation is necessary to change behavior over the long haul 2, and thus, an important variable to target for increasing of higher graduation rates. higher learning. All schools fell into three different graduation rate groupings. The researchers did not have access to discussion board posts from schools within these higher graduation rate categories (61-80% and 81-100%). An ANOVA was conducted in order to see if the mean differences in each category observed were statistically significant. Statistical significance was found between all 3 graduate rate categories – the higher the graduate rate, the higher the mean level of cognitive skill demonstrated by students on the discussion board. 2. METHODS Research was conducted by randomly pulling discussion board posts from the discussion boards of ten different classes within six different institutions of Results (Combined): Graduation rates & Cognitive Skill Set Demonstrated Regurgitation = 1 pt Clarification = 2 pts 1-20% Mean Score 21-40% Mean Score 41-60% Mean Score 61-80% 81-100% NA NA 2.4 was the mean score for all 3 researchers 3.04 was the mean score for all 3 researchers Understanding = 3 pts 3.85 was the mean score for all 3 researchers Application = 4 pts Analysis & Evaluation = 5 pts Creating = 6 pts Application Understanding 4 3.5 3 Clarification Regurgitation 2.5 2 Mean 1.5 1 0.5 0 1-20% 21-40% Experimental design was to total the frequency of posts which fell into qualifying descriptors of cognitive skills in six categories: Regurgitation; Clarification; Understanding; Applications; Analysis and Evaluation; and Creating. The random discussion posts were assigned to a category and statistically analyzed against graduation rates. The methodology was carried out by participants Hansen, Duellberg and Swendsen in compiling the professor, administrator and graduate student perspectives, respectively. Pictured above is a combination of those mean results. 41-60% All three researchers agreed that measuring the on-line responses on students’ thought processes, learning of the material and relevance to course material is difficult. Each student has his or her own challenges such as time management, level of mastery of technology, experience, and motivation. Instructors are online facilitators and cannot solely depend on a well-developed design of the on-line course outline, material and presentation format. The impact on student learning is delivery. Thus, administrators 206 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) cannot entirely guarantee outcomes on the discussion board. Successful engagement of specific cognitive skills on the discussion board results from a combination of factors, some of which are not built into question design, but reside in individual delivery methods. evidence is not sufficient to draw this conclusion. Although this study may show some correlation between the demonstration of higher-level cognitive skills and graduation, more study needs to be done, and it currently appears unlikely that successful graduation can be tied to a cognitive skill at a particular point in time. 4. DISCUSSION The reason for this is that successfully graduating requires the student to surmount a host of unpredictable internal and external obstacles over a long period of time. Therefore, measuring higherlevel cognitive skills at a particular point in time may not be predictive of success. Discussion Administrator perspective: The analysis of discussion board across schools with varying graduate rates does demonstrate that the higher the school's graduation rate, the higher the percentage of discussion board posts by students showing application or analysis and evaluation cognitive skills. In fact, in schools with graduation rates of less than 20% the percentage (40%) is half of that for schools with graduation rates falling in the 41-60% range. The most glaring and obvious difference was in the students’ use of analysis and evaluation on the discussion board. No posts qualified for the use of analysis and evaluation cognitive skills in the less than 20% graduate rate schools and was only demonstrated 17% of the time in schools within the 21-40% graduation rate category. Moreover, even if the skill could be successfully measured at many given points in time-- providing more than a single snapshot of its use-- the demonstration of a particular cognitive skill or even given set of skills may not be as important as the ability to successfully choose the correct cognitive skill or other life skill at a particular point in time, based on the challenges presenting at that time (Flavell, 1976). Thus, the ability to graduate could be more closely related to metacognition than to cognition. Metacognition can be thought of almost as a higherlevel operating system as compared to a particular cognitive skill (considered over time) can be thought of as an individual program. In my opinion, the ability to successfully graduate is more tied to such an operating system rather than to any one individual program. From an administrative perspective, high graduation rates are desirable, and there is considerable utility in identifying specific cognitive skills that can be targeted in online curriculum to maximize or raise graduation rates. Cognitive skills are an effective pivot point for considering graduation rates, because motivation exists as part of the student's internal cognition. Schools with higher graduation rates present higher level cognitive skills (application, analysis and evaluation) on their discussion board are more likely to give rise to internal motivation in Herzberg's sense. Schools which facilitate online discussions where there is heightened evidence of the higher cognitive skills meet several of Herzberg's motivators, specifically: Gaining recognition, Responsibility, Challenging / stimulating work, and a sense of personal achievement & personal growth. Collectively, these motivators serve to fuel one's intrinsic motivation and once fueled, lasts the journey (well beyond graduation). On the other hand, when only lower level cognitive skills are engaged in the classroom (regurgitation/description, clarification), the easy "A" that students receives is a lesser fuel which only gets them around them once around the block. External motivators have a short term impact on behavior, but intrinsic motivation is necessary to change behavior over the long haul (Gneezy, Meier, Re-Biel, 2011). We could think of this metacognitive ability as a resilient internal system that allows us to navigate a path through life's challenges (Zohar & Ben David, 2009), much as a robotic vehicle might need to navigate a path through obstacles on a course presenting various types of navigation challenges. Though successful graduation from school is not per se a navigation task, it has much in common with a navigation task. The "internal guidance system of decision-making" for the student must function as a single, internal "guidance system." This requires some very specific things to be true at the educational institution. The most important thing to foster in a student is an internal locus of control, so that the individual is not simply acting continually on outside instructions, but also possesses an internal guidance system along the educational path, with an internal locus of control. Landine & Stewart (1998) link internal motivation to the existence of an internal locus of control. In classroom design, this may mean that institutions with a very high level of top-down administrative control over the classroom-- such as those characterized by a very high degree of standardization and administrative influence over curriculum and classroom interaction-may not offer sufficient opportunity for development Instructor perspective: The analysis of discussion board cognitive skill levels across schools cannot be tied directly to the school's graduation rate. The 207 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) of an internal locus of control. Establishing one's inner locus of control is an ill-defined and complex process. It is inexact. There is no formula. When a student is placed in an environment of sufficient latitude, the student will grow up intellectually, often by trying different things and making mistakes. At some point, the student stops depending so much on outside instructions and rules, and moves toward personal intellectual empowerment. But in classrooms which strongly foster a locus of external control, and which manifest no consciousness of the pitfalls of excessive external loci of control, there is a risk of the student never developing the necessary educational autonomy to graduate. educational autonomy. In some ways, these goals run counter to the administrator view, since administrators have a strong stake in standardization for the purposes of its data collection, institutional self-study, outcomes assessment, and accreditation functions. Yet it must be understood that these same factors can inhibit the emergence of an environment of educational autonomy. We need to view student graduation as a systemic issue, and create a notion of leading the student toward building a resilient internal "educational guidance system" that can rebound from challenges and allow the student to maintain educational persistence in the face of obstacles. A study of cognitive skills at a snapshot in time-- while useful-- cannot by itself accomplish this. Cognitive skills are surface features that can have many motivational causes. For example, a student can demonstrate strong cognitive skills on a discussion board because the student is competing with a rival student in that class, because point value of the assignment is high, because the student is facing dire financial circumstances that temporarily bring the importance of education into focus due to external pressures, or because the student has been told by the school that he or she must demonstrate the skill set in order to become competent in the desired profession. None of these temporary factors may lead ultimately to graduation. Yet all are forms of internal motivation, and all may lead to surface features of cognition as measured on the discussion board. Sherer, Maddux, Mercandante, Prentice-Dunn, Jacobs, & Rogers (1982) closely link this factor-- a strong internal locus of control-- with persistence. The ability to persist in the face of adversity would seem to be a strong factor in the ability to graduate. Presumably, a strong awareness of agency is necessary in order for the student to respond successfully and resiliently to unpredictable educational setbacks. The development of this factor is paramount if graduation rates are to rise, and thus it is possible to hypothesize that institutions that maintain the strongest external loci of control-- and which do little to foster the development of a climate where internal locus of control can emerge-- will exhibit the lowest graduation rates. Therefore, educational institutions seeking a higher graduation rate should diligently strive to instill a high degree of autonomy in the educational process. Lately the pendulum has swung strongly toward overarching top-down administrator control, due to pressures linked to assessment, and this has filtered down to the classroom as a powerful set of external instructions for both student and teacher, thus reducing autonomy and the instructor's ability to foster the emergence of an "internal educational guidance system" within the student. In other words, the goals of administrator and instructor need to be brought into better accord . This is not to say that there should be conflict, but rather that there should be more awareness of the inherent tendency of administration to try to tailor programs and classrooms for the purposes of assessment, whereas the inherent duty of the instructor is to try to tailor classrooms to stimulate the growth of an "internal educational guidance system" within the student. The former tends toward standardization and pressures for externalizing control; the latter tends toward a need for more autonomy so as to avoid having the student fall into educational dependency. Rather than manipulating external individual factors, we need to view educational success systemically. This requires fostering the "emergence" of an internal student educational navigation that cannot be forced through external controls, though it can be encouraged and facilitated. This, in fact, is one of the key problems of educational theory and its applications. Although external actors can do much to help the student, some process also has to emerge internally and the process has to persist and be resilient over time if graduation is to occur. This is best modeled as a system, looked at metacognitively, and studied across various points in time. To recap, the emergence of long-term internal motivation requires not just cognitive factors, but also metacognitive factors. Specifically, an internal locus of control must be hypothesized. In order to sustain long-term internal motivation that leads to higher graduation rates, this locus of internal control is needed to sustain the long-term educational effort in the face of obstacles, adversity, and setbacks. Passive consumers of education who are "told what to do" may become stunted in their ability to form an internal locus of control, and thus become intellectually dependent on external decision-makers and external structures. It is further hypothesized that students who fail to develop an internal locus of control may never be able to develop the long-term internal motivation that leads to graduation. To repeat, without an internal In order for higher graduation rates to take place, all stakeholders in the process need to be led toward autonomy. Internal motivation must be accompanied by a shift from an external to an internal locus of control. This shift is best accomplished by a focusing on reducing dependency on external intellectual factors, which occurs in an environment of 208 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) locus of control, a student may produce short-term work with high level cognitive skills, but these may not necessarily be indicative of long-term ability to graduate. dependent on the shaping of Socratic questions. A well-crafted Socratic question by the instructor can promote a productive discussion board session among the students and instructor. Typically, a discussion board question is posted for one week online for students to respond and share perspectives. This type of forum allows for on-going dialogue and if the Socratic questions are structured to invoke critical thinking responses and sharing of real-life experiences, the more engaged the student will be to relate discussions to course content and learn from other students. Future research should investigate whether an internal versus external locus of control is more effective to fostering long-term internal motivational persistence, and ask whether long-term motivational persistence is predictive of successful graduation. Attempts should be made to measure internal motivational persistence at more than one snapshot in time, and ideally at numerous points. It is true that we cannot directly measure internal motivation, so the measure of cognitive skill level may be helpful in giving some indication of motivation at a snapshot in time. But we should also remember that we are not measuring actual internal motivation, and also that motivation may exist on a temporary basis that will not propel the student successfully to graduation. A better measure would be of student persistence in the face of obstacles, which should be an indication of resilient agency as made possible by an internal locus of control. This means that meacognitive, not just cognitive, levels of proficiency should be discussed and considered, and that more emphasis should be placed on them in educational research. Measuring the on-line responses on students’ thought processes, learning of the material and relevance to course material is difficult. Each student has their own challenges such as time, technology, readiness to learn, student experience, and motivation. Instructors are online facilitators and cannot solely depend on a well-developed design of the on-line course outline, material and presentation format. The impact on student learning is delivery. Socratic questioning needs to be part of the design of the course but be curtailed to deliver to a variety of student’s learning preference. Engagement and detailed responses with examples help determine success in learning. Exam scores reinforces the student’s level of learning the course material. The overall course grade depends on the weighted grade for online discussions, homework and exams. Other possible explanations can be attributed to class size and degree of focus within the classroom (single tasking vs. multi-tasking) and other possible factors. Student perspective: Critical thinking is the process students use to reflect on, access and judge the assumptions underlying own and others ideas and actions. Socratic questioning is a way to provoke critical thinking and use these questions are often used by college instructors for online homework assignments and/or discussion board to share experiences and ideas with other class students. Based on our study on cognitive skill sets demonstrated for on-line discussion board assignments, many online courses are promoting regurgitation clarification and application. One assumption is that the Socratic questioning is limited to the aforementioned categories based on the type of responses that were analyzed. One can further assume that if the Socratic questioning is designed to promote critical thinking then it leads to higher cognitive skill development. There are six types of Socratic questions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Questions for clarification. Questions that probe assumptions. Questions that probe reasons and evidence. Questions about viewpoints and perspectives. Questions that probe implications and consequences. Questions about the question. 5. CONCLUSION It is possible that administrative intervention in the design of specific discussion board questions to target specific cognitive skills can be a positive factor in raising graduation rates. Yet administrative intervention should be coordinated with an overall systemic approach. It is possible that too much administrative intervention may be detrimental to the development of the student's internal locus of control, and that some "Goldilocks" level of administrative intervention may be better than too much or too little. It is also possible that instructor delivery in the form of Socratic questions is also needed in order to fully engage these target cognitive skills on online discussion boards. The data supports one or both of these possible conclusions. Use of Socratic questioning is becoming popular for einstitutions desiring to cater to online learners. Instructors teaching an online course will have to adapt their teaching style to the various learning styles in a nontraditional setting. Socratic questioning can be an effective way to determine if students are demonstrating critical thinking in relation to the course content. Measuring the effectiveness and level of critical thinking is highly 209 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) [4] J. Landine, and J. Stewart. Relationship Between Metacognition, Motivation, Locus of Control, SelfEfficacy, and Academic Achievement. Canadian Journal of Counseling. Vol. 32, No. 3, 1998, pp. 200-12. [5] M. Sherer, J.E. Maddux, B. Mercandante, S. Prentice-Dunn, B. Jacobs, and R.W. Rogers. The Self-Efficacy Scale: Construction and Validation. Psychological Reports 51, 1982, pp. 663-671. [6] A. Zohar, and A. Ben David. Paving a clear path in a thick forest: a conceptual analysis of a metacognitive component. M etacognition Learning. 2009; 4:177– 195. 6. REFERENCES [1] J. H. Flavell. Metacognitive Aspects of Problem Solving. In Resnick, L. B. (Ed) the Nature of Intelligence. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1976. [2] F. Herzberg, B. Mausner, and B.B. Snyderman. The Motivation to Work (2nd ed.). New York: John Wiley, 1959. [3] U. Gneezy, Meier S. and P. Rey-Biel. "When and Why Incentives (Don't) Work to Modify Behavior", Journal of Economic Perspectives, Vol. 25, No. 4, 2011, pp. 191–21. 210 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) Enriching Syllabi, Teaching and Testing Using Two-Step Problems Russell Jay Hendel Department of Mathematics, 8000 York Road Towson Maryland, 21252 RHendel@Towson.Edu has the following features, endowing it with superiority over test items #1a and #1b: ABSTRACT  We present a method, two-step problems (TSP), which can enrich syllabi, assessment and teaching. TSP is consistent with other syllabus enrichment methods such as AFL, assessment for learning , and SLO, specific learning objectives. We show that TSP i) is operationally defined and easy to implement, ii) builds, in students, higher-level cognitive abilities such as executive function, iii) allows a teaching to the test that enhances, rather than restricts, curriculum, iv) can be applied to a spectrum of age levels, K-12 as well as university level, v) can be adopted in a variety of curriculum content situations, technical, literary, and mathematical and vi) is consistent with and enriches current syllabus improvement methods such as the Common Core State Standards (CCSS).   Keywords: teach to the test, assessment, evaluation, multi-step problems, two-step problems, executive function, assessment for learning (AFL), specific learning objectives (SLO), syllabus construction, Common Core State Standards (CCSS), higher level cognitive functions. 1. Each of these features – two-step, reversibility, and non-explicit reference – facilitates development of higher cognitive skills and the writing of challenging problems. GOALS, OVERVIEW AND BACKGROUND We emphasize that test items #1a, b and test item #2 test the same curriculum learning objective or syllabus item. The fact that they are different points to a need to supplement syllabus construction with other features.  The Common Core State Standards (CCSS) [34] with their emphasis on physical and thinking models, in contrast to memorization, explains the difference between test item #1a and test item #1b.  TSP explains the difference between the test item #1 group and test item #2. Just as the introduction of physical and thinking models by the standards has enriched former “rote memorization syllabi”, so too, introduction of TSP can further enrich syllabi. To concretize our discussion of goals and background we present a simple syllabus enhancement that, as we shall show in section 3, dramatically changes the learning experience, develops higher level cognitive learning skills, and allows more focused teaching and assessment, 1.1 The Multiplication Example Consider a 3rd grade class with the curriculum topic, multiplication table. The following three test items each assess the same learning objective, learning of the multiplication table; however, they dramatically differ in the skills they measure.    Two-step: Test item #2, requires two applications of the multiplication table; these two applications are marked (a) and (b). Reversibility: Test item #2 requires reversibility. When a student learns the multiplication table they start with pairs of numbers and then give their product. However, test item #2 requests the student to reverse direction; to go from the product to the pair that produced this product. This approach to raw facts – using reversibility – is called the missing factor interpretation of division and is routinely taught by elementary school teachers. Non-explicit reference: Test item #2 identifies multiplicands by reference (itself) rather than by explicit numerical identification. Test item #1a: Give the product of 8 x 7. 1.2 Goals Using the above example, we can now state this paper’s goals:  Two step problems (TSP): Show general methods to incorporate two-step problems (TSP) into teaching.  Syllabus construction: Demonstrate that such an incorporation is consistent with modern syllabus theory which advocates AFL and SLO be routinely incorporated into syllabi.  Challenging problems: Show that TSP is consistent with literature recommendations for writing advanced problems.  Higher-level cognitive skills: Cite current brain research suggesting that despite the superficial Test item #1b: Samantha wishes to purchase a different colored piece of liquorice for each day of the week. Each piece of liquorice costs 8 cents. How much will the purchase for the week cost? Test item #2: (a) A certain number when multiplied by 7 equals 56. (b) Give the product of that number with itself. Test item #1a is a raw fact from the multiplication table. Test item #1b tests the same raw fact underlying test item #1a by requiring the student to do real-world modeling. Test item #2 211 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013)    simplicity of a TSP, it does differ significantly from single step problems; the solution of TSP uses different parts of the brain. Age and Content independent methods: Example 1.1 involves a technical skill (multiplication) in K-12. However, the methods used- TSP, reversibility, nonexplicit reference – are content independent and are applicable at any age. Accordingly, we show that the methods of this paper apply to a broad spectrum of age groups and curriculum contents. Teaching to the test: Teaching to the test is bad when such teaching leads to restriction of curriculum. For example, if I specify that only certain topics will be on the “test” then I restrict the curriculum to those topics; in such a case teaching to the test is bad. However, teaching to the test is good when such teaching leads to broadening of the curriculum For example, suppose I tell a 3rd grade class: On this test you will be tested on the multiplication table. Each problem will also involve the construction of physical and thinking models. Each problem will be a TSP with two sub problems. Such a teaching to the test broadens the curriculum; the student must do more than understand the multiplication table; they must be prepared for diverse modeling situations as well as diverse two-step problems. The Standards: As indicated in Section 1.1, just as the teaching of physical and thinking models enriches a syllabus based on rote memorization, so too, TSP further enriches the syllabus.  students and superior performance on standardized tests. Section 6 – The Standards: We show that TSP further enhances such features as thinking and physical models emphasized by the standards. 2. AGE AND CONTENT INDEPENDENCE In this section, we show that TSP can be used at any age level, K-12 or university and similarly, TSP can be applied to any content, technical or non-technical. We present examples from K-12, mathematics and literature. 2.1 Multiplication Table We have already presented in section 1.1 the following simple example of a TSP for the multiplication table: A number time seven is fifty-six; compute the product of that number times itself. Such an example is typical of possible problems in K-12. 2.2 University Level Mathematics The examples presented in this subsection come from Financial Mathematics and are in fact typical homework and test problems used by the author in a university, senior level, undergraduate course whose content closely follows the Society of Actuary syllabus for its Financial Mathematics course [SOA]. Discussion in this section will be non-technical. There is a formula – A(y) = P (1+ i)y – which allows computation of  A(y) the accumulated value in a bank account after y years, given the following three pieces of information:  P , the principle deposited at the beginning of the bank account  i, the interest rate per year, used by the bank and  y, the number of years the money remains in the bank The computational details of the formula need not concern us. For purposes of discussion, we only need the fact that given an initial deposit, a bank rate and a certain period, we can compute the accumulated amount in the bank after y years. 1.3 Overview of Sections Consistent with the above set of seven goals, an outline of the rest of this paper is as follows:  Section 2 – Age and content independence: We show that TSP methods are independent of age and curriculum content. We explore three examples: o (2.1) K-12: The multiplication example already brought in section 1. o (2.2) Technical / Mathematics: We apply the TSP method to upper level university mathematics courses. o (2.3) Literature: We apply the TSP method to reading/writing at the university level.  Section 3 – Challenging problems – Higher cognitive skills: This section focuses on three items: o (3.1) We show the consistency of TSP with the Bloom taxonomy of teaching methods. o (3.2) We cite recent brain research showing that solving two-step problems involve higher cognitive levels of the brain. o (3.3) We show that TSP is consistent with recommendations for advanced problem writing.  Section 4 – Syllabus: The modern approach to syllabus construction proposes proposes incorporating assessment for learning (AFL), and specific learning objectives (SPO) in the syllabus proper. We show TSP consistent with SPO and AFL. Note: Throughout the paper, although examples focus on two-step problems they equally apply to multi-step problems.  Section 5 – Teaching to the test: We show that TSP is similar to inquiry based teaching in science and writing workshop teaching in literature. All three methods result in challenging teaching, motivated The following problems are all consistent with this one syllabus item:  Traditional plug-in problem: I deposit 1000 in a bank CD yielding 4% per annum for 5 years. How much will I have in five years?  A Solve problem: How many years are needed for an initial deposit of $1000 to double if the bank rate is 4% per year.  Sequential TSP: $1000 is deposited in a bank CD yielding 2% for 3 years. At the end of the three-year period, the accumulated value of the CD is deposited in another bank CD that yields 5% for 4 years. Compute the accumulated value at the end of 7 years.  Comparison TSP: A person loans $1000 and is offered in return $100 a year, with a return of the $1000 at the end of five years. Compute the annual rate, i%, that would give an identical return on $1000 in five years.  Parallel TSP: A certain amount, deposited in a bank CD yielding i% per year yields $1200 in y years. The same amount when deposited in another CD yielding 2i% per year yields the same amount, $1200, in half the time. Compute the amount needed to accumulate $2000 in 2y years at rate 3i%. 212 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) paths of righteous people, but the paths of wicked people will be lost. Develop this theme using the four paragraph development methods of i) contrast, ii) details, iii) consequence and iv) analogy. 2.3 College Literature The purpose of this subsection is to show how TSP can be incorporated in a (college) literature course. First, we recall from section 3.2 two types of TSP: sequential and parallel:  Sequential: I deposit $1000 for 3 years at 2% and then reinvest the proceeds for 4 years at 5%.  Parallel: I obtain $1200 in y years in CD #1 yielding i%. But the same initial deposit yields $1200 in y/2 years in CD #2 at 2i%. Actual Psalm Prosperous is the man who has not followed wicked advice, not stood in sinner paths, nor sat with scoffers Rather, his desires are for the law of God; in His law he meditates continuously He will be like a tree planted on water tributaries, with timely sprouting of fruit, with no withering of leaves, and everything he does succeeds Not so are the wicked; rather they are like chaff pushed by the wind Development method used Contrastive method: The righteous are not wicked Possible student version Righteous people differ from wicked people Developmental Details: Righteous yearns for Gods law Their interests are in God’s law Analogy (Righteous like a flourishing plant) Righteous are like a well-tuned car; they travel to all destinations without impediment. Contrast: Wicked are not like righteous Similarly, the wicked are not like the righteous Analogy: Wicked like chaff The wicked are like old cars that constantly break down and do not allow timely achievement of destinations. The wicked do not prosper in their jobs or social life One possible solution uses the following developmental ideas:  Development of righteous:  (Contrastive method) Not wicked  (Details) Interested in God’s law  Development of knows (God knows the righteous)  (Consequence) Righteous are prosperous  (Analogy) Like a flourishing tree  Development of lost  (Contrastive) Not like righteous  (Analogy) Like uprooted chaff  (Consequence) Lose court cases Table 1 presents the actual Psalm, the Psalmist’s method of development and a possible student solution to applying these development methods. In reading Table 1, the actual Psalm may be read vertically down column 1, the paragraph developmental method may be found in column 2, while a student version using these methods may be found by reading down column 3. 3. ARE TSP CHALLENGING ENOUGH? Colleagues to whom I have informally presented the TSP idea express surprise that examples such as the 2-step multiplication example in section 1.1 (test item #2) are richer and more challenging than traditional single step methods which may involve modeling (Test items #1a,b). Accordingly, in this section we address the following questions  Are two-step problems intrinsically more challenging than plug-in problems?  Are their standards of challenging instruction with which TSP are consistent?  Is there any psychological research confirming that TSP is more challenging?  Are standards of writing advanced problems for courses consistent with TSP? 3.1 The Bloom-Anderson Hierarchy Benjamin Bloom [6] headed a group of psychologists who, in the early fifties, proposed a 6-level taxonomy of learning skills This taxonomy has been widely used. It was improved and expanded in the nineties by Lorin Anderson [1,2,19]. Consequently, the Consequence wicked will not arise in court, nor sinners in religious communities For God knows the Theme sentence paths of the righteous; but the path of the wicked will be lost. Table 1: Summary of Psalmist (Column 1) and student (Column 3) approach to development of themes (Column 2) of Psalm 1. The original six Bloom levels are knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, evaluation. The new Anderson levels are remembering, understanding, applying, analyzing, evaluating, creating. Using this taxonomy, we easily see that  Asking a student for the product of 8 x 7, is classified as remembering , since the answer can be returned, provided the student has memorized the multiplication table.  Asking the student to compute total cost of buying liquorice with different colors for each day of the week requires understanding and application.  Contrastively, asking a student to take the product of the number which when multiplied by 7 yields 56, with itself, requires analysis. At the very least, the student must break the problem into two component Holism is a modern reading and writing method which seeks to simultaneously apply multiple skills to a single story or essay. The alternative to holism is a teaching of individual skills. Consequently, holism illustrates a parallel multi-step approach. We now present an example. Consider the following assessment problem: The theme of the first Psalm is that God knows the 213 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) problems. 4.1 Special Terms and Their Meanings  Syllabus: Syllabi are used for seven purposes which can be summarized in three categories [27, 32]. o Motivational: Setting lofty but achievable goals for students o Structural: Indicating course content, methods, evaluation and assessment o Evidentiary: Creating course transparency that facilitates discussions of tenure and promotion, university accreditation, and credit transfer. There are other uses of syllabi, for example, the syllabus may contain information on the instructor, meeting place and times. In this section however, we will focus on the motivational and structural aspects of syllabi.  Evaluation: By evaluation we refer to terminal evaluation of a student’s knowledge.  Assessment: By assessment we refer to in-progress continuing measurable objectives which teachers and students use to provide feedback and to modestly adjust course instruction.  SLO – specific learning objectives: SLO refers to performance tasks that a typical student probably cannot perform prior to taking the class but can perform after taking the class. The major attributes allowing an SLO to become assessment are o (i) measurability, o (ii) usage of the SLO during the term rather than solely on terminal tests and o (iii) actually using the SLO during the term for immediate feedback to students to improve learning [4,5].  Test items / Test banks: These refer to specific questions, relating to course material. Instructors can typically create tests from test banks. Thus despite its simplicity, TSP involves higher level learning experiences than pure memorization problems. 3.2 Psychological Evidence – the Trailmaking Test The trailmaking test is a simple two-part test with the following parts.  Part A of the test, requires a person to connect 25 circles with randomly placed numbers between 1 and 25 in order. A correct response would be 1,2,3,4,….  Part B of the test requires connecting 25 circles with randomly placed numbers and letters. A correct response would be A,1,B,2,C,3… As can be seen, Part A is a single step problem (enumerate 1,2,3…) while Part B is TSP (two-step), involving enumeration of both letters and numbers. Superficially, Part B, the TSP, does not appear that much different than Part A. Yet the “scores” on the two parts – the time required to complete the parts – are statistically significantly different. In fact, and surprisingly, this trailmaking test is routinely used in clinical settings to test for brain damage and the possibility of recovery after stroke. Clinicians theorize that Part B requires executive functions and consequently tests higher-level brain activity [7, 10, 14, 30]. This suggests, by analogy, that the two-step multiplication example of section 1.1 (test item #2) involves higher-level cognitive functions then the single-step examples (test items #1a,1b). It would therefore be welcome to rigorously statistically test improvements from using TSP; such improvements should have validity, reliability and consistency. 3.3 The Problem Writing Literature In response to requests for K-12 teachers to create challenging education experiences, there has arisen a literature in recent years describing what makes good problems [33] and how to write “good” problems [9, 11]. 4.2 Syllabi with AFL While there is great deal of literature on how to write the syllabus and what it should contain [25], there is very little literature on why incorporation of certain features in a syllabus makes it good [27]. Hendel [16] summarized the literature into five broad categories of problem writing: plug-in, reversal, multi-step, comparison and (sequential) iteration. Hendel shows that these five categories apply uniformly to all content and age levels. Contrastively, there is a rich literature on incorporating in syllabi, AFL with its three key components – measurability, continual use during term vs. one time terminal use on “the final”, and prompt feedback. A review of roughly 250 papers shows that AFL raises student achievement levels 40% - 70% [4,5]. TSP corresponds to the categories multi-step, comparison and iteration (iteration is technically multi-step rather than two step). Examples of comparison and sequential TSP were presented in section 2.2. Thus TSP is consistent with the recent literature on writing good challenging problems. 3.4 Conclusion This section reviewed the Bloom-Anderson Taxonomy, the Trailmaking test, and the problem writing literature. These measures of superiority suggest that TSP is instructionally superior to single step problems. Statistical confirmation of this suggestion would be welcome. TSP is one method of AFL. Its chief virtue is that TSP is easily implemented and content-independent:  It can be applied to any syllabus content  Training instructors to construct such problems is relatively straightforward.  In section 5 we will show that TSP has a further unique unusual feature – it allows teaching to the test that is nevertheless pedagogically challenging. 4. ASSESSMENT AND SYLLABI In this and the next section we show how TSP can be incorporated into syllabi and used to create more challenging test assessments. To facilitate discussion we 1st clarify the meaning of terms, which have multiple meanings in the literature: 5. TEACHING TO THE TEST 5.1 The Literature The No Child Left Behind act (NCLB) [35] created national 214 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) and higher level learning. standards and legislative pressure on schools to achieve those standards. The effect of this was that many teachers of K-12 taught to the test. This took on various forms: e.g. i) focusing on subjects tested on (typically math and English) and neglecting other subjects (for example science and history); or ii) itemteaching (vs. curriculum teaching). When teaching a university level financial mathematics course, it is my personal practice to announce tests as follows: We are having a test next week. To prepare for the test you should know the derivation (or memorize) the following 10-20 formulae. You should also know how to calculate these formulae on your special financial mathematics calculators. The typical problems will be two-step problems . While perfect scores do not require a correct answer they do require a clear outlining of work, an identification of component problems and an indication of how the problem components integrate . Not all research papers criticize teaching to the test. Some research papers argue that standardized tests even if they involve teaching to the test are good for students of poorer ability who are economically disadvantaged [8,20]. Another group of research papers specifically advocate good teaching practices that both improve teaching and improve performance on standardized tests. Some research papers simply advocate detailed methodologies to achieve a holistic approach of good curriculum with commensurate tests [31]. This holistic approach takes on specific forms for certain content areas: For example, some research papers advocate inquiry based science teaching as a means of improving teaching the test performance [21,22]; other papers advocate writing workshops and such writing programs as 6+1 as methods of improving teaching and testing [26]. For further ideas on teaching to the test see [15,19,28] or [3,23,24,34]. 6. COMMON CORE STATE STANDARDS The Common Core State Standards (CCSS) Initiative is a stateled effort coordinated by the National Governors Association Center for Best Practices (NGA Center) and the Council of Chief State School Officers (CCSSO). The standards were developed in collaboration with teachers, school administrators, and experts, to provide a clear and consistent framework to prepare children for college and the workforce. The standards are informed by the highest, most effective models from states across the country and countries around the world. The standards include rigorous content and application of knowledge through high-order skills. As of the writing of this essay, 45 states have accepted the CCSS standards [34]. 5.2 TSP and Teaching to the Test Techniques such as TSP allow teaching to the test. Using the multiplication example of section 1.1, consider the following test-announcement scenarios of 3rd grade teachers: o Scenario 1a: We are having a test next week. I will test you on your knowledge of multiplication. Typical problems will be, for example, to calculate 8 x 7. o Scenario 1b: We are having a test next week. I will test you on your knowledge of multiplication. Typical problems will require you to produce thinking and physical models whose solutions will require use of the multiplication table. o Scenario 2: We are having a test next week. Typical problems will test you on your knowledge to do two-step and multi-step problems such as the example in section 1.1. In mathematics for example, the standards stress not only procedural skills but also conceptual understanding; they call on students to practice applying mathematical ways of thinking to real world issues and challenges; the standards emphasize mathematical modeling, that is, choosing and using appropriate mathematics and statistics to analyze empirical situations, to understand them better, and to improve decisions. Currently, the standards to not specifically advocate use of TSP. However, TSP is consistent with several requirements for inclusion in the standards: i) They involve higher-order skills, ii) there is preliminary indication that they are evidence-based, iii) they are clear and consistent, iv) they prepare children for the higher-order executive functions they will need in college and in the workplace. We therefore advocate inclusion of TSP, along with the inclusion of modeling, in the standards. Analysis: Scenario 1a while not item teaching is nevertheless teaching to the test. Passing the test simply requires memorization of the multiplication table, a level 1 activity in the Bloom-Anderson taxonomy. Everyone agrees that such an approach is pedagogically unsatisfactory. 7. CONCLUSION In this paper we have focused on TSP, two-step problems. These problems are easily constructed but nevertheless are more challenging; their solutions require higher level cognitive brain functions. We showed that TSP could be incorporated into any age level and any curriculum content. We showed that using TSP was consistent with the educational learning hierarchies, with modern psychological research, and with current theories of syllabus construction. TSP can enhance the CCSS, core standards, and can also be used to teach to the test while broadening the curriculum. Scenario 1b is a teaching to the test that broadens the curriculum. The student can’t prepare for the test by rote memorization. The student will be required, in each test problem, to construct appropriate physical and thinking models. Scenario 2 is also good teaching, since it broadens instead of restricts the curriculum. Both scenario 1b and scenario 2 teach to the test. However, since the test is also testing higher-order analytic skills, there is no way for the student to fully prepare for it. The students will be required to creatively think on the test. In light of its simplicity and specificity of use, we advocate routinely incorporating TSP into syllabi and tests. We also advocate instructing student teachers in its use. We would encourage future standardized tests and future standards to consider TSP as an essential component of implementing goals. In summary TSP allows both focused curriculum and testing development as well as instruction that fosters creative thinking 215 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) [17] S. A. Josephson, “Design Your Tests to TEACH, Not Just Test,” Education Digest, 66(3), 2000, p65. 8. REFERENCES [18] D. R. Krathwohl, “A revision of bloom's taxonomy: An overview,” Theory into Practice, 41(4), 2002, pp. 212-218. [1] L. W. Anderson and D. R. Krathwohl (editors), Bloom's taxonomy: a forty-year retrospective. Ninety-third yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Pt.2, Chicago , IL.: University of Chicago Press, 1994. [19] L. Lambert, “Good teachers teach 'for' the test,” Christian Science Monitor, 100(115), 2008, p8. [2] L. W. Anderson and D. R. Krathwohl (editors), A taxonomy for learning, teaching and assessing: A revision of Bloom's Taxonomy of educational objectives: Complete edition, New York : Longman, 2001. [20] E. P. Lazar, “Speeding, terrorism, and teaching to the test,” The Drama Review, 2006, pp 1029-1061. [3] J. Ballis, “Victorian teachers told to teach to the test,” Education, 91(1), 2010, p 22. [21] T. Lord, C. Shelly, R. Zimmerman, “Putting Inquiry Teaching to the Test: Enhancing Learning in College Botany,” Journal of College Science Teaching, 36(7), 2007, pp 62-65. [4] P. Black, C. Harrison, C. Lee, B. Marshall, and D. Wiliam, “Working inside the black box: Assessment for learning in the Classroom,” Phi Delta Kappan, Vol. 86 No. 1, 2004, pp. 8–21. [22] S. Macpherson, “Teaching Biology or Teaching to the Test? How High Stakes Standardized Tests Impact the Biology Classroom,” International Journal of Learning, 16(7), 2009. [5] P. Black and D. William, 1998. “Inside the black box: Raising standards through classroom assessment,” Phi Delta Kappan, Vol. 80 No. 2, 1998, pp. 139–148. [23] M. D. Miller and A. E. Seraphim, “Can Test Scores Remain Authentic When Teaching to the Test? Educational Assessment. 1(2), 1993, p. 119. [6] B. S. Bloom and D. R. Krathwohl, Taxonomy of educational objectives: The classification of educational goals, by a committee of college and university examiners. Handbook 1: Cognitive domain, NY , Longmans, 1956. [24] K. Maloney, “Teaching to the Test,” Journal of Learning, 13(6), 2006, pp 19-25. International [25] L. B. Nilson, Teaching at its best: A research-based guide for college instructors. SF, CA: Jossey-Bass, 2007. [7] C. R. Bowie and P.D. Harvey, "Administration and interpretation of the trail making test," Nature Protocols, Vol. No. 5, 2006, pp. 2277–2281. [26] NREL - Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory. “6 +1Traitwriting”,http://www.nwrel.org/assessment/about.php ?odelay=1&d=1, last retrieved Dec. 31, 2012. [8] B. Boyle and J. Bragg, “How teaching to the test can undermine performance,” Literacy Today, 58, 2009, pp. 25-27. [27] J. Parkes and M. Harris, 2002. “The purposes of a syllabus,” College Teaching Vol. 50, No. 2, 2002, pp. 55–61. [9] Stephen I. Brown and Marion I. Walter, The Art of Problem Posing, 3rd Edition, Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2005 [28] W. J. Popham, "Teaching to the Test: An Expression to Eliminate,” Educational Leadership, 62(3), 2004,pp 82-83. [29] D. Posner, “What's Wrong with Teaching to the Test?” Phi Delta Kappan, 85(10), 2004, p. 749. [10] J. D. Corrigan and M. S. Hinkeldey, “Relationships between parts A and B of the Trail Making Test,” J. Clin. Psychol., Vol. 43, No. 4, 1987, pp. 402–409. [30] R. M. Reitan, “Validity of the Trail Making test as an indicator of organic brain damage,” Percept. Mot Skills, Vol. 8, 1958, pp. 271-276. [11] Sandra Cresco and Nathalie Sinclair, “What makes a Problem Mathematically Interesting? Inviting Prospective Teachers to pose better problems”, Journal Math Teacher Education, Vol. 11, 2008, pp. 395-415. [31] P. Shank, “To Plan Good Instruction, Teach to the Test,” Online Classroom, June 2006, pp 4-5. [12] C. Ferguson , “Using the Revised Taxonomy to Plan and Deliver Team- Taught, Integrated, Thematic Units,” Theory into Practice, Vol. 41, No. 4, 2002, pp. 239-244. [32] J. M. Slattery and J.F. Carlson, “Preparing an effective syllabus.” College Teaching Vol. 53, No. 4, 2005, pp 159–164. [33] Brian M. Stecher and Karen J. Mitchell, “Vermont Teacher’s understanding of Mathematical Problem Solving and Good Math Problems”, (Presentation) Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, SF, CA, 1995. [13] K. Gallagher, “Why I Will Not Teach to the Test,” Education Week, 30(12), 2010, pp. 26-29. [14] E. A. Gaudi no and N. K. Squires, Construct validity in the Trail Making Test: What makes Part B harder? J Clin. Exp. Neuropsychology., 17 (4), 1995, pp. 529-535. [34] The Standards, The Common Core State Standards, http://www.CoreStandards.Org, (Last accessed Feb 28,2013) [15] A. Greene and G. D. Melton, “Teaching With the Test, Not to the Test,” Education Week, 26(45), 2007, p 30. [35] U.S. Congress, No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, Public Law, No. 107-110, 2002 [16] R. J. Hendel, “Five Basic Creative Problem-Extension Methods for a Fixed Syllabus,” Journal of Education, Informatics, and Cybernetics, 2(2), 2010, pp. 7-12 216 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) A Re-Conceptualisation of Information Literacy in Accordance with New Social Media Contexts. Agneta Lantz Linköping University, SE-581 83 Linköping, SWEDEN agneta.lantz@liu.se and Christina Brage Linköping University, SE-581 83 Linköping, SWEDEN christina.brage@liu.se Social media has altered the information landscape by expanding the flow of information tremendously and has changed the way people find, use, and experience information. The interactivity of the new technology has in many ways transformed the way we live. It has changed the ways we communicate and share information and we now tend to produce and communicate through multiple modalities. Social media environments are collaborative and free-flowing, requiring a comprehensive understanding of information in order to critically evaluate, share, and produce content in multiple forms. Social media is creating entirely new types of information resources and new approaches to information practices as well as new user expectations which challenge traditional definitions of Information Literacy. ABSTRACT The aim of this article is to review the need for a re-conceptualisation of Information Literacy in accordance with the development of new social media contexts. A review of the literature indicates that there is need to take the concept of Transliteracy into consideration. Some major challenges like the new information world, digital risky behaviours, democratic challenges and educational challenges will be discussed. Keywords: Information Literacy, Transliteracy, Social Media, EDemocracy, Curriculum Development. 1. INTRODUCTION Information literacy instruction needs to focus on helping people develop skills that will benefit them in answering questions and to conduct informed decision-making throughout their lives within the new and changing information discourse. This indicates that there’s a need for a reconceptualisation of the traditional view of Information Literacy education, generally understood within the field of library and information science, as well as a need for curriculum development. One way to do this is to incorporate and extend Information Literacy with Transliteracy, meaning to be able to read, write and interact across a range of platforms, tools and media recognised as life skills for the digital age. Transliteracy should be seen as a response to the ongoing and emerging changes within the Information and Communication Technology sector. When we talk about social media we normally talk about networked digital media such as Facebook, Twitter, blogs, and wikis. Social media enables people to socialise, organise, learn, play, inform, persuade, and influence the beliefs of others and also to engage in commerce. In doing so, people move from participation to collaboration and the technologies that we possess today are powerful engines for participation. When you participate, you become an active citizen rather than simply a passive consumer of what you see in adverts, what you learn and what your government wants you to believe. In doing so you become what is described as a “Produser” which is a combination of producer and user. The produser produce and use at the same time [1]. But it is crucial to understand the rhetoric’s of participation and the nature of technical and social networks. Therefore we need well educated citizens who freely can access information and who 2. SOCIAL MEDIA DEVELOPMENTS 217 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) knows how to communicate in concert with other citizens in a productive and legal manner; people who are information literate or transliterate, meaning being able to communicate and interact with multiple platforms. Furthermore we must emphasise the skills needed in order to become a critical consumer of information and recognise that critical evaluation rests on a substantial body of knowledge. Unfortunately young people are seldom taught this and they often lack contextual knowledge and critical evaluation skills according to Livingstone and Bovill [2]. and when interacting in digital environments. It’s a life skill for the digital age. 3. CHALLENGES OF THE NEW INFORMATION WORLD Research [3; 4; 5] into risky behaviors and online safety makes clear that there are youth who face risks and are harmed in connection to their participation online. Especially sexual online behaviours have been considered particularly alarming according to Liau [3]. Some suggest that adolescents who appear to engage in risky online behaviours try to compensate for minimal social interactions in their everyday lives. They may nourish a hope while interacting with strangers online that they will find new friends and new social connections. Therefore, they are more willing to take the risks associated with communicating with strangers and even sometimes place their personal and contact information online. Sheldon [6] on the other hand suggest that the Internet primarily benefits extraverted people who have strong social skills and who use Internet as another setting to interact with friends. Since the start of the Internet there has been a debate where some emphasised the potential for empowerment while others suggested that the Internet is the great destructor of civilization. After the introduction of new social media technologies the debate has moved on and now stresses the worry regarding risky behaviours. There has been a concern about the safety of these online spaces and especially the risky behaviors in which youth engage. Producing, sharing and evaluating information are critical activities in participatory Web 2.0 environments and we need a critical awareness of the handling, organisation and utilisation of information from various contexts. We have to make sure that the students are able to keep abreast with the cutting edge of emerging trends behind the innovations of social media as well as understanding the variety of ethical and juridical issues associated with social media communication. They also need to become independent learners and they need to understand the process of learning e.g. the metacognitive aspect of learning. It involves students being able to articulate the expectations of a new information context, and also being able to reflect on their own learning. We need to help students develop strategies for dealing with new knowledge, and to understand how arguments are put together. 5. The concept of Information Literacy has assumed new meanings and a new literacy is required. A literacy that stress the ability to understand what we see, to interpret what we experience, to analyse what we are exposed to, and to evaluate what we conclude against criteria that support critical thinking. DEMOCRATIC CHALLENGES The Internet has more and more become a means for including citizens in government policy making and administrative processes [7; 8; 9]. EGovernment for instance is seen as a balanced combination of electronic services and forms of electronic participation in order to improve the political dialogue in society. However, online dialogues, using for example social media, still seems to be inhibited not only by internet access but also in terms of skills, abilities and motivation. Within the field of the digital divide research, access is seen as a first level divide while divide in appropriate skills and motivation constitute a second level divide [10]. 4. DIGITAL RISKY BEHAVIOURS The participatory nature of digital environments requires skills such as being able to locate appropriate material in social media streams as well as being able to determine the validity of information. The communication and participatory aspects of the Internet requires a comprehensive understanding of the flow and shifting nature of information. Furthermore there is an increased need of being able to recognise potential personal safety and privacy risks when using the Internet There is still more research focusing on access to internet resources than on the second level divide [11; 12]. Some studies have however examined the effects of motivation to the use of internet 218 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) the personal realm, in the workplace and for inclusion in the new information environment. resources e.g. [11; 13]. Skills and motivation are central in the conceptualisation of the digital divide according to Norris [14]. There are also some psychological studies examining Internet selfefficacy [15; 16] a field related to motivation and skills. DiMaggio, Hargittai, Celeste and Shafer [17] articulated the need for research on digital inequalities. The concept of E-Democracy is still in its infancy and so is E-Democracy research. There is need for interdisciplinary studies with focus, not only on the ICT aspects but also on the social and behavioural dimensions of E-Democracy to learn for the improvement of future E-Democratic processes. According to Johnson [19] social media, mobile spaces and gaming are expected to influence the future of education and it is essential to experiment in these spaces to prepare for the future. In order to acknowledge the full impact of networked and digital media we must recognise that the educational sector needs a whole new way of looking at learning and teaching. Social media must therefore be considered as a vital component in any information literacy curriculum. This because of the fact that we cannot underestimate the huge impact of social networking sites, blogs and wikis. We have to admit that social media technologies and literacies already shape the cognitive, social, and cultural environments of the 21st century. The more social media technologies become central in everyday life, the more it is imperative to identify, and to manage the development of the skills and abilities required to use them. In everyday life, whether at home or university, our students are engaged in learning, collaboration and content creation. They are increasingly relying on mobile devices, flexible delivery of services and 24/7 access. As information literacy instructors we must recognise the need to be proactive in meeting the changing needs of our patrons. We need to move toward a more social approach in order to understand information seeking behaviour, and to embrace that there is a growing consensus that Information Literacy is a social practice embedded in contexts where shared meanings are constructed. When considering the prospects for E-Democracy inequality should be taken into account. Different studies indicate that there is still a digital divide, inequalities created by new information technologies in society [11; 12]. A participation gap exists that could lead to a political gap in society. According to Weber and Murray [18, p. 104] there is an indication that “the inequalities of education, income, race, and gender that are present in political participation among nonusers are reflected in political participation among Internet users. In short, with regard to politics, the digital divide remains”. st E-Democracy centered education in the 21 century needs a curriculum that directs students to master social media in order to become conscious citizens fully able to act and react in new societal arenas. An educated citizenry is acknowledged as crucial to informed participation in a wellfunctioning democracy. Empowering citizens by enhancing their information literacy skills altered into a new kind of literacy is without doubt of great importance in bridging the barrier of the secondlevel digital gap in order to improve E-Democracy and the interactive dialogue in society. Our democratic way of life depends more and more on producing learners who know how to think and how to solve problems within a diversified information and communication world. Already Prensky [20] among others, argued that today’s students no longer are the people our educational systems were designed to teach. Therefore there might be a need for lecturers to tailor their teaching to match the new skills, the new learning styles, the experiences and expectations of the students now entering the universities. Philip [21] strongly emphasised that technology will be an important part of the Net Generation’s education and learning. 6. EDUCATIONAL CHALLENGES The Net Generation is a label used to describe today’s young adults born between 1980/1982, (some authors even say 1977) and 1994, a generation shaped by their experiences of having grown up surrounded by all the “toys and tools of the digital age” [20, p.1]. This generation’s landscape of childhood is often connected to that of Google and Facebook and other similar social media. Social media offers a potential for educators to empower students to learn, lead and create with technology, preparing them with skills and competencies to support a cohesive framework for future academic and career success. The importance of these new skills requires a refinement of existing competencies in order to meet future demands in academic situations, in 219 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) literacies? In many countries traditional information literacy standards are in place, but are these good enough to support the way people currently communicate across various media, how they produce information in different formats, and how they establish rapidly expanding social networks? Traditional definitions of Information Literacy do not consider collaborative media production and the impact on learning, which is why we need an expanded model with an emphasis on active production and sharing of new knowledge through technology. In our mind we have to move towards Transliteracy and a reconceptualisation of the concept Information Literacy. Crittenden [22] argues that this wired generation is more interested to participate in learning activities that promote social interactions. As Oblinger and Oblinger [23] point out, interaction is a key element of learning. They also described the essential differences in the way that the Net Generation learns and they stated that the Net Generation is more comfortable with environments that are rich in multimedia images [23]. These interactions are not only face to face but are supplemented by the use of a range of ICT. They are avid users of technology but recently research has noted that they want more than technology as a method to help them to learn [24]. If the classroom does not provide opportunities for these kinds of interactions, it could happen that the Net Generation will not come to class. To meet the above demands of these new students, universities might have to rethink how they operate. The Net Generation, who now is entering the universities, probably has learning expectations, learning styles, and learning needs different from past students, something that we might call a new learning paradigm. Understanding social media should form an important part of Information Literacy as mentioned above, but the term Transliteracy may be more appropriate for understanding the full range of media. Transliteracy refers to a set of literacies needed to function in the Internet age due to ubiquitous media, mobile devices and social networking. According to Thomas et al [26] Transliteracy is defined as "the ability to read, write and interact across a range of platforms, tools and media from signing and orality through handwriting, print, TV, radio and film...". Transliteracy calls for a change of perspective away from print media towards a more unifying concept that is relevant to reading, writing, interaction and culture in the digital age. The essential idea here is that Transliteracy is concerned with mapping meaning across different media and not with particular literacies about various media. The use of social media could be a way of engaging students who normally are uninterested in learning the skills of information literacy and to teach them to be discerning and critical of their sources. Jones [25] explored the potential for using social technology to support Information Literacy and she argues that “online social technologies such as Weblogs, wikis and social bookmarking can be used to build fluency in the skills required to be information literate.” A new curriculum should be holistic so that students understand the complexity of the research process and approaches to learning in higher education. The structure of a new curriculum should be a departure from previous teaching approaches in the library field, which are often not embedded, holistic or even responsive to students’ needs. It should be focusing on habits of mind, developing appropriate attitudes and behaviour in addition to skills. In the report from 2007, The Future of Learning Agents [27], the researchers stated that “transliterating social and creative life implies new social and political understandings as new relations of creative production emerge. Collective authorship and collective intelligence are modes of active learning and discovery that present new dynamics between individuals and groups with respect to knowledge.” 7. MOVING ON FROM TRADITIONAL INFORMATION LITERACY TOWARDS TRANSLITERACY Transliteracy is unique in combining democratizing communication formats, questioning authority and devaluating hierarchical structures for disseminating information, expressing no preference of one over the other, bridging the digital divide and emphasizing the social construction of meaning via diverse media. The more ICT-skills become vital in order for individuals to be able to participate in modern society the more it is crucial to identify the issues at stake. One important question out of many is to figure out if we are dealing with one, many or new In order to accomplish the above we have to figure out how to provide learning experiences that provide students with more ownership and 220 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) Transliteracy is an inclusive concept which bridges and connects past, present and future modalities and changes with the invention of each new media-type [26]. Through the re-conceptualisation of Information Literacy into Transliteracy we st transfer the concept into the 21 century including all aspects relevant to reading, writing, interaction and culture. In other words all relevant literacies are embedded. increased participation in conversation for learning. There is need to move towards connectivism that is the process of creating connections and developing a network. In the literature according to Dunaway [28] Transliteracy articulates pedagogical practices that reflect a connectivist approach to Information Literacy education. Connectivism is to be seen as a learning theory for the digital age, where thinking and emotions influence each other. Learning is the process of connecting specialized information sources, and rests in a diversity of opinions. Currency is the intent of all connectivist learning and learning is a knowledge creation process – not only knowledge consumption [29]. 9. REFERENCES [1] A. Bruns, A. Produsage and Producerism, 2007, http://www.P2pfoundation.net. [2] S. Livingstone & M. Bovill (Eds.), Children and their Changing Media Environment: A European Comparative Study, Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum, 2001. 8. CONCLUSIONS What is clear is that technology is evidently a factor that has changed the way we live, communicate and share information and must be integral to the development of a new curriculum for information literacy education. As academic librarians we must be aware of the developments in this new field of Transliteracy to continually assess and understand what impact it may have on the ways we assist and interact with our patrons and each other. [3] A.K. Liau, A. Khoo & P.H. Ang, “Factors influencing adolescents' engagement in risky Internet behavior”, CyberPsychology & Behaviour, Vol. 8, No. 2, 2005, pp. 513 - 520. [4] S. Livingstone & L. Haddon, EU Kids Online: Final report, London: London School of Economics, 2009. At the moment Transliteracy in its initial form lacks a pedagogical imperative probably because of the newness and holistic nature of the concept. Still no one, as far as we know, has managed to define the necessary skills included in the concept maybe because of the fact that the terminology is new and the study of Transliteracy is still in the early stages, but a definition is likely to evolve. Already some librarians have tried to promote Transliteracy but more work needs to be done to formalise what relationship libraries will have with Transliteracy according to Andretta [30]. Andretta [30] also states that “the lack of familiarity with the terminology does not mean that Transliteracy is not integrated in the practice of information professionals.” [5] S. Livingstone & E.J. Helsper, “Taking risks when communicating on the Internet: The role of offline social-psychological factors in young people's vulnerability to online risks”, Information, Communication and Society Vol. 10, No. 5, 2007, pp. 619-644. [6] P. Sheldon, “The relationship between unwillingness-to-communicate and students’ Facebook use”, Journal of Media Psychology, Vol. 20, 2008, pp. 67-75 [7] B. Bimber, “Information and Political Engagement in America: The Search for Effects of Information Technology at the Individual Level”, Political Research Quarterly, Vol. 54, No. 1, 2001, pp. 53-67. As more research is created in the field, librarians can incorporate these new ideas into the ways they assist patrons with accessing, understanding, and producing information. The social aspects of Transliteracy can enhance the workplace by creating robust systems of knowledge sharing and can enhance user experience by granting them a role in the construction of information. [8] L. Dahlberg, The Internet and Democratic Discourse: Exploring the Prospects of Online Deliberative Forums Extending the Public Sphere, Information, Communication and Society, Vol. 4, No. 4, 2001, pp. 615-633. 221 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) [20] M. Prensky, “Digital Natives, Digital Immigrants,” On the Horizon, Vol 9, No. 5, 2001. [9] C. Weare, “The Internet and Democracy: The Causal Links Between Technology and Politics”, International Journal of Public Administration, Vol. 25, 2002, pp. 659-692. [21] D. Philip, “The Knowledge Building Paradigm: A Model of Learning for Net Generation Students,” Innovate, Vol 3, No. 5, 2007. [10] E. Hargittai, “Second Level Digital Divide in Internet Use: Mapping Differences I People’s Online Skills”, First Monday, Vol. 7, No 4, 2002. [22] S. Crittenden, “Silicon Daydreams: Digital Pastimes of the Wired Generation”, Virginia.edu, Vol 1, No. 2, 2002. [11] P. Muhlberger, “Access, Skill, and Motivation in Online Political Discussion: Testing Cyberrealism”, In: Shane, P.M. (Ed.), Democracy Online: Prospects for Political Renewal through the Internet. London: Routledge, 2004, pp. 225237. [12] P. Muhlberger, “Human Agency and the Revitalization of the Public Sphere”, Political Communication Vol. 22, No. 2, 2005, pp. 163–178. [23] D.G. Oblinger & J.L. Oblinger (Eds.), Educating the Net Generation, Washington, D.C.: Educause, 2005. [24] G. Roberts, “Technology and Learning Experiences of the Net Generation, In: D.G. Oblinger & J.L. Oblinger (Eds.), Educating the Net Generation, Washington, D.C.: Educause, 2005. [13] J.E. Katz, R.E. Rice & P. Aspden, “The Internet, 1995-2000: Access, Civic Involvement, and Social Interaction”, American Behavioral Scientist, Vol. 45, No. 3, 2001, pp. 405-419. [25] K. Jones, “Connecting Social Technologies with Information Literacy,” Journal of Web Librarianship, Vol, 1, No. 4, 2007, pp. 67–80. [14] P. Norris, Digital Divide: Civic Engagement, Information Poverty, and the Internet Worldwide. Cambridge, NY: Cambridge University Press, 2001. [26] S. Thomas & C. Joseph, & J. Laccetti, Transliteracy: Crossing Divides, First Monday, Vol. 12, No. 12, 2007. [15] M.S. Eastin & R. LaRose, “Internet Self-Efficacy and the Psychology of the Digital Divide”, Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, Vol. 6, 1, 2000. [27] A. Saveri & M. Chwierut, The Future of Learning Agents and Disruptive Innovation, The Institute of the Future, California, 2007. [28] M.K. Dunaway, “Connectivism: Learning Theory and Pedagogical Practice for Networked Information Landscapes, Reference Services Review, Vol 39, No. 4, 2011, pp. 675-685. [16] G. Torkzadeh, & T.P. Van Dyke, Development and Validation of an Internet Self-Efficacy Scale. Behaviour & Information Technology, Vol. 20, No. 4, 2001, pp. 275-280. [29] G. Siemens, “Connectivism: A Learning Theory for the Digital Age, International Journal of Instructional Technology and Distance Learning, Vol. 2 No. 1, 2005. [17] P. DiMaggio, E. Hargittai, C. Celeste & S. Shafer, “Digital inequality: From Unequal Access to Differentiated Use”, In: Neckerman, K.M. (Ed.), Social Inequality, New York: Russel Sage, 2004. [30] S. Andretta, “Transliteracy: take a walk on the wild side”, IFLA General Conference "Libraries create futures: Building on cultural heritage", Italy, 2009. [18] L. Weber, & S. Murray, “Interactivity, equality, and the Prospects for Electronic Democracy: A Review”, In: Shane, P.M. (Ed.), Democracy Online: Prospects for Political Renewal through the Internet. London: Routledge, 2004. [19] M. Johnson, “User Involvement, Social Media, and Service Evolution”, In: Proceedings of the 43rd Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences, 2010. (HICSS-43 2010), 5-8 January 2010, Koloa, HI, IEEE Computer Society, 2010. 222 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) Demands concerning Educational Media: Integration of eco-friendly Transport in Education and Training in Austria Lisa-Maria PUTZ Logistikum – Department for Traffic and Transport Logistics, University of Applied Sciences Upper Austria Steyr, 4400, Austria and Oliver SCHAUER Logistikum – Department for Traffic and Transport Logistics, University of Applied Sciences Upper Austria Steyr, 4400, Austria place. Since industry and society are currently hardly willing to limit mobility or availability of goods, international and national policy in Europe focus on a shift to more eco-friendly transport modes. In fact, goals are anchored in both the European transport policy, but also in national action plans [1] [2]. ABSTRACT The purpose of this paper is to provide evidence that the number of teaching units dealing with eco-friendly transport correlates with the provision of modern educational material. This study presents first results of the cooperation REWWay (Research and Education in Inland Waterway Logistics), whose overall research objective is to identify the current situation and future ideas concerning contents about eco-friendly freight transport and learning material used to educate it. This study takes place at an Austrian University, which is located in the middle of Europe. Qualitative research methods such as expert interviews and focus groups are conducted. Participants of this empiric research are teachers at upper and vocational schools and university lecturers for education and training of logistics. Results suggest that more teaching units on sustainable transport are able to support decisions which are in favor of ecofriendly alternatives. One important issue to enhance the usage of rail and ships - apart from financial and governmental incentives is knowledge concerning alternative transport modes. In particular, knowledge gained through education and training may be able to raise awareness for a more ecofriendly transportation [3] [4]. However, in Austria sustainable transport is given far low priority which may be reflected in few teaching units used for transport in general [5]. This lack of knowledge could be one reason for the low usage of eco-friendly transport modes in Austria (i.e. waterway and railway) since decision makers choose well-known opportunities. In fact, only 2 % of goods are transported on inland waterway and 23 % are carried by rail [6]. Key words Education, eco-friendly transportation, transport education, sustainable logistics, training, Europe Due to the fact that the government and industry is trying to enhance the modal split of inland waterway and railway, transport education gains greater attention. Thus, an important step to reach greenhouse gas emission goals may be the increase of knowledge of eco-friendly transport alternatives. 1. INTRODUCTION Mobility is the engine which drives modern society. It is an essential part of our everyday lives and something we tend to take for granted. However, increasing mobility causes ecological, economic and social difficulties. 2. OBJECTIVES The aim of this research is to provide evidence that the number of teaching units dealing with eco-friendly transport correlates with the availability of modern educational material. In particular, the priority for green transport modes is expressed in number of teaching hours. This contribution presents first results of the cooperation REWWay (Research and Education in Inland Waterway Logistics). The overall research objective is to In fact, in Europe an increase of freight transport up to 40 % by 2030 and up to 80 % by 2050 is forecasted. To achieve European greenhouse gas emission goals a 60 % cut in emissions for the transport sector compared to 1990 level is obligatory [1]. To decrease emissions, either total transport volume must be reduced or a shift to more eco-friendly transport modes such as inland waterway or railway must take 223 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) identify the current situation and future ideas on inland waterway freight transport. about difficulties to find up-to-date and valuable information [12] [13]. To demonstrate these assumptions qualitative empiric research is applied. Expert interviews and focus groups are conducted and participants’ statements are analyzed by using qualitative empiric methods [9]. 4. METHODOLOGY The research question guiding this study is: Is it possible to enhance number of teaching units concerning ecofriendly transport in Austria through the availability of modern educational material? 3. LITERATURE REVIEW The paper reports on the authors’ work on qualitative research according to the concept of qualitative socialresearch using a three-step process [14] [15]. People around the world utilize modern information and communication technologies. More and more people use the World Wide Web and due to smartphones, the access to information through internet is ubiquitous. Moreover, the number of people who use web 2.0 tools such as Wikis or Facebook is rising. The internet has enabled the permanent access to information for people of all ages. First, a data collection is conducted to identify secondary and tertiary educational establishments which offer teaching units/courses focusing on logistics in Austria. In fact, curricula of Austrian schools are analyzed regarding logistics contents. Relevant schools are classified due to this curriculum analysis by using screening criteria. Accordingly, the integration of the internet in classrooms is necessary. Years ago the so called “ex-cathedra teaching” or “lecture-and-test teaching” was the most common teaching method. This method supports only specific persons in their personal learning style. However, this method is more and more outdated as people demand modern educational media which integrate interactive methods of learning. An active involvement of students in the educational process achieves better results than traditional “lecture-and-test” methods [7]. Current developments promote selforganized learning because even complex tasks may be solved efficiently. In addition, modern technologies can definitely be incorporated. [8]. Second, after the identification of Austrian educational institutions concentrating on logistics, they are divided into three groups: secondary education, tertiary education and vocational schools (dual system). Austrian vocational schools combine ten weeks school per year with practical training at a company. This dual system takes between three to four years and ends with a diploma [16]. Universities offer both graduate and undergraduate degrees in logistics. Third, due to the lack of studies concerning education in inland waterway in Austria and Europe, a qualitative research approach is selected. Thus, empirical analysis of two focus groups and six expert interviews were conducted. The interviews are transcribed and a content analysis including a comparative analysis is performed to interpret these transcribed interviews [14]. In the 1970s, logistics as an area of study gained popularity because of a rising demand of the industry for logistics graduates and specialists. Currently, request for logistics professionals is still expanding and as a result, many schools and universities offer more logistics courses [9]. Lancioni et al. (2001, p.744) emphasizes the need for logistics education as follows: “A career in logistics […] is one that all schools should provide for their graduates”. 5. PARTICIPANTS The research sample included lecturers at upper level schools, vocational schools and universities focusing on logistics in Austria. Moreover, importance of logistics or transport education strongly depends on governmental key areas [10]. Nevertheless, little research has been done in the area of logistics education and even less in the field of transportation education [11] [5]. First, Austrian education institutions which focus on logistics are identified by means of interviews and research. In order to collect institutions (concentrating on logistics), criteria concerning the amount of logisticcontents are determined. Accordingly, vocational schools offer an apprenticeship as a logistics manager, upper schools offer possibilities for logistics-specialization and universities also provide such logistic-specializations. Furthermore, some universities operate particular institutes for transport or logistics. In total, 34 institutions are identified which focus on logistics and include contents on transport management. In Austria, teaching material for vocational and upper school concerning inland waterway are rather limited. In detail, contents in workbooks are restricted to few pages and mostly, only basic information is provided and contents are often outdated. Teaching material used at universities highly depends on professors’ interests, since most of them develop teaching material themselves. Furthermore, an online learning platform dealing with inland waterway and an extensive “Manual on Danube Navigation” exist. Nevertheless, many trainers complain Second, representatives of these 34 institutions are contacted and invited to participate in focus groups or in 224 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) TABLE II RANKING EDUCATIONAL MEDIA expert interviews. 21 institutions participated in this examination. Thus, the following results are a good indicator for logistics and transport education in Austria. Ranking learning material Vocational School Upper School University & research 1 films & questions presentation slides case studies 2 presentation slides teacher training field trips The total amount of identified institutions and number of institutions which did participate are presented in table 1. 3 case studies case studies external lecturers TABLE I RESEARCH SAMPLE 4 field trips films presentation slides 5 lecture notes lecture notes films & questions Finally, two focus groups and six expert interviews are conducted. A total of 27 participants representing 21 different institutions are included in the research sample. If more than one person from an institution participated in this study multiple answers are excluded. Results in Austria Total number of institutions Investigated institutions Vocational School Upper School University & research 3 13 18 3 8 10 Vocational schools: All three interviewed institutions agreed on the fact that films are of particularly high interest for this type of school. A film’s length between five and maximum 20 minutes is considered as appropriate to give students a better insight into the topic. Additionally, films are a time-efficient alternative to field trips. However, in order to ensure students’ attention, questions concerning the film should be provided before watching it. Furthermore, teaching units mostly require literature background which can be provided by useful and appealing presentation slides. All three respondents absolutely require presentation slides as an elementary educational media. Efficient ways to anchor information in students’ longterm memories are activities which demand active involvement. Thus, comprehensive case studies are mentioned by all three teachers as an effective learning method. 6. RESULTS The results of the expert interviews and the focus groups indicate that few teaching units deal with the topic transport in general. Whereas most of these units focus on road only few describe and discuss eco-friendly alternatives such as inland waterway or railway. However, as this study demonstrates, teachers and lecturers are willing to invest more time to teach topics regarding green transport modes, if high quality learning material is provided. In Austria, the number of schools and universities which offer a major in logistics has been rising particularly. Some years ago only few programs focusing on logistics existed. However, respondents claimed a lack of valuable learning material dealing with railway or inland waterway transport. Upper schools: All eight institutions claimed that appropriate structured presentation slides which can be easily adapted and modified are highly important for a successful teaching unit. Due to the reason that trainers often record a lack of knowledge on eco-friendly transport modes, they appreciate an annual training for teachers. This training should include basic knowledge, excursions and external lecturers. All respondents absolutely require teacher trainings. Moreover, seven out of eight teachers whose major field is logistics mentioned case studies as a highly efficient way of teaching. Educational media Participants are questioned about their ideas related to the design of educational media. A ranking presenting the five most mentioned educational media by lecturers’ is given in table 2. Educational media can be divided into two groups: literature and interactive material (Table II in italics). Whereas presentation slides and lecturers notes can be assigned to literature, films including questions, case studies, teacher trainings, excursions, external lecturers pertain to interactive material. As shown by table two, most lecturers prefer interactive learning material. Universities and research: Eight out of ten interviewees agreed that case studies, field trips and external lecturers are appropriate methods to educate on eco-friendly transport modes. Case studies which compare e.g. train, inland vessels and trucks can be used to raise students’ awareness concerning pollutions, costs and advantages and disadvantages. 225 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) The human brain can more easily remember experiences which may frequently be generated during field trips. Students and lecturers get a unique insight in various processes. Furthermore, discussions with on-site staff talking about their experiences may enhance knowledge of students as well as lecturers. Lecturers appreciate lectures which are organized by external experts since they often admit a lack of knowledge. In fact, external lecturers are welcome because they induce variety in courses and own specialized knowledge. beginning and one at the end of the focus groups. Questions deal with numbers of teaching units and importance of sustainable transport modes. The black circles represent participants’ opinions at the beginning and the grey circles represent opinions at the end. ILLUSTRATION I RESULT FOCUS GROUP UPPER SCHOOL Analysis of the three groups’ results: Results of this study show that ideas concerning design of learning material are quite similar among the three investigated groups. 18 out of total 21 institutions consider the use of case studies as extremely useful since an active involvement of students in the learning process is required. In detail, case studies should integrate calculations and emission values which compare trucks, inland waterway, sea shipping and rails within an international setting. Additionally, interviewed lecturers strongly support a use of computers or haptic elements for case studies. These instruments should definitely increase students’ interest. The preparation of presentation slides is evaluated as basic equipment for courses by 19 persons. At the beginning of a course, a structured overview of the topic is absolutely necessary to inspire students for a topic. In addition, to attract students’ attention and interest, slides need to be designed appealingly. 16 respondents argue that films create added value through provision of accurate insights. In fact, one of the respondents said: “Films really impress students – at all ages”. Nevertheless, it has to be considered that films should not be longer than 20 minutes because after this time students’ attention decreases significantly. Eleven out of 13 lecturers of vocational schools and universities strongly support the integration of field trips within curricula. A lecturer told about an experience at the port of Hamburg (Germany): “It is really fascinating to travel with a tourist boat next to a giant container ship – every student was deeply impressed”. Teachers in upper schools would appreciate more field trips but do have little time resources for it. The lack of lecturers’ knowledge could be the reason why respondents strongly support teaching trainings, external lecturers or field trips. Thus, it is definitely important to provide lecturers with a list of trainings, external experts and field trips in order to reduce barriers. Focus group upper school: At the beginning of the focus group, participants are asked to estimate the current number of teaching units used for eco-friendly transport on a scale from very little (0) to very much (10). Afterwards, at the end they are questioned to estimate number of teaching units, assuming that high-quality learning material is available on the same scale. At the beginning, three schools are located between 0 and 1, the other four schools between 3 and 5. Afterwards, all schools are placed between 3.5 and 7. In average, an increase of 2.4 points is recorded. Results show a high willingness to use more teaching units for sustainable transport modes. ILLUSTRATION II RESULT FOCUS GROUP UNIVERSITY & RESEARCH Focus group university and research: At the beginning, participants are asked to estimate the current importance of eco-friendly transport on a scale from very little (0) to very much (10). At the end of the focus group participants are questioned to estimate importance, assuming that high-quality learning material is available on the same scale. Whereas five institutions are located between 0 and 3, two are situated at 7 and at 9.5. All institutions show an increase of importance of 0.6 points in average. Total results: 14 out of 15 focus group participants will use more time for eco-friendly transport modes within their courses. However, a major difference between the results of upper schools and universities exists. Whereas results of upper schools show an average increase of 2.4 points, universities’ results demonstrate an average rise of 0.6. 5 out of 6 interviewed institutions also agree on the use of more time for sustainable transport. In total, 20 out of 21 institutions assured that they will use more or the same Availability of learning material and number of units The lack of knowledge and a challenging access to information on eco-friendly transport modes are the main barriers the lecturers declared. In fact, lecturers do not know where to search for (high-quality and current) information, whom to ask about external lectures or where to go for field trips. The following illustrations show results of questions which are asked during the focus groups. In detail, one question was positioned at the 226 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) time for sustainable transport modes if valuable learning offerings are available. In detail, 18 institutions definitely will spend more time when appropriate teaching material is offered. All respondents argue that more teaching units on sustainable transport are able to support decisions which are in favor of eco-friendly alternatives. As one university professor stated “[…] more time used for sustainable transport modes during education will bring positive tendencies towards a modal shift in future”. [1] European Commission (2011). WHITE PAPER Roadmap to a Single European Transport Area – Towards a competitive and resource efficient transport system. Brussels [2] bmvit - Bundesministerium für Verkehr, Innovation und Technologie (2012): Gesamtverkehrsplan für Österreich. Wien [3] H. Giesecke (2004). Einführung in die Pädagogik. Juventa Verlag. Weinheim München. 7. CONCLUSIONS This study provides strong evidence that a correlation between the provision of high-quality learning material and time spent on training concerning green transport modes exists. High-quality teaching material is defined as learning material which is developed according to questioned professors’ and teachers’ ideas. Main barriers which prevent lecturers from using more teaching units are a lack of knowledge and the missing availability of high-quality educational media. [4] B. Gehlert, H. Pohlmann (2010). Praxis der Unterrichtsvorbereitung. Bildungsverlag EINS GmbH, Troisdorf [5] A. Breinbauer et. al (2012): Empfehlungen für eine nachhaltige Aus- und Weiterbildung im Intermodalen Güterverkehr. Logotrans: Wien [6] Autorenteam VPÖ 2025+. (2009). Verkehrsprognose Österreich 2025+ - Güterverkehr. Wien: bmvit. In this study, a first indicator concerning design of educational media is presented since 21 out of 34 identified institutions participated in this study and the majority suggests a high level of approval to the research question. In order to integrate more contents of green transport in courses, five educational media are recommended: i) presentation slides, ii) case studies, iii) films & questions, iv) field trips and v) lecturers notes. Nevertheless, frequently mentioned options do not consequently induce a high didactic value. [7] T. Byland (2011). Was ist moderner Unterricht? http://bylandeducoaching.blogspot.co.at/search?q=moderner+unterric ht. [Accessed on 03.01.2013] [8] G.M. Kellar., B.E. Jennings, H.L. Sink, and R.A., Mundy (1995): Teaching Transportation with an interactive Method. Journal of Business Logistics. 16(01), pp.251-279 [9] R. Lancioni, H. Forman and M.F. Smith (2001): Logistics and supply chain education: Roadblocks and challenges. International Journal of Physical Distribution & Logistics Management, Vol. 31(10), pp.733-745 To summarize, there is high evidence that high-quality teaching material will be used by Austrian schools and universities, with logistics focus, for their courses. Moreover, teachers and professors will spend more time on education and training regarding eco-friendly transport modes. [10] K.M. Ruppenthal (1998): Transport education in Canada: a contrast. International Journal of Physical Distribution & Logistics Management, Vol. 28(4), pp.255-258 Although the authors made every possible effort to be comprehensive in data gathering and to reduce bias that may effect results, this study does suffer some limitations. Due to the fact, that our research sample is limited to the Austrian logistics education sector, some other important aspects may be missing. Moreover, focus groups and personal interviews often stimulate social effects such as group pressure which may bias results. Further research direction may investigate if frequently mentioned education media have a high didactic value. Another research direction would be to conduct a similar investigation in other countries or regions to find differences in lecturers’ preferred education media. Nevertheless, comparability between different countries is limited since curricula vary and thus, same criteria to identify institutions which focus on logistics are not applicable. [11] Y.-C. J. Wu (2007): Contemporary logistics education: an international perspective. International Journal of Physical Distribution & Logistics Management, Vol. 37(7), pp. 504-528 [12] via donau (2013). Manual on Danube Navigation. Vienna: via donau. [13] INeS (2012). Online learn platform – inland waterway. Available at: http://www.ines-danube.info/. [Accessed on 03.01.2013] [14] P. Mayring (2010). Qualitative Inhaltsanalyse. Weinheim. Beltz 8. REFERENCES 227 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) [15] U. Flick (2007). Qualitative Sozialforschung: Eine Einführung. Rowohlt-Taschenbuch-Verl.: Reinbek bei Hamburg [16] Ministry for Education, the Arts and Culture (BMUKK) (2012). Definition of Austrians’ vocational schools. http://www.bmukk.gv.at/schulen/bw/bbs/berufsschulen.x ml. [Accessed on 03.01.2013] ACKNOWLEDGMENT The authors would like to thank all focus group participants and all persons which took part in the expert interviews. Many thanks also to our colleagues for their valuable time and resources. 228 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) Enhancing Student Learning in STEM Disciplines Ronald A. Styron, Jr., Ed.D. Professor and Director of Quality Enhancement Office of Academic Affairs, The University of South Alabama Mobile, AL 36688, United States of America ABSTRACT higher order thinking, and collaborative skills found in TeamBased Learning, were incorporated into program and coursebased student learning outcomes. Team-Based Learning (TBL) was selected as the pedagogical strategy to be implemented by University instructors because of its utilization of application activities based on critical thinking and collaboration. It has been proven as an effective learning strategy applicable to multiple disciplines including STEM [11, 12, 13]. The purpose of this research study was to collect data and draw conclusions regarding the impact on student learning outcomes, relative to critical thinking and collaboration, through the utilization of Team-Based Learning Strategies in STEM classes. The data will be used to make recommendations for university administrators pertaining to the use of Team-Based Learning in multiple disciplines, and also to help shape professional development. The study took place at a university located in the southern region of the United States. Participants will be university professors and college students. Student Learning Outcomes at the project level were comprehensive and represented the broadest level of outcomes contained within the project. Project outcomes served as the framework for both program and common courses student learning outcomes. Project outcomes included: 1) students will achieve higher mastery levels of course content and real-world application of the content, 2) students will develop higher levels of skills in critical thinking, 3) students will develop higher levels of collaborative skills, 4) students will have higher levels of engagement, and 5) persistence in STEM courses will increase. Common Course Outcomes were student-learning outcomes expected in all courses regardless of content. These outcomes were more specific than project outcomes, but broader than student learning outcomes. Selected examples of programs included Biomedical Sciences, Computer and Information Sciences, Earth Sciences, Engineering and Sociology and Anthropology. Common course outcomes included: 1) students will be able to evaluate information by separating factual information from inferences, interpreting numerical relationships in graphs, understanding the limitations of correlated data and evaluating evidence and identifying inappropriate conclusions, 2) students will be able to synthesize alternate versions of problems or issues by identifying alternative interpretations for data or observations, identifying new information that might help analyze hypothesis and explaining how new information can change a problem, 3) students will be able to base a conclusion or solution on appropriately applied information by separating relevant information from irrelevant information, integrating information to solve problems, and learning and applying new information, and 4) students will be able to effectively communicate ideas relevant to the problem by leading and participating in group discussion. Student Learning Course Outcomes are specific to each STEM class and tailored to the curriculum of individual classes. Student learning outcomes were designed around course content and higher order thinking skills as defined by Bloom [10]. In each STEM course, through the use of action verbs or keywords, there were no less than 3-5 student learning outcomes that incorporated higher-level thinking skills (Analysis, Synthesis, Evaluation). Student learning outcomes addressing knowledge, comprehension and application were utilized as appropriate. The classes scheduled for project inclusion during the first three years of the project include accounting, anthropology, biology, biomedical sciences, cell biology and neuroscience, chemical and bimolecular engineering, chemistry, civil engineering, computer and information science, earth Keywords: Critical Thinking, Collaboration, Engagement, Student Learning Outcomes INTRODUCTION The quality enhancement plan is focused on improving student learning outcomes in STEM courses. This will be accomplished by increasing critical thinking and collaboration through the utilization of Team-Based Learning instructional strategies. The goal of the project is for students to achieve higher mastery levels of course content and application through the development of critical thinking and collaboration. The project goal is aligned with the mission of the university to apply knowledge in service to the constituents of the university as citizens of a global community and with goal #1 of the University’s strategic plan, “To build upon the academic quality and learning environment of the University” [1]. There was broad-based involvement of constituents, students, faculty, administrators, community members and alumni, throughout the planning and implementation stages of the project. These constituencies were involved in the management and oversight of the project. Constituents provided feedback at several public hearings and through various data collection mechanisms. Representatives were also invited to serve on the Leadership Team, the Concept Development and Selection Committees, the Implementation Team and the Advisory Council. During this process it was determined that student needs were more critical in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) courses which then became the criteria for selection of class participants. STUDENT LEARNING OUTCOMES Student learning outcomes were developed around the integration of critical thinking and collaboration into course content. Content acquisition and application was constructed around the student’s ability to evaluate information, synthesize alternate versions of problems or issues, base conclusions or solutions on applied information, effectively communicate ideas relevant to the problem and work together to develop solutions to complex problems. Benjamin Bloom’s taxonomy [10] of 229 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) science, electrical and computer engineering, geology, geography, mechanical engineering, nursing, pathology, pharmacology, physician assistant, speech pathology and statistics. Additional courses from mathematics, mathematics education, physics, and science education will be added during years 3 and 4 of the project for participation in years 4 and 5. Participants Participants included 6 university professors from 100, 200, 300 and 400 level STEM courses with a total student enrollment of 280 students. Class sizes ranged from 14 to 92. Limitations METHODOLOGY This study was limited to a university located in the southern region of the United States. The university is a major research institution and has several research centers and institutes. It is an urban, public, regional institution with a commitment to the development of human capital through exemplary practices in teaching, research and service to the community. The University serves students who otherwise may not have had the opportunity to pursue an undergraduate, graduate, or professional degree. Current enrollment is approximately 15,000 students with 74% enrolled full-time. Many students are Pell grant recipients, first generation college students, and students of color. Purpose of the Study The purpose of this descriptive study was to collect data regarding the effectiveness of the utilization of Team-Based Learning strategies in STEM classes on student learning outcomes related to critical thinking, collaboration, engagement and persistence. Findings of this study will yield important information pertaining to the influence of the utilization of Team-Based Learning strategies on student learning outcomes constructed around critical thinking and collaboration. Hypothesis Statement FINDINGS Improved student critical thinking and collaboration into STEM courses will lead to improved student-learning outcomes, engagement and persistence. There were 23 student-learning outcomes based on critical thinking with target mastery levels developed for the six pilot courses. Of these, mastery levels were reached on 73% of the outcomes, 27% of the outcomes were not. Research Questions There were five research questions associated with the project hypothesis and directly related to project goals. They consisted of: RQ1: RQ2: RQ3: RQ4: RQ5: Are there higher mastery levels of student learning outcomes in STEM courses where TBL instructional strategies are used? Are there higher levels of critical thinking skills among students enrolled in STEM courses where TBL instructional strategies are used? Are there higher levels of collaborative skills among students enrolled in STEM courses where TBL instructional strategies are used? Are there differences in student engagement among students enrolled in STEM courses where TBL instructional strategies are used? Are there lower withdrawal rates among students enrolled in STEM courses where TBL instructional strategies are used? Figure 1. Assessment target level mastery for pilot courses. Of the 18 student-learning outcomes addressing analysis, 12 (75%) were reached, 4 (25%) were not reached, of the 3 studentlearning outcomes addressing synthesis, all (100%) were achieved, and of the 4 student-learning outcomes addressing evaluation, 1 (25%) was reached and 3 (75%) were not. Assessments Multiple formative and summative assessments were administered during the term of the project. They included the National Survey of Student Engagement (NSSE), courseembedded assessments created by the professors, student and faculty satisfaction surveys based on the Baylor Value of Teams Survey and The New Jersey Medical School Student Perceptions of Team-Based Learning Survey, and peer reviews developed by Team-Based Learning Collaborative. Data from the assessments was utilized to help gauge improvement in mastery levels of student learning outcomes including critical thinking and collaborative skills. Figure 2. Assessment target level mastery for pilot courses disaggregated by analysis, synthesis and evaluation. 230 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) Post-test scores were higher than pre-test scores for all 8 items addressing critical thinking. the semester prior to the study. The withdrawal rate dropped from 5% to 4%. Figure 3. Critical thinking item summary. Figure 6. Withdrawal rates. Post-test scores were higher than pre-test scores for the 10 of the 12 items addressing collaboration. On a scale of 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree), faculty responses were 4.33 when asked if the use of Team-Based Learning strategies has helped increase student critical thinking (Q2), responses were 4.5 when asked if the use of Team-Based Learning helped improve student collaboration (Q3), responses were 4.33 when asked if Team-Based Learning strategies helped increase student engagement (Q4) and responses were 4.2 when asked if utilization of Team-Based Learning had improved attendance. Figure 4. Collaboration summary. Of the items addressing engagement, on a scale 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree) 9 of the 10 items were scored at 3.5 or higher. Figure 7. Faculty satisfaction survey results. DISCUSSION As demonstrated in the findings, the majority of mastery levels were reached. When disaggregated by higher levels of cognition including analysis, synthesis and evaluation, analysis and synthesis mastery targets were reached, but evaluation was not. Post-test scores of all items pertaining to critical thinking were slightly higher than pre-test scores and 10 out of 12 post-test items pertaining to collaboration were slightly higher than pretest scores. Of the items addressing engagement, on a scale 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree) 9 of the 10 items were Figure 5. Engagement item summary. Pilot courses were compared to identical courses taught during 231 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) scored at 3.5 or higher. Also, when compared to identical courses offered during the previous semester by the same instructor, pilot courses had a lower withdrawal rate. These indicators suggest project merit so consequently, the plan will be expanded and implemented across a wider range of classes to include approximately 30 professors. [7] Based on feedback from professors and students involved in the project, after their review of the pilot data, it was determined that a few adjustments needed to be made to improve the quality of the project. As a result next year (year one of the project) fidelity of Implementation would be stressed using the TBL Course Scorecard developed by Michaelsen and Sibley [14]. Fidelity of Implementation will be addressed to help reduce confusion between the many forms of collaborative learning and active learning strategies such as Team-Based Learning. The format of the professional development sessions would be reformat from one stand alone session per semester, to three sessions including an introductory session at the beginning of the semester to introduce the concept, a second session midsemester to discuss the application of the concept and necessary adjustments, and a final concluding session at the end of the semester. This format will give instructors time to practice the new concepts gained during professional development sessions and engage in collegial dialogue aimed at refinement. Professions development would focus on course redesign. Utilization of TBL in most cases requires instructors to restructure their syllabus because of the emphasis on Backward Design [9]. Coaching Teams composed of 3-4 professors from similar disciplines would be created to facilitate professional growth in an non-evaluative setting using Learning Walk techniques [15]. Moreover, the Critical Thinking Assessment Test, developed by Tennessee Tech University, a would be added to provide addition project data related to critical thinking competencies. This test is a nationally recognized valid and reliable assessment and will be included in the data collection portion of the project implemented during the next academic year to ascertain the effectiveness of the project with the modifications previously discussed. [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15] REFERENCES [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] University Mission Statement (2008). University of South Alabama Long-Range Planning Goals and Assessment. Retrieved from www.southalabama.edug alsandobjectives.pdf. Michaelsen, L. K., Knight, A. B., & Fink, L. D. (2004). Team-Based Learning: A transformative use of small groups in college teaching. Sterling, VA: Stylus Publishing. Dunaway, G. A. (2005). Adaptation of team learning to an introductory graduate pharmacology course. Teaching and Learning in Medicine, 17(1), 56-62. Haidet, P., Morgan R. O., O’Malley K., Moran, B. J., & Richards B. F. (2005). A controlled trial of active versus passive learning strategies in a large group setting. Advanced Health Science Education Theory and Practice, 9(1), 15-27. Koles P., Nelson S., Stolfi A., Parmelee D., & Destephen D. (2005). Active learning in a Year 2 pathology curriculum. Medical Education, 39(10), 1045-1055. McInerney, M. J., & Fink, L. D. (2003). Team-based learning enhances long-term retention and critical 232 thinking in an undergraduate microbial physiology course. Journal of Microbiology Education, 4(68). Retrieved from http://jmbe.asm.org/index.php/jmbe/ar ticle/view/68/html_29. Vasan, N. S., & DeFouw, D. (2005). Team learning in a medical gross anatomy course. Medical Education, 39 (5), 439-513. Zgheib, N. K., Simaan, J. A., & Sabra R. (2010). Using Team-Based Learning to teach pharmacology to second year medical students improves student performance. Medical Teacher Journal, 32(2), 130150. Wiggins, G., & McTighe, J. (2005). Understanding by design. Arlington, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Bloom, B. S. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives, handbook I: The cognitive domain. New York, NY: David McKay Co Inc. Clark, M., Nguyen, H., Bray, C., & Levine, R. (2008). Team-Based Learning in an undergraduate nursing course. Journal of Nursing Education, 47(3), 111-117. Haberyan, A. (2007). Team-Based Learning in an industrial/organizational psychology course. North American Journal of Psychology, 9(1), 143-152. Thompson, B., Schneider, V., Haidet, P., Levine, R., McMahon, K., Perkowski, L., & Richards, B. (2007). Team-based learning at ten medical schools: two years later. Medical Education, 41(3), 250–257. Michaelsen, L. K. (2011). Three keys to using TeamBased Learning effectively. Retrieved from http://ww w.missouriwestern.edu/appliedlearning/documents/3-k eys_cardMichaelsen2011pdf. Guilott, M., & Parker, G. (2012). A value added decision: Learning about learning together. Outskirts Press. Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) Influence of Interpersonal Relationship in Class on the Motivation and Effect of Blended e-Learning* Dowming Yeh Department of Software Engineering National Kaohsiung Normal University Kaohsiung, Taiwan and Min-kun Wu Graduate Institute of Information & Computer Education National Kaohsiung Normal University Kaohsiung, Taiwan adequate interaction for learning. These are all main contributing factors for vigorous growth of e-Learning. ABSTRACT This study aims to explore the interrelationship between interpersonal interaction in a class and the motivation and effect of e-Learning. The interpersonal interaction in a class is classified as teacher-student relationship and peer relationship. This study is to find out whether different teacher-student relationships and peer relationships impose influence on the motivation and effect of e-Learning. This study is conducted by first administering scales of teacher-student relationship and peer relationship on students in quantified results. Next, an interactive online course is designed, where online course content and an online test to assess learning result are available. All participating students receive the same online course. Two classes of junior high students are selected as experimental sample for participating in online course for a time period. After the e-Learning session, students are required to take a test after class and fill out scales of teacher-student relationship, peer relationship, and learning motivation. After data analysis, the result shows that interpersonal interaction between students and the teachers significantly influences on students’ learning motivation and effect. E-Learning has become a trend in modern days, and is frequently compared with traditional teaching. ELearning is a series of learning solutions delivered through the Internet for enhancing knowledge and performance [1]. Some scholars have reported that development of e-Learning environment brings about the following revolutions in learning: (1) venue of learning changes from traditional classroom to the Internet; (2) learners’ role in learning changes from passive to active; (3) teacher’s role changes from instructor to facilitator; (4) teaching activities emphasize collaborative learning; and (5) content of teaching materials change from traditional static textbook to interactive materials [2]. Other scholars believe that in the process of e-Learning, if interactive tests are built in the webpage for understanding students’ learning progress, then the network will provide immediate feedback with calculated scores and explanations to questions after students have finished the tests and sent out the answers. This will increase students’ learning motivation and achievement [3]. Lin and Chen believe that “quality of Internet access” is the major factor that influences students’ willingness to learn in an e-Learning environment [4]. “Network traffic jam that makes access difficult” and “network connection interruption,” in particular, are key factors that influence students’ e-Learning. This study designs e-Learning materials according to the related theories of e-Learning described above, and offer an environment with good Internet access for students to perform e-Learning, in order to prevent interferences from other factors. Keywords: Teacher-student relationship, peer relationship, effect of e-Learning and learning motivation 1. INTRODUCTION As information technology develops at high speed, its applications in teaching become more and more common. It has been now important research subjects that how may information technology facilitate the creation of an ideal environment for teaching. Among such facilitations, education application on the Internet is a popular topic. Diversified information sources in the Internet world are able to deliver audio, image, video, text, and other multimedia information to attract learners’ interest, and therefore inspire learning of multiple subjects and provide Some teachers adopted a blended learning model that combines traditional classroom teaching and E-learning systems [5]. In this model, a teacher may teach the first This work was supported by the National Science Council, Republic of China, under the grant number NSC- 96-2221-E-017-006-. 233 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) few sessions in a classroom. After the students have established a general idea of the course, he can then proceed to on-line teaching and interaction. Ideally, if we can take the advantages both from classroom teaching and e-Learning, the learning effect will be enhanced and extended in a blended model [6] [7]. important reference for teachers who plan to set up eLearning website for a class and implement blended eLearning. Issues about to be explored in this study are listed below: (1) Whether different teacher-student relationship will influence motivation of e-Learning? (2) Whether different teacher-student relationship will influence effect of eLearning? (3) Whether different peer relationship will influence motivation of e-Learning? (4) Whether different peer relationship will influence effect of e-Learning? Interaction model of online education websites, in fact, differs from the interaction model of traditional classroom teaching. It would be more appropriate that development of online education website be planned in connection with traditional teaching process in the initial stage. In traditional education, students obtain knowledge primarily through teachers who teach according to textbooks in classroom setting. However, in the modern society of information technology and knowledge economy, students obtain knowledge through various channels in addition to school textbooks; various information media and the Internet offers information sources that never run short. Students may enjoy more flexible studying methods by selecting online courses according to their own needs. In the environment of eLearning, teacher-student relationship changes accordingly. Teachers become learning partners of students. Teachers and students may communicate and learn from each other, and learning effect can be enhanced. 2. INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIP Various studies points out that the interpersonal relationship and the learning attitude of students are positively correlated [13] [14]. The interpersonal relationship, including the teacher-student relationship, influences significantly on the vigorousness of learning attitude, and students with inferior relationships compared to other students tend to have negative attitude toward learning. Li concludes in his study that teacherstudent relationship in junior high school today is not very ideal, but students with good relationship with teachers have relatively better academic achievements compared to others [15]. In addition, the correlation among teacher-student relationships, academic performances, and deviant behaviors of students is significant. In a pure e-Learning, the interpersonal relationship may not be a significant factor in learning satisfaction and motivation. Factors influencing the learning effects of eLearning discussed in the literature do not cover interpersonal relationship. According to priori research, fifteen influencing factors have been identified, which fall into six dimensions. These factors are learner prior experience in e-Learning courses, learner attitude toward the computers, learner computer anxiety, learner Internet self-efficacy, and learner initial computer skills in learner dimension; instructor response timeliness, and instructor attitude toward e-Learning in instructor dimension; eLearning course flexibility, e-Learning course quality in course dimension; technology quality, and Internet quality in technology dimension; perceived usefulness, and perceived ease of use in design dimension; diversity in assessment, learner perceived interaction with others in environmental dimension, respectively [8] [9] [10] [11] [12]. In the blended setting where teachers and students meet frequently, however, the interpersonal relationship could be an influencing factor on learning effects as in the traditional learning environments. Teacher-student relationship consists of two major factors: teachers and students. If teachers and students may mutually respect and trust each other, then students’ learning progress may be accelerated and learning efficiency may be enhanced in the process of teaching [16]. Good teacher-student relationship may aid a warm class atmosphere generated from it, and it would help students in taking a positive learning attitude. An invisible force is formed, which drives students’ initiative to learn. Teaching will be greatly benefited if the learning interest and motivation in students can be effectively triggered. Desevova and Verma discover in their study that position within a peer group is significantly correlated with academic achievement for high school students [17]. A research of social behavior and social relation of high school students and elementary students conducted by Huang also suggests that scores of ethics, intelligence, sports, and society are significantly and positively correlated with students’ peer relationship [18]. This study intends to probe into influences of interpersonal relationship, consisting of teacher-student relationship and peer relationship, on students’ learning motivation and the learning effect in a blended eLearning experimental environment, and to find out whether interpersonal relationship imposes influence in a blended e-Learning environment as a traditional teaching environment. Influences of teacher-student relationship and peer relationship on motivation and effect of eLearning are examined. Our results may serve as an In addition to teacher-student relationship, interpersonal relationship also includes peer relationship among students. Good class atmosphere can be cultivated only with good peer relationship and harmony among students. In the activities of learning, it is inevitable that oral or behavioral conflict or disagreement may occur, which may lead to disputes in students’ interpersonal relationship. How teachers relieve students’ emotion and 234 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) resolve disputes among students is very important in managing a class. Experience of peer interaction differs from parent-child relationship in family and teacherstudent interaction. Students may explore their own personality characters through such experience, and make appropriate adjustment to their own shortfalls for adopting future life in the society. Such experience also has greatly influences learning effects in a class and emotional control in a group throughout school years of a student. In a learning community, life experience is participated and developed by every individual member. Fellow students provide opportunities for an individual in collaborative learning. These factors may enhance development of a student both physically and psychologically, and allow him/her to learn how to adopt in a community.. learning motivation is conducted after the session. Learning effect is assessed according to students’ scores of e-Learning. To prevent influence from different online courses on experiment results, content of the online course is fixed. This study first constructed an e-Learning website with focus on junior high school students, and conducted a questionnaire survey. Pre-test and post-test of the questionnaire survey were conducted, and the total time of the experiment lasted for one month. After screening the data, experimental data from total 74 students was acquired, on which data analysis and research are conducted. The measurement scales on teacher-student relationship, peer-relationship, and learning motivation developed in this study are based on the literature and related theories, and the Cronbach  index is used to test level of confidence. The results of confidence test are listed in Table I. Statistic methods used in this study include: factor analysis on consistency and level of confidence in the scales, test of level of confidence. Pearson productmoment correlation, paired t-test and regression analysis are used for data analysis. 3. RESEARCH DESIGN Based on the reference literature, a research model is formed in Fig. 1 and the following hypotheses are proposed: Teacher-student relationship Learning Motivation TABLE I. Concept Peer Relationship Teacher-student relationship Peer relationship Learning motivation Learning Effect RESULTS OF CONFIDENCE TEST No. of Questionnaire 19 5-point Level of Confidence 0.9042 20 19 5-point 5-point 0.8966 0.9106 Scale Fig. 1. Research model Hypothesis 1: Teacher-student relationship influences on learning motivation in blended e-Learning. 4. RESULT ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION Hypothesis 2: Peer relationship influences on learning motivation in blended e-Learning. The research purpose of this study is to validate the research model. The model consists of 4 variables: teacher-student relationship, peer relationship, learning motivation and learning effect. This paper adopts the statistics methods aforesaid to conduct data analysis, and all of the hypotheses proposed in this study are tested and discussed according to the results of data analysis. This study adopts regression analysis to validate the research model. Results of the tests are described below. Hypothesis 3: Teacher-student relationship influences on learning effect in blended e-Learning. Hypothesis 4: Peer relationship influences on learning effect in blended e-Learning. Hypothesis 5: Learning motivation influences on learning effect in blended e-Learning. The research scope of the study is to explore the influence of students’ cognition of their teacher-student relationship and their peer relationship on learning motivation and learning effect of online course. Therefore, there are two independent variables in the research: teacher-student relationship and peer relationship. Quantified parameters for teacher-student relationship and peer relationship are obtained through measurement scales on teacher-student relationship and peer relationship. Dependent variables are learning motivation and learning effect. Learning motivation is also quantified parameters obtained through a measurement scale of students’ learning motivation. Surveys for interpersonal relationships are conducted before the e-Learning session, while the survey for Result of regression analysis It can be observed from Table II that the teacher-student relationship are highly correlated to learning motivation and learning effect, suggesting that the interpersonal relationship between students and the teachers who implement online course has significant influence on the result and willingness of e-Learning. Peer relationship is significantly correlated to learning effect, but not to learning motivation, which suggests that peer relationship among students has little influence on learning motivation of e-Learning. 235 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) TABLE II. online course, the better the students’ results of online course will be. PEARSON CORRELATION COEFFICIENT FOR RESEARCH VARIABLES TeacherPeer Learning student relationship motivation relationship Teacher-student relationship 1.000 Peer relationship 0.337* 0.436*** 1.000 Learning motivation Learning effect Effect of e-Learning 0.369* 1.000 0.446*** Predictor variables 1.000 In Table III, relationship between independent variables and dependent variables is explained by significance of regression coefficients. The test of regression coefficient reveals that teacher-student relationship has significant influence on motivation of e-Learning that the P-value of regression coefficient reaches a significant level of 0.001. Peer relationship, on the contrary, shows a different result that its P-value is 0.686; suggesting peer relationship has little influence on the motivation of e-Learning. Teacherstudent relationship has positive influence on motivation of e-Learning. That is, the more positive about the judgment or impression that students perceive about the teachers who implement the online course, the stronger the students’ motive to participate in online course. F-Value 0.420 0.000 Teacherstudent relationship 3.548 0.001** 1.128 0.048 0.406 2 Adj. R P-Value 0.136 1.555 0.125 Adj. Square P-Value 1.128 0.543 0.000 The two standardized regression coefficients of the two predictor variables for learning motivation are 0.420 *** and 0.48 N.S respectively, and the other two for learning effect are 0.689*** and 0.136 N.S respectively. Among these, the path coefficients of motivation and effect of learning with peer relationship are not significant. Based on the above analysis, the research model is shown in Fig. 2. Non-standardized Standardized coefficients regression T-Value P-Value VIF coefficients B Std. Error Beta 5.631 0.867 7.858 0.000*** 1.128 Discussions The path coefficients of the path analysis diagram by the researcher are the values of standardized regression coefficients (Beta distribution), with the effect and motivation of learning being dependent variables, and teacher-student relationship and peer relationship being predictor variables. SUMMARY OF MULTIPLE REGRESSION ANALYSIS OF MOTIVATION OF E-LEARNING Constant 35.083 6.230 Teacher-student 0.250 0.071 relationship Peer 0.032 0.080 relationship 2 R 0.192 F-Value 7.742 40.850 0.168 0.689 *** p<0.001，** p<0.01，* p<0.05 Motivation of E-Learning Predictor Variables Non-standardized Standardized coefficients regression TP-Value VIF coefficients Value B Std. Error Beta Constant 1.360 8.107 Teacher-student 0.722 0.092 relationship Peer 0.163 0.105 relationship 2 R 0.557 *** p<0.001，** p<0.01，* p<0.05 TABLE III. SUMMARY OF MULTIPLE REGRESSION ANALYSIS OF EFFECT OF E-LEARNING 0.735*** 0.190 Learning effect TABLE IV. .420*** Learning motivation 0.686 1.128 0.168 0.001 .627*** .048 *** p<0.001，** p<0.01，* p<0.05 Peer relationship In Table IV, relationship between independent variables and dependent variables are explained by significance of regression coefficients. The regression coefficients test of the two independent variables suggests that teacherstudent relationship has significant influence on the effect of e-Learning, that its P-value reaches a significance of 0.000. .129 Effect of eLearning Fig. 2. Path analysis result It can be observed from the path coefficients of the path analysis diagram above, that on the influence path for effect of e-Learning, there is only one significant path, which is teacher-student relationship. On the influence path for learning motivation, there is, similarly only one significant path, which is teacher-student relationship. This suggests the fundamental influence of teacherstudent relationship in this study. Based on the Peer relationship, on the contrary, shows a different result; its P-Value is 0.125, suggesting that peer relationship has little influence on the effect of eLearning. Teacher-student relationship has significant positive influence on the effect of e-Learning. That is, the more positive the judgment or impression those students perceive about the teacher who implement 236 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) experiment parameters, the adjusted model is illustrated in Fig. 3. teacher-student relationship, the stronger the motivation. This study finds that peer relationship has no significant correlation with learning motivation; students with good peer relationship do not necessarily have stronger learning motivation. Result of research hypotheses Based on the above results, the results of substantiation for the hypothesis proposed in this study are summarized in Table 5. Teacherstudent relationship .436*** REFERENCES Learning motivation [1] .735*** Effect of eLearning [2] [3] Fig. 3. Adjusted model [4] TABLE V. HYPOTHESES VERIFICATION Hypotheses Result of substantiation Hypothesis 1 Accepted [5] [6] Hypothesis 2 Rejected [7] Hypothesis 3 Accepted [8] Hypothesis 4 Rejected [9] [10] 5. FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS After completion of the experiment, the study finds that many domestic and international studies suggest that teacher-student relationship has significant influence on the effect of face-to-face teaching in traditional school education. But even in online education, interpersonal interaction between students and the teachers who construct the online course website still has very significant influence on students’ learning effect. Influence of peer relationship on learning effect is only partially relevant. However, this study discovers that implementation of online course enhances both teacherstudent relationship and peer relationship. [11] [12] [13] [14] Many studies suggest that teacher-student relationship in traditional school education has influence on students’ learning motivation. This study discovers that teacherstudent relationship has great influence on students’ learning motivation in online course as well; the better the [15] 237 D. Rigas and M. Sallam, “Multimodal E-learning On Note-taking: A User Satisfaction Perspective.” Proceedings of the 9th WSEAS international conference on Software engineering parallel and distributed systems SEPADS 10, 2010, pp. 228-231. T.M. Connolly and M. Stansfield, “Using Interactive Technologies in Teaching an Online Information Systems Course.” Proceedings of the 2006 Informing Science and IT Education Joint Conference, 2006, pp. 49-60. S.P. Fredericksen, E. Pickett, A.W. Pelz, and K. Swan, “Measures of learning effectiveness in the SUNY Learning Network.” In J. Bourne & J. Moore (Eds) Online Education: Proceedings of the 2000 Sloan Summer Workshop on Asynchronous Learning Networks, Volume 3. Needham, MA: Sloan-C Press, 2001. G. Lin and N. Chen, “Learning problems in network university (in Chinese),” proceedings of Global Chinese Conference on Computers in Education, 2001. D. Yeh, C. Lee, and P.-C. Sun, “The Analysis of Learning Records and Learning Effect in Blended e-Learning,” Journal of Information Science and Engineering, Vol. 21 , No. 5., 2005, pp.973-984. B.-C. Lee, J.-O. Yoon, and I. Lee, “Learners' acceptance of elearning in South Korea: Theories and results.” Computers and Education, 53(4), 2009, pp. 1320-1329. D. Zhang, J.L. Zhao, L. Zhou, and J.F. Nunamaker, “Can elearning replace classroom learning?” Commun. ACM 47, 5, 2004, pp. 75-79. J.B. Arbaugh and R. Duray, “Technological and structural characteristics, student learning and satisfaction with web-based courses: an Exploratory study of two on-line MBA programs.” Management Learning 33, 2002, pp. 331-347. N. Jahng, D. Krug, and Z. Zhang, “Student achievement in online distance education compared to face-to-face education.” European Journal of Open, Distance and E-Learning, I, 2007. H. Kanuka and N. Nocente, “Exploring the effects of personality type on perceived satisfaction with web-based learning in continuing professional development.” Distance Education 24, 2003, pp. 227-245. S.H. Lau and P.C. Woods, “An investigation of user perceptions and attitudes towards learning objects.” British Journal of Educational Technology, 39(4), 2008, pp. 685–699. P.-C. Sun, R. J. Tsai, G. Finger, Y.-Y. Chen, and D. Yeh, “What drives a successful e-learning? An empirical investigation of the critical factors influencing learner satisfaction.” Computers & Education, 50(4), 2008, pp. 1183–1202. D. Solomon, V. Battistich, M. Watson, E. Schaps, C. Lewis, “A six-district study of educational change: direct and mediated effects of the Child Development Project.” Soc Psychol Educ. 2000; 4: pp. 3-51. J.A Durlak, R.P. Weissberg, A.B. Dymnicki, R.D. Taylor, K.B. Schellinger, “The impact of enhancing students’ social and emotional learning: a meta-analysis of school-based universal interventions.” Child Dev. 2011;82(1), pp. 405–43. W. Li “The study of academic credits, deviation behavior, and relationship of teachers and students for Junior middle school students” (in Chinese), Humanistic Education Journal, Vol. 56, 1994, pp. 75-103. Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) [16] A.M. Klem and J.P. Connell, “Relationships Matter: Linking Teacher Support to Student Engagement and Achievement,” Journal of School Health, 2004, Vol. 74, No. 7, pp. 262-273. [17] P. Desevova and P. Verma, “Sociometric status as related to achievement, anxiety, and intelligence.” Psychological abstracts, 61,1979, pp.365. [18] D. Huang, “Factors influencing social behavior and social relationship of students in primary and junior high schools” (in Chinese), PhD dissertation, Graduate Institute of Education, National Chengchi University, 1988. 238 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) Capability of Students (Candidates) to Apply E-learning Knowledge and Skills in Real World Based on Accreditation Requirements Saleh Mohammed Aloteawi, Ph. D. King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia College of Education, Instructional Technology Department Standard that focused on e-learning tools and their integration, which was credited by NCATE, as well as, Conceptual Framework of the College of Education that asserted all students (candidates) had to obtain knowledge and skills of elearning through learning and practices in the College of Education. Thus, some students (candidates) would have graduated from College of Education and have not met elearning requirements that part of IRTE adopts NCATE unite standards. Abstract The integration of e-learning in educational environments required that all students (candidates) after graduation from College of Education at King Saud University in Saudi Arabia were able to apply their knowledge, skills, and experiences in real world in order to meet the demands of society needs. The findings revealed that there were some students (candidates) who said "I do know" or "strongly disagree and disagree" with all questionaire statements in all departments. Consequently, the results have not met the ISTE Keywords: Candidate, E-learning, NCATE, IRTE, ISTE. 1. INTRODUCTION E-learning is a new innovation in the third millennium that supports educational environments. It leads educational institutions to improve their outputs quality, and meet society demands. In fact, students (candidates) should obtain knowledge and skills of e-learning through their study and practice in the colleges of education, as well as, they are able to think how to apply them in educational settings in the future. Accreditation organizations that evaluate the colleges of education focus on integrating e-learning through learning and teaching processes. Indeed, it is a required element for the colleges of education to be accredited. Twomey, Shamburg and Zieger (2008) asserted that students in the college of education are the axis diffusion of e-learning in the future when they practice it in real world. In the current century e-learning is imperative in K-12, and its applications are required with high quality outputs in the colleges of education. They confirmed that "preparing effective candidates is one of the most important responsibilities of the colleges and universities" (p. 1, 2008). The innovation of e-learning is growing rapidly from year to another in the last ten years that required universities and colleges of education to develop strategies that ensure infuse technology in learning environments accordingly (WilenDaugenti, 2009). Thus, Bonk (2009) designated that technology has positive impact on learning and teaching, indeed it is the bedrock of changing educational environments. The National Council for the Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE, 2012) constructed unit standards in 2008, which is called the standards of excellence in teacher preparation, which concentrated on integrating technology tools in learning and teaching in the educational setting throughout the unit’s standards. NCATE (2012) asserted that students (candidates) must acquire knowledge and skills of e-learning, and infuse them to facilitate and construct learning and curricula in the colleges of education, which are imperative to maintain intellect which participates in the real world applications. Problem Statement College of Education in King Saud University in Saudi Arabia (2013) announced on its website that it has received a recognition seals from The Center of Quality Assurance In International Education (QA, 2013) that adopts The National Council for the Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE) unite standards that focuses on the excellence in teacher preparation. In fact, a part of unite standards concentrated on incorporating technologies, with learning environments, constantly, to make students (candidates) able to integrate elearning tools into curricula, research and interaction among them during their study at the Colleges of Education. In fact, QA (2013)was Mentioned to include a center that focuses on teacher process evaluation and quality assurance of institutions, which is called International Recognition in Teacher Education (IRTE) that emphasizes on e-learning as part of conceptual framework. It provides international educational recognition. In addition to that, the College of Education has developed the conceptual framework based on the requirements of NCATE some of these requirements benefit and support the e-learning in educational environments. As well as, College of Education (2009, p. 11) said "… professional educators who are graduates of the College of Education at King Saud University should have [ten competences]", one of those is "they use technology and integrate it in their professional practices"(p. 12). Oigara and Wallace (2012) reported that: Schools of Education must continue to collaborate with and provide support to partnership schools through the preparation of teacher candidates…and to ensure that teacher candidates are placed with mentor teachers' proficient in the use of technology for instruction with the ultimate goal of improving students learning in our K-12 schools (p. 311). 239 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) or advanced preparation of teachers, teachers continuing their professional development, or other school professionals. Candidates are distinguished from students in P-12 schools (2008, p. 85). Research questions 1. 2. Is there a significant difference in abilities in integrating knowledge and skills of e-learning in educational setting toward (candidates) students' majors (Islamic studies, Special Education, Art Education, Physical Education, and Psychology). What are (candidates) students' perceptions abilities in integrating knowledge and skills of e-leaning in educational setting knowledge? 2. LITERATURE REVIEW Vitality of technology standards Twomey, Shamburg, and Zieger (2006) said that International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE) has created technology standards that were accredited by NCAT, which were facilitated to incorporate technology in learning and teaching. Also, ISTE Sought to gather data and feedback about programs in colleges of education and candidates, after that, it started to analyses them to derive results that lead to maintain quality of candidate and programs. Consequently, Twomey, Shamburg, and Zieger (2006) asserted that "For college [of education] and university programs that prepare these candidates, adherence to these standards is proven through accreditation"(p.1). Furthermore ISTE (2010) developed a standard that lead to incorporate technology into teaching, is learning and curriculum in order to support students (Candidates) learning. The standard encouraged to be used in various methods, which are: 1. Facilitate technology – enhance experiences that address content standards and (Candidates) students' technology standards. 2. Use technology to support learner-centered strategies that address the diverse needs of (Candidates) students. 3. Apply technology to demonstrate (Candidates) students' higher-order skills and creativity. 4. Manage (Candidates) students learning activities in a technology-enhanced environment. 5. Use current research and district/regional/state/national content and technology standards to build lessons and unit of instruction (2010, p. 2). Research goals 1. 2. To know the differences of candidates' skills and knowledge of e-learning based on their majors. To know students' perceptions toward knowledge and skills of e-learning. Purpose of the Research The purpose of the research was to know whether or not students (candidates) acquire knowledge and skills through their study and practice in the College of Education, and if they are able to practice in the real world. Another purpose was to align with e-leaning principles that have been commented by NCATE and Conceptual Framework of College Education. The vital of research The importance of the research was to provide solutions to assist College of Education toward improving integration e-learning requirements in learning environment, which were derived from research results. As well as, providing information for the future research related to colleges of education environments. Limitation of the study 1. 2. The study focused on male students, in main Campus in Aldrriah. Because the learning environment is different between female and male campus. The study was implemented in the second semester 1432/1433(2011/2012). Candidates' roles to integrate e-learning Department of Business Innovation & Skills BIO (2009) conducted a study that focuses on roles of universities in the current age in Britain, the study indicated that: 1. E-learning enhances quality of learning through communication tools that provides various feedbacks between teachers and students. That means universities should develop new learning environments that depend on e-learning tools to maintain students' knowledge and skills, which ensure all students ability to perform their jobs after graduation. 2. E-learning tools should be available in institutions and suitable for each course. Information is available for students to help them when and how to integrate e-learning tools in activities courses. Procedural definition E-learning: that includes learning and teaching strategies in using e-learning tools such as (Blackboard, threads, search engines to enhance learning, develop products). Candidates: Students who enrolled in College of Education in King Saud University in second semester 1432/1433 (2011/2012). E-learning knowledge and skills: are accumulative of knowledge that candidates obtain from development teaching and learning strategies and e-learning tools experience. As well as, abilities that they have to integrate those strategies and elearning tools experience in real world. Terminology definition Moreover, Crossick (2010) viewed that the main responsibility of universities ensuring that students (candidates) after graduation are ready to perform their jobs that need new knowledge and skills. Therefore, Twomey, Shamburg and Zieger(2008) declared that school districts seek resources of finance to support purchasing e-learning tools, otherwise, if E-learning: is an approach to learning and development: a collection of learning methods using digital technologies, which enable, distribute and enhance learning (Fee, 2009, p. 16). Candidates: NCATE provides a definition which is "Individuals admitted to, or enrolled in, programs for the initial 240 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) teachers don’t have enough skills and knowledge that enable them to integrate e-learning tools in classrooms and follow up the new innovation in the field will fail to meet society needs in this era. Baytak & Akbyik (2010) conducted a research that focused on infusing skills and experiences students (candidates) technology in educational environments, the finding designated that are able how to integrating technology meet schools goals. As well as, the participants represented (87%) who can infuse technology into learning and teaching strategies. integrating e-learning throughout the entire unites. The most points that are recommended for colleges of education that effect education setting are: 1. Unite should include information technology resources so that candidates meet requirement standards in order to support learning. 2. Candidates are able to use data research and use technology to enhance their practices. 3. Candidates expected to meet professional standers for subject matter that will teaches and apply technology standards in order to enhance students learning. 4. Candidates use various e-learning tools to enhance learning and research. 5. Candidates use e-learning for interaction with others. 6. Candidates are able to develop e-learning strategies that maintain learning and teaching in the future. Furthermore, QA (2013) it a center that focuses on teacher process evaluation and quality assurance of institutions, which is called International Recognition in Teacher Education (IRTE) that emphasizes e-learning as part of conceptual framework. Alrwaily(2012) conducted a study that concentrated on students barriers towards utilizing learning management systems (Blackboard) in College of Education in King Saud University, the study' results were (79%) don’t have enough time to use blackboard, (70%) of participants said faculty members don’t care to use blackboard throughout course works, and do not encourage students to use it. As well as (72%) of participants strongly agreed that university did not provide appropriate programs that help them to utilizing blackboard. The result of one way ANOVA test asserted that there were not significant differences among students studying levels toward barriers of using blackboard. In other words students were facing obstacles to implement learning management systems in learning environments. Ituma (2011) conducted a study seeking evaluation of students' perceptions toward e-learning integration at a university in London, the study included whether or not students were using components of learning management systems (LMS), the results indicated that students have positive viewpoints to support learning face to face in classrooms that enhance active learning among students. Colleges of Education should Drive emerging E-learning Universities and colleges of education should drive change that leads to integrate new e-learning tools in e-learning environments in order to provide needs of new generation. Additionally, Wilen-Daugenti (2009) asserted that universities in new era recognize the imperative development of new learning environment as well as reporting that universities "…make an impact on their students and schools need to be aware of current trends" (p. 3). Therefore, Shelly, Cashman, and Gunter (2001) declared that integrating technology is to configure more two things to perform specific work, such as, incorporating PowerPoint, hardware to present information regarding a lesson, or part of curriculum in order to enhance teaching and learning that ensure attaining learning environments outcomes, which is vital to prepare students (candidates) in digital age. WilenDaugenti (2009) said the success of learning environment in colleges of education required integrated curricula into appropriate e-learning technology to distribute information and increase interaction. Tam and Werner (2005) said that the continuous changes in e-learning tools are so swift, thus, institutions must determine the change that the affects effects internal learning environments and apply features of new elearning tools that meet demands of these changes in the world. Tam and Werner (2005) confirmed these institutions in order to motivate students toward incorporate technology they should determine "…What they can do to minimize student fears in dealing with technology? ... [Also] Most importantly, how can institutions ensure that the standards and knowledge imparted to students do not suffer? Robinson, Lee, and Soutar (2009) conducted a study that emphasizes the roles of technology in and out of classroom throughout post e-resources for learners to direct learning, the research approved that technology integration into higher education can provide fruitful results when universities aligned learning and teaching strategies with technology strategies and content activities. As a result, that led to create appropriate climate for demonstrating learning and encourage learners to use e-resources frequently and take their responsibilities to control their learning. Therefore, there was a direct correlation between increasing e- content and accessing them online. 3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY The researcher used quantitative method to design and analyze data and draw appropriate conclusions. Furthermore, quantitative method included descriptive statistics, and hypotheses test. A questionnaire was developed to collect data, which was composed of two parts which are: Participant's demographics and candidates' knowledge & skills of e-learning. Research population and sample The population was all undergraduate students (candidates) based on statistic report that was given by Registration Unit in College of Education in Second Semester in 1432/1433H (2011/2012) that is illustrated in Table (1): E. learning Integration NCATE (2012) posted in its web site Unite Standards that were developed in 2008 for evaluating teacher programs in universities and colleges of education based on specific elements. In fact, the Unite Standards concentrated on 241 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) Table (1) Distribution population numbers among candidates majors. Majors Islamic Studies Special Education Art Education Physical Education Psychology Science Total Number of Candidates 338 545 91 278 235 1487 Table (2) Distribution sample numbers among participants' majors. Majors Islamic Studies Special Education Art of Education Physical Education Psychology Science Total Number of Participants 114 171 41 95 87 508 Participants Percentage of Major 34% 31% 45% 34% 37% 34% In order to attain questionnaire validity, it was presented to expert faculty members in instructional technology. Therefore, they submitted their viewpoints and comments, which assisted reconstructing the questionnaire. After redesigning the research questionnaire, the pilot study was conducted. The participants were (20), the purpose of the reliability was to measure the dependent variable. The value of Cronbach's Alpha for the dependent variable was (0.906), the result was acceptable to collect data. Research Questions Answers 1. Is there a significant difference in abilities in integrating knowledge and skills of e-learning in educational setting toward (candidates) students' majors (Islamic studies, Special Education, Art Education, Physical Education, and Psychology)? In order to answer this question (One Way ANOVA) test was used to know the significant differences among students (Candidates) knowledge and skills based on departments. As shown in Table (3). Data Analysis Data was analyzed based on research methodology, therefore, it leaded to derived results that focus on two parts included: demographic, and knowledge & skills e-learning. Table (3) One Way Analysis of Variance Sum of Squares Between Groups 1.340 df 4 Mean Square .335 .433 Within Groups 217.925 503 Total 219.266 507 242 F .773 Sig. .543 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) The results in Table (3) indicated that there were not significant differences among students (candidates) abilities to infuse e-learning knowledge and skills based on departments which P>.05 which is =.543, df=4, f=0.773. The result designated those students (candidates) among departments learned in the identical learning methods. Furthermore, students used the equivalent e-learning tools in classrooms. As well as, qualitative research emphasized that most students (candidates) used regular e-learning tools, such as: PowerPoint. They rarely used e-learning tools intensively or integrated learning management systems. 2. What are (candidates) students' perceptions toward abilities in integrating knowledge and skills of e-learning in educational setting knowledge and skills of e-learning in educational setting? It used descriptive analysis; the results included participants' percentage of department, and total participants of sample who said "I do not know" for each item. All results are reprinted in Table (4). Table (4) Participant who said I don’t know based on statements 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. Total Rank I have ability to design teaching strategies that support integrating educational software in curricula. I have abilities to design teaching strategies that integrate email and forums that enhance learning processes. I have abilities to apply strategies that support integrating electronic research tools in e-contents. 161 31.8% 150 29.6% 166 32.7% 12 I have abilities to apply teaching strategies that support integrating various technologies in problems solving. I have abilities to apply teaching strategies that support learning digital TV. I have abilities to integrate e-learning tools in content in order to enhance learning and teaching. I have abilities to choose appropriate e-resources from the Internet that enhance students learning. I have abilities to apply strategies that support using various e-resources that to be used with various learners such as blind learners. I have abilities to apply various strategies that vital for integrating elearning in teaching problems solving. I can use currant research result that support integrating emergence technology in educational environment. I can apply policies and procedures that support ethical issues in using instructional technology in educational environment. I obtain knowledge of applying information technology copy rights. 233 46.0% 231 45.9% 122 24.5% 100 20.1% 192 38.3% 145 %92 217 43.6% 149 29.7% 224 45.3% 144 28.9% 205 41.0% 172 34.3% 160 31.8% 122 24.5% 1 I obtain knowledge and skills of applying research concepts in educational setting from appropriate various electronic resources. I have abilities to develop policies and procedures that support developing human resources in order to attain special needs. I can use instructional technology to provide special needs requirements. 19. I have abilities to prepare policies that motivate using secure instructional technology that support using electronic resources. I able to produce instructional technology products that include various electronic tools such as Microsoft word, and Excel that support learning processing. I have abilities to develop multimedia product that support learning processing. I have knowledge and skills to use learning management systems. 20. I can develop distance training program for students. 17. 18. 243 98 19.7% 134 27.4% 186 38.3% 15 11 2 20 22 6 17 4 16 3 18 5 8 13 21 23 19 7 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) 21. 22. 23. I have knowledge and experiences to apply Instructional design principles in developing multimedia products. I have knowledge and scientific principles that make me able to evaluate educational software. I have abilities to develop the main principles that support choosing appropriate educational software that enhance educational environment. In fact, the results of twenty three statements in Table (4) divided into three categories. The first category starts from (40% to 46%) includes five items, which are (4, 5, 10, 12, 14), the percentage for each item of sample as followed (46.0%, 45.9%, 43.6%, 45.3%, 41.0%). The second category starts from (30% to less than 40%) includes nine items which are (1, 3, 8, 15, 16, 20, 21, 22, 23), the percentage for each item of sample as followed (31.8%, 32.7%, 38.3%, 34,3%, 31.8%, 38.3%, 34.1%, 31.8%, 34.1%). In addition, the third category that represents participants responses ratio is from (19% to less 30%) of sample includes nine items which are (2, 6, 7, 9, 11, 13, 17, 18, 19), the percentage for each item as followed (29.6%, 169 34.1% 160 31.8% 170 34.1% 10 14 9 24.5%, 20.1%, 29.0%, 29.7%, 28.9%, 24.5%, 19,17%, 27.4%). Therefore, the participants' ratio was high for who said "I do not know" about (23) items that focused on knowledge and skills of e-learning. Indeed, regarding to their responses, the participants (candidates) rarely have heard about those twenty three items. In fact, that indicated students (candidates) have not had knowledge and skills that support them to deal with elearning innovation that required infusing new technologies in classroom after gradations. Consequently, the participants (candidates) who said "I do not know" faced main challenges that prevent integration technology in educational setting in the future. Table (5) Participants sum percentages who said strongly disagree, disagree based on departments, and total for each item of sample. Total Rank 1. I have ability to design teaching strategies that support integrating educational software in curricula. 78 15.4% 10 2. I have abilities to design teaching strategies that integrate email and forums that enhance learning processes. 71 14.9% 14 3. I have abilities to apply strategies that support integrating electronic research tools in e-contents. 71 14.0% 17 4. I have abilities to apply teaching strategies that support integrating various technologies in problems solving. I have abilities to apply teaching strategies that support learning digital TV. I have abilities to integrate e-learning tools in content in order to enhance learning and teaching. I have abilities to choose appropriate e-resources from the Internet that enhance students learning. I have abilities to apply strategies that support using various eresources that to be used with various learners such as blind learners. I have abilities to apply various strategies that vital for integrating e-learning in teaching problems solving I can use currant research result that support integrating emergence technology in educational environment. 58 11.3% 76 15.1% 69 13.9% 53 10.6% 85 17% 21 61 12.2% 53 14.6 20 I can apply policies and procedures that support ethical issues in using instructional technology in educational environment. I obtain knowledge of applying information technology copy rights. I obtain knowledge and skills of applying research concepts in educational setting from appropriate various electronic resources. I have abilities to develop policies and procedures that support developing human resources in order to attain special needs. 66 13.2% 85 17.1% 75 15% 95 19% 19 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 244 12 18 23 8 15 7 13 4 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) 15. 19. I can use instructional technology to provide special needs requirements. I have abilities to prepare policies that motivate using secure instructional technology that support using electronic resources. I able to produce instructional technology products that include various electronic tools such as Microsoft word, and Excel that support learning processing. I have abilities to develop multimedia product that support learning processing. I have knowledge and skills to use learning management systems. 20. I can develop distance training program for students. 21. I have knowledge and experiences to apply Instructional design principles in developing multimedia products. I have knowledge and scientific principles that make me able to evaluate educational software. I have abilities to develop the main principles that support choosing appropriate educational software that enhance educational environment. 16. 17. 18. 22. 23. To derive appropriate outcomes were analyzed twenty three statements based on departments. In fact, the results asserted that there were participants (candidates) of the sample said "strongly disagree and disagree" with all twenty three statements, in addition, Table (5) included three categories which are: the first category represents participants percentages from (10% to less than 15%) includes ten items, which are (2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 9, 10, 11, 17, 18), the percentages for those items are (14.9%, 14.0%, 11.3%, 13.9%, 10.6%, 12.2%, 14.6%, 13.2%, 14.4%, 11.2%). The second category represents participants percentages from (15% to less than 20%) includes items (1, 5, 8, 12, 13, 16, 19, 23), the percentages for those items as followed (15.4%, 15.1%, 17.0%, 17.1%, 15.0%, 15.1%, 16.1%, 18.6%). The third category represents participants percentages from (20% to less than 30%) includes items (14, 15, 20, 21, 22), the percentages for those items as followed (19.0%, 18.1%, 25.9%, 21.8%, 20.7%). The results revealed that there are participants (candidates) who said "strongly disagreed and disagreed" with all statements in all departments, that means, participants who knew the meaning of all statements but their knowledge and skills of e-learning were not existent . Indeed, the participants (Candidates)’ results represented real obstacles that prevented infusing e-learning innovation in school environments, and effected the schools reformed movement to attain the current era e-learning requirements. 4. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 91 18.1% 76 15.1% 71 14.4% 56 11.2% 79 16.1% 106 25.9% 108 21.8% 113 20.7% 93 18.6% 6 11 16 22 9 1 2 3 5 There are (57%) of students (candidates) not able to integrate e-learning to support problems solving. The research outcomes designated that there are (52.4%) of participants did not know how to apply copyrights through infusing information technology in educational setting. Roughly (40%) of participants did not know how to use learning management systems, which vital to distribute learning. There were (38.4%) of participants not able to integrate elearning tools in contents. Qualitative analysis indicated that there are some of students (candidates) are not able to deal with e-learning tools. 5. DISCUTION The purpose of this research was to explore students (candidates) abilities toward applying e-learning knowledge and skills in educational setting in order to enhance schools environments. This research revealed that students (candidates) knowledge and skills of e-learning in College of Education in King Saud University were not aligned with principles of e-learning requirements in IRTE that based on NCATE unite standards which is part of accreditation. The results indicated that there were some of participants said "I do not know" about e-learning statements in the questioners, such as: (46%) of participants in all departments did not know about statements that focus on how students are able to integrate e-learning tools in teaching and learning. in addition, (43.6%) of respondents pointed out that they did not know how to use currents research technologies in integrating e-learning tools in educational environment. As well as, (45.3%) of respondents did not know about applying information technology copyrights. In general, the findings for all statements designated that there were participants percentages rang (from 19.7% to 46.0%) for who said "I do not know". Indeed, the findings were not aligned with IRTE that adopts NECATE principles, ISTE, and College Education of Conceptual Framework in King Saud University that based on IRTE principles. In fact, the results were not attained the ninth competence which students must obtain RESEARCH FINDINGS The finding of this research indicated to some main points that facilitate decision makers to improve educational environments in order to reach optimal outcomes, these are: 1. The results indicated that there are participants who did not have e-learning knowledge and skills. 2. There are some of respondents said strongly disagreed and disagreed with all questioner statements. 3. In general, the results pointed out there are students (candidates) who were not able to deal with e-learning innovation. 245 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) e-learning proficiency before graduation from College of Education. These finding are not consistent with NCATE (2012) that requests students (candidates) in the College of Education to be able to integrate technology in teaching and learning, as well as, having abilities to use e-research resources to enhance learning. In addition, the results are not alignment with the College Education of Conceptual Framework in King Saud University that asserted all students must attain ten proficiencies one of them integrating technology in real practices in order to acquire e-learning knowledge and skills that enable them to enhance teaching after graduation. Furthermore, the finding are not in agreement with research that conducted by Ltuma(2011) that found there are positive attitude toward utilizing learning management systems. In fact, Alrwaily(2012) conducted a study that concentrated on students barriers in College of Education in king Saud University towards utilizing learning management systems (Blackboard) in College of Education in King Saud University and found that most students are not using learning management systems (Blackboard) in learning, which constants with results of this research. The study results indicated that participants cannot develop technology strategies that link with learning and teaching strategies, which were not disagreed with the research that conducted by Baytak & Akbyik (2010) that mentioned (87%) are able to develop technology strategies that align with learning and teaching strategies. CONCLUSION and RECOMMENDATIONS This research focused on students' (candidates) capability of e-learning knowledge and skills toward infuse them in educational environments after graduation in real world. In fact, the research used questioner that included various statements that seeking to discover abilities of students in integrating e-learning through their learning and practices in College of Education in King Saud University, which enabled them to enhance and create their needs of e-learning Knowledge and skills. Indeed, the results exposed that some of students (candidates) were not obtained e-learning knowledge and skills, which were not aligned with Conceptual Framework of College Education, NCATE e-learning principles, and ISTE standard. The College of Education should assert in infusing elearning tools in all departments in order to enhance and create new e-learning innovation through various course works. As well as, it is vital to develop training programs for students that assist them to integrate new innovation in real classrooms that prepare them for the future in order to meet society needs. References: Alrwaily, A. (2012). Study students' barriers toward using learning management systems in College of Education in king Saud University. Un-published research. A Graduation project. Fee, K.(2009), Delivering E-learning a complete strategy for design, application and assessment. Philadelphia, PA: Kogan Page. Baytak, A., and Akbyik, C. (2010), Classroom teacher candidates' definitions and beliefs about technology integration. World Academy of science, Engineering and Technology 42(2010), 90-93. International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE, 2010). Technology facilitation standards. Access in 28/6/2012, available at: http://www.apple.com/education/docs/AppleISTE-NETS-Teachers.pdf Bonk, C.(2009). The world is open how web technology is revolutionizing education. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Ituma, A. (2011). An evaluation of students' perceptions and engagement with e-learning components in a campus based university. Active Learning in Higher Education, 12(1) 57-68. Buzzetto-More, N. (2008). Students perceptions of various elearning components. Interdisciplinary Journal of E-learning and Learning Object, 4(19), 113-135. Ltuma, A. (2011), An evaluation of students' perceptions and engagement with e-learning components in a campus based university. Active Learning in Higher Education, 12(1), 57-68. College of Education(2009), Conceptual framework of the College of Education, King Saud University. Riyadh, KSU: Printed in College of Education. NCATE (2013). Professional standards for the accreditation of teacher preparation institutions. Available at: http://www.ncate.org/, retrieved in 19/11/2012. Crossick, G. (2010) the future is more than just tomorrow: Higher education, the economy and the longer term. Available at: www.universitiesuk.ac.uk, Retrieved in 22/10/2012. NCATE (2012), The standards of excellence in teacher preparation. Access in 28/10/2012. Available at: http://www.ncate.org/Standards/NCATEUnitStandards/ UnitStandardsinEffect2008/tabid/476/Default.aspx Department of Business Innovation & Skills BIO (2009). The future of universities in a knowledge & skills. Retrieved in 1/2/2013,from:www.bis.gov.uk/wpcontent/uploads/.../Higher-Ambitions-Summary.pdf Oigara, J. and Wallace, N (2012). Modeling, training, and mentoring teacher candidates to use SMART board technology. Issues in Information Science and Information Technology, 9, 297-315. Paechter, M, Maier, B., & Macher, D.(2010), Students' expectations of, and experiences in e-learning: Their relation to 246 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) learning achievements and course satisfaction. Computers & Education, 54(2010),222-229. Journal of Leadership and Organizational Studies, 11(2), 15-25. The Center for Quality Assurance in Institutional Education (QA, 2013), Available at: http://cqaie.org.phtemp.com/current.htm, retrieved in 1/2/2013 Robinson, D., Lee, M., and Soutar, A. (2009), Using technology to direct learning in Higher Education. Active Learning in Higher Education, 10(1), 71-83. Twomey, C., Shamburg, C., and Zieger, L. (2008), Teachers as technology leaders. Eugene, Oregon: ISTE. Shelly, G., Cashman, T., and Gunter, G. (2001), Teaching discovering computers integrating technology in the classroom. Cambridge, MA: Course Technology. Wilen-Daugenti, T. (2009), .edu technology and learning environments in higher education. New York, NY: Peter Lang Publishing. Tam, C., and Werner, J. (2005), Designing and evaluation elearning in Higher Education: A review and recommendations. 247 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) MOOCs Offer Students Opportunity to Grow as Writers Denise COMER Thompson Writing Program, Duke University Durham, North Carolina, 27708, USA At the time of this publication, most MOOCs emerge from disciplines that rely primarily on lectures for content delivery and multiple-choice exams for student assessments. As such, disciplines in the natural sciences and social sciences can develop and adapt course content for MOOCs in a manner that parallels, at least to some degree, their main pedagogy in residential classrooms. Less transportable toward MOOCs, it seems, are humanities-based disciplines and the more student-centered, humanistic elements of pedagogy and assessment across disciplines, such as teambased learning, student-driven discussion and presentations, and writing. ABSTRACT At this juncture, most MOOCs emerge from disciplines that rely primarily on lectures for content delivery and multiple-choice exams for student assessments. As such, disciplines in the natural sciences and social sciences can develop and adapt course content for MOOCs in a manner that parallels, at least to some degree, their main pedagogy in residential classrooms. Less transportable toward MOOCs, it seems, are humanities-based disciplines and the more student-centered, humanistic elements of pedagogy and assessment across disciplines, such as teambased learning, student-driven discussion and presentations, and writing. However, the latter of these— writing—is central to learning. It enables students to think critically, apply, synthesize, and analyze ideas, compare ideas, connect more personally with course material, conduct ethical reasoning, and engage with, retain, and carry forward course material on deeper levels. Using my own experience teaching a writing-based MOOC through Coursera in spring 2013—which had an enrollment of 81,000 students—this paper explores the following questions: How might writing be integrated into MOOCs across disciplines? What are some of the challenges to doing so? What might be some of the advantages? Ultimately, I argue that writing offers MOOC learners an important opportunity to grow as writers. However, the latter of these—writing—provides a particularly compelling frame for considering the learning goals and potential of MOOCs. The Association of American Colleges and Universities (AACU) 2008 LEAP report identified writing as one of a select group of “highimpact educational practices” that improve “essential learning outcomes” key to twenty-first-century learning [3]. Writing enables students to think critically, apply, synthesize, and analyze ideas, compare ideas, connect more personally with course material, conduct ethical reasoning, and engage with, retain, and carry forward course material on deeper levels. Given what writing can accomplish for students, then, it is important to consider how writing might function in MOOCs. Using my own experience teaching a writingbased MOOC through Coursera in spring 2013—which had an enrollment of 81,000 students—this paper explores the following questions: How might writing be integrated into MOOCs across disciplines? What are some of the challenges to doing so? What might be some of the advantages? Keywords: MOOCs, Writing, Learning Outcomes, ELearning, Technology. 1. INTRODUCTION Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) are among the latest and fastest-growing approaches to e-learning. The first MOOC was offered in 2008: “George Siemens and Stephen Downes co-taught … ‘Connectivism and Connective Knowledge’ … to 25 tuition-paying students at the University of Manitoba and offered [it] at the same time to around 2,300 students from the general public who took the online class at no cost” [1]. However, it was not until the past year that MOOCs gained incredible traction. 2012, dubbed by the New York Times as “The Year of the MOOC” [2], saw an incredible expansion in MOOC offerings through such platforms as Coursera, Udacity, and EdX. 2. WRITING IN MOOCS 2012-13 Writing occupies a somewhat paradoxical position in MOOCs right now. In many ways, writing is a cornerstone of MOOCs in that it is the medium upon which the discussion forums function. MOOC learners use writing in these discussion forums for all sorts of purposes: to comment on lectures; to discuss course materials; to ask questions; to signal difficulties or confusion; to form and maintain learning communities or friendships; and to otherwise communicate with one another and staff members. Writing, then, is the largely basis through which 248 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) MOOC learners communicate and, arguably, a key mode of learning as they process course content. sole writing MOOC was followed in spring 2013 by a cohort of four other writing MOOCs, the first of which (one I taught through Coursera and Duke University) launched in March 2013, all through Coursera: English Composition I: Achieving Expertise. The other three writing MOOCs were: “Writing II: Rhetorical Composing” (Delagrange et al, Ohio State University); “First-Year Composition 2.0” (Karen Head, Georgia Institute of Technology); and “Crafting an Effective Writer: Tools of the Trade” (Lawrence Barkley, Ted Blake, and Lorrie Ross; Mt. St. Jacinto Community College). [7] Even as writing is central, however, writing does not yet have an explicit role in many MOOCs as part of their stated learning objectives or as part of student assessments. In November 2012, for instance, Coursera was offering 195 courses, only one of which involved writing in a sustained way: “Writing in the Sciences” by Stanford Professor Kristin Sainani. Sainani outlined for her MOOC learners the following goals: “principles of good writing, tricks for writing faster and with less anxiety, the format of a scientific manuscript, and issues in publication and peer review” [4]. Thus, at the same time as writing in MOOCs is highly visible through the discussion forums, it is also as of yet much less visible as an element of MOOC pedagogy. Even less visible are MOOCs that are centered entirely on writing. These four writing MOOCs were funded through a Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation grant as part of their Postsecondary Success initiative. The RFP was designed to stimulate development of gateway college courses so that “a broad range of students [would have the chance of] successfully advancing their general and developmental education” [8]. As a response to what at the time was a prevalence of MOOCs designed for upper-division college learners, the Gates Foundation invited proposals in September 2012 that would develop introductory-level MOOCs such as developmental arithmetic, first-year writing, introductory psychology, and general chemistry. In this RFP, the Gates Foundation expressed a commitment to helping “make high-quality, affordable learning content and experiences for the full sequence of high-demand general education and developmental education courses available to all students” [9]. Because MOOCs are free and have unlimited enrollment globally, MOOCs have the potential to provide unprecedented educational access to historically underserved and/or under-represented students in higher education. The dearth of writing as a focal point in MOOCs is in some ways understandable given what are agreed-upon tenets of effective writing pedagogy: cultivating a community of writers, positioning student writing as central to the work of the course, facilitating ample space for revision and reflection, and providing and facilitating substantive, effective tailored feedback on student writing from faculty and peers. A group of 30,000 or more learners viewing five- to-seven-minute videos about writing from their separate places around the world, with widely divergent experiences and capabilities as writers, makes it challenging to implement these cornerstones of effective writing pedagogy. And this does not even broach additional hurdles to writing MOOCs such as plagiarism, multilingualism, calibrated peer review, and the overall time, energy, and motivation it takes to develop one’s writing and improve as a writer. Still, the draw of integrating writing into MOOCs in some way, or experimenting with writing-intensive disciplinary based MOOCs, remains alluring. And, indeed, several MOOCs across disciplines include writing projects and/or short answer quizzes. These MOOCs, to varying degrees, might be seen as ranging from those that include writing on a cursory level to those that integrate it a bit more decisively, perhaps through a small writing assignment as part of the coursework. Roger Barr, for instance, includes a writing assignment in his Engineering MOOC, “Bioelectricity: A Quantitative Approach.” Barr asks students to write a brief analysis and description of a bioelectric signal of interest to the student [5]. Some integrate writing to such a degree that they are approaching writing-intensive, such as Peter Struck’s “Greek and Roman Mythology.” In Struck’s course, students are asked to write two 300-word essays throughout the course on such aspects of course content as analysis of parts of The Odyssey or application of theoretical ideas to texts. [6] Since MOOCs have such a far reach and writing has such a high impact on learners, and because writing already operates so systemically in MOOCs, even in those that do not explicitly include writing, it seems important to consider strategies for more deliberately integrating writing into MOOCs in more sustained and meaningful ways. The following section outlines several such strategies. 3. STRATEGIES FOR INTEGRATING WRITING INTO MOOCS Faculty teaching MOOCs—as with residential courses— have a variety of options for how much or how little to integrate writing, for what purposes, and which kinds of writing they might value. To help faculty think through these options in residential courses, writing-studies scholars often describe writing assignments as operating along a continuum of high-stakes or low-stakes. According to Peter Elbow, this continuum asks faculty to decide how much weight they will place on a particular writing assignment, making it higher or lower stakes in terms of a student’s grade and in terms of the level of response given to a writing project [10]. A major final essay would be highstakes, whereas an informal in-class quickwrite would be Even more compelling (from my perspective) is the very small but growing number of writing MOOCs. Sainani’s 249 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) low-stakes. student learning and foster student engagement during the middle of a video stream. These are not technically included in the course grade, but can include short-answer questions and might be seen as “writing-to-learn” moments. Official quizzes, which are included in the course grade, can be multiple-choice, short answer or long answer. If they are qualitative long answer, however, there is currently no functionality to grade them other than credit/no credit. In my course, I asked students to complete an open-ended long reflection at the end of our course on what writing-related practices, skills, and knowledge they can transfer to other writing occasions after this course. I also asked students to complete shorter reflections throughout the course on learning goals after each writing project, offering them a chance to evaluate their own progress as writers and make choices about what they will continue to work on for subsequent writing projects. Another continuum along which writing-studies scholars often position possible writing assignments involves “writing to learn,” which entails using writing to think through ideas, and “learning to write,” which entails learning to write from within a particular disciplinary context or discourse community [11]. As in residential classes, MOOCs offer a full range of options for integrating writing: high stakes, low stakes, writing to learn, and learning to write. Decisions about which ways to proceed with writing integration depend on what the learning goals are of a particular MOOC and faculty priorities. Some of the more prevalent examples of how MOOC faculty can design writing assignments and integrate writing are as follows: Writing Projects: The more formal writing projects in MOOCs are those that students create and submit through the Peer Review tab on the MOOC. A student writes and submits his or her paper by a deadline. The course platform then randomly assigns that paper to a specified number of peers. Peers have one week to respond to and/or evaluate (grade) that writing project. The writing project, with the peer feedback and grade, is then returned to the writer. Major writing projects can be submitted as pdf attachments or pasted directly into an assignments box. In my course we had several 600-800 word essays that went through a draft phase and a revision phase. Students’ grades on writing projects are determined by dropping the lowest peer grade and averaging together the remaining peer grades. The MOOC faculty member decides how many peers will respond to and/or evaluate each project. Student-Initiated Discussion Forums. These are the discussion forums that emerge each week during a course as students create learning communities and communicate with one another. In the MOOC that I just taught, some examples of discussion thread titles initiated by students include: “I am a happy latecomer.”; “Where will this course take me?”; “Why I Took the Course”; “Reflecting on My Words” [12]. These student-initiated discussion forums can serve an important purpose in terms of helping students to clarify course content, work together to understand concepts more deeply, or otherwise collaborate with one another. These informal, student-initiated and maintained forums are one of the mainstays of MOOC pedagogy across nearly all disciplines. Students form communities with one another and have ongoing conversations that sometimes last the entire course. Forum contributions range in length from brief comments to longer, more sustained thought pieces or exchanges. The forums are searchable so people can enter search terms and follow an idea or individual throughout a course. Peer Feedback: Reading and responding to others’ writing improves one’s own writing. In this way, the peer feedback that occurs in MOOCs is another important dimension of writing integration. MOOC faculty can ask students to give primarily quantitative rubric evaluations, with an openended question or two at the end of the rubric; or they can ask students to give substantive qualitative peer review. Students in English Composition I responded to peers’ drafts by offering suggestions for revision as they answered such questions as the following: “Summarize in a sentence or two what the writer is arguing, if you can. If you cannot, say what the writer might do to make the argument more clear.”; What did you like best about this essay?”; and “What did you learn about your own writing/your own project based on responding to this writer’s project?” [13] Teacher-Initiated Discussion Forums. Like the studentinitiated discussion forums, these teacher-initiated discussion forums are not weighted as student assessments, but, unlike their student-initiated counterparts, they are work of the course in a more deliberate way. These involve specific forums where instructors have asked students to write in response to a certain prompt or activity. In my class, for instance, I had several of these kinds of teacher initiated discussion forums: “I am a writer”; a rhetorical reading of a course text; a crowdsourced annotated bibliography; pre-writing activities such as brainstorming; reflections on writing workshops; reflections on writing transfer at the end of the course. 4. CHALLENGES TO INTEGRATING WRITING IN MOOCS Even in residential courses, it can be difficult to integrate writing effectively. MOOCs generate some of the same challenges, as well as several others. The following are key challenges involved with integrating writing effectively in Short- and Long-Answer Quizzes: MOOCs have a quiz function that can be used to assess student learning, and/or as part of learning engagement during videos. During videos, MOOCs offer pop-up quizzes designed to assess 250 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) MOOCs: thousands of people. MOOC faculty should pay heightened attention to elements of document design, write assignments with an awareness of English Language Learners, and make each assignment’s purpose and process as visible and deliberate as possible. These course materials are difficult to create even under the most amenable of residential circumstances. Feedback: What is the impact of having a solely peerdriven system of responding to student writing? Although peer review is a staple component of writing pedagogy, and is crucial to learning how to write, most students are accustomed to eventually receiving teacher feedback. Writing in MOOCs, on the other hand, is driven by peer review. As such, students may have more resilience and autonomy, and learn more about responding, but that there might also be uneven peer feedback and evaluation. Since faculty cannot monitor the peer feedback, this also leaves a possible slippage of response. This challenge, however, assumes that faculty response to student writing is even and meaningful, which is not always the case. Machine grading is currently under exploration as an alternative or supplement to instructor or peer response. This initiative, however, has several key difficulties and, according to many, may not be viable or effective [14]. Lack of resources: Resource shortage in MOOCs emerges in a number of ways related to writing. Where many universities have a rich Writing across the Curriculum Infrastructure, MOOC faculty may not have as much support for creating writing rubrics and assignments. Because so many elements of MOOC development and delivery are new (and time consuming) for MOOC faculty, they may not have time to spend thinking about how to integrate writing effectively, much less creating assignments. Students lack access to key writing-related resources such as writing center support, training in citation practices, how to avoid plagiarism, etc. Another resource aspect of resource shortage in MOOCs involves research. Although JSTOR is beginning to allow more access to its holdings [17], most research in a MOOC must be from open-access sources. This limits the extent of research MOOC learners can conduct. Diversity of Students: English Composition I had over 81,000 learners enrolled from all over the world. According to a pre-course survey, 75% of them were from countries outside the U.S. [15]. Some learners had Ph.D.s, while others had no high school diploma. Ages of learners ranged from as young as 12 to people in their 80s. With learners who carry such diverse experiences, educations, and backgrounds, it becomes difficult to create writing assignments that meet students where they are as learners. 5. Massiveness of the MOOC Community: The notion of community is central to effective writing pedagogy. Since writers need to have confidence and a safe space to experiment, writing faculty work hard to create a trusting and collegial writing community. Learners in MOOCs do create communities. One student in English Composition I formed a writing group that persisted throughout the course; she referred to them as her MFF (MOOC Friends Forever) [16]. Still, MOOC communities are student initiated and maintained. Some students might be less effective at or inclined toward forming communities in this context. Other students can inadvertently become silenced on the forums, or unheard. It should also be said that some people on the forums might be not be inclined to be civil towards classmates, and there might be some unproductive forms of response happening that then might alienate other learners. ADVANTAGES OF INTEGRATING WRITING IN MOOCS Despite the many complex challenges surrounding the effective integration of writing into MOOCs, the advantages for doing so make the prospect worthwhile. Learning Gains. Writing is a high-impact learning mode, enabling students to synthesize, evaluate, and process course material on deeper levels. If MOOCs are intended to make education more accessible to larger numbers of people, writing is a methodology that will help people learn in greater strides and with deeper efficacy. Massiveness of the MOOC Community. Although this can pose a challenge in terms of meeting students where they are, it is also an incredible opportunity. Writers in MOOCs have at their hands an audience of thousands. They are writing for publics, making their writing reach beyond the walled classroom. People from all over the world can give feedback and exchange and debate competing views. Writing in this context has the chance to be much more nuanced and reflective since the readership is so diverse and the stakes are potentially so high. Pacing: Because MOOCs are organized on a weekly basis rather than a class basis, the process for writing can be time consuming. Going through a full cycle of the writing process (pre-writing, drafting, feedback, revision, evaluation) can take as many as five weeks or more in a MOOC. This pacing limits the number and kind of writing projects one can ask of students. Responding. Often, when students write in school-based settings, they can adopt a counterproductive perception that they are only writing to please a teacher. The MOOC enables students to have the opportunity to receive feedback from real people beyond the teacher. While one can do this in a residential classroom as well, the MOOC has higher stakes in this regard because MOOC learners are likely not Rubric and Assignment Development: The MOOC environment also demands the creation of valid rubrics and assignments which can be easily understood and used by 251 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) to know their readers. This helps writing take on a realworld dimension; writers often (usually) do not know their readers. Writing can be a powerful mode for learning; it can help people make a difference in the world. MOOCs offer an unprecedented opportunity to help learners around the world grow as writers and become more able to create and achieve their own ambitions and goals. Being able to critically read and understand others’ arguments, effectively pose questions, respond to others, create arguments, and use evidence will go far in benefitting people in our growing digital and global era. Faculty Growth. MOOCs can help faculty grow as teachers in many ways. Faculty are even likely to grow as writers themselves by creating course materials for so many readers, needing to rely almost solely on written assignments rather than the in-class contextualization that can otherwise occur in residential classrooms. As faculty think deeply about the purpose of writing assignments, and the ways in which writing can help learners accomplish course learning outcomes, they can become more effective teachers in residential settings as well. 7. [1] “7 Things You Should Know about MOOCs.” ned.educause.edu. Web. 14 June 2013. [2] Pappano, Laura. “Year of the MOOC.” New York Times. Web. 2 Nov. 2012. [3] “Liberal Education and America’s Promise.” Association of American Colleges and Universities. Web. 15 June 2013. [4] Sainani, Kristen. Writing in the Sciences. Stanford University and Coursera. n.d. Web. 12 Nov. 2012. [5] Barr, Roger. Bioelectricity: A Quantitative Approach. Duke University and Coursera. n.d. Web. 15 June 2013. [6] Struck, Peter. Greek and Roman Mythology. U of Penn and Coursera. n.d. Web. 15 June 2013. [7] Coursera. Coursera. n.d. Web. 10 June 2013. [8] Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation. Request for Proposals. 2012. PDF file. [9] “Postsecondary Success.” Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation. n.d. Web. 11 May 2013. [10] Elbow, Peter. “High Stakes and Low Stakes in Assigning and Responding to Writing.” Writing to Learn. Strategies for Assigning and Responding to Student Writing across the Disciplines. 69. San Francisco, Calif.: Jossey-Bass, 1997. 5-13. Brooklyn-wac.org. Web. 13 June 2013. [11] McLeod, Susan. “Writing Across the Curriculum. An Introduction.” Writing Across the Curriculum. A Guide to Developing Programs. Ed Susan H. McLeod and Margaret Soven. Newbury Park, Calif: Sage Publications, 2000. 1-8. aw.colostate.edu/books. Web. 14 June 2013. [12] “Discussion Forums.” English Composition I: Achieving Expertise. n.d. Web. 14 June 2013. [13] Comer, Denise. “Project 2 Peer Review Evaluative Feedback.” English Composition I: Achieving Expertise. Duke University and Coursera. n.d. Web. 14 June 2013. [14] Strauss, Valerie. “Grading Writing. The Art and Science—and Why Computers Can’t Do It.” The Washington Post. 2 May 2013. Web. 15 June 2013. [15] Mueller, Elise. “Day One: English Composition One.” Center for Instructional Technology. Duke University. 20 Mar. 2013. Web. 15 June 2013. [16] “Writing Workshop 5/30.” English Composition I: Achieving Expertise. n.d. Web. 14 June 2013. [17] “Register and Read.” JSTOR. n.d. Web. 15 June 2013. Cultivate growth as writers. Cultivating conversations about writing across a diverse range of learners and encouraging more people around the world to think about themselves as writers can have profound impact. Learners can gain confidence and skills at sharing their views, making their ideas heard; this will in turn create space for them to contribute and communicate as global citizens in ever more meaningful ways. Since many students move in and out of MOOCs, they have the chance to grow as writers even with a tiny bit of participation. Even if their participation amounts only to receiving weekly emails that discuss writing and outline the purpose of the week’s writing activities, they have had more of a chance to think about themselves as writers than they otherwise would have. 6. REFERENCES CONCLUSIONS MOOCs are still relatively new for higher education, and they are likely to shift and adapt over the next several years. Writing can play a vital role in MOOCs, helping MOOC learners reach their goals and engage with course material on more profound levels. One of the best arguments for thinking more deliberately about the roles writing can play in MOOCs is that writing is already in MOOCs. It forms the basis for much of the communication and discussion of course material. MOOC faculty and students can benefit from more sustained attention to writing as a mode of learning. However, more support and resources may be needed to integrate writing effectively into MOOCs. More research is also needed to understand more deeply what kinds of writing can or should be valued in MOOCs, depending on disciplinary context. One area of particular interest is how writing in MOOCs might work in blended formats, where faculty in residential courses supplement their courses with MOOC components. Other questions arise too, particularly in the area of cross-cultural interaction over writing: How can MOOCs fully appreciate and take advantage of the opportunity for cultural interchange? 252 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) Facilitating Public Archaeology through E- learning: use of information and communication technology and the construction of virtual worlds Devena HAGGIS Graduate School of Humanities and Social Sciences University of Tsukuba, Japan and Simona VASILACHE Graduate School of Systems and Information Engineering University of Tsukuba, Japan they have been used increasingly as educational and research tools [1]. This combination of ICT and archaeology not only provides the public with other ways to access information on heritage, it also allows them to control their interaction with heritage material and influence its use in a collaborative learning environment. ABSTRACT Archaeology focuses on the study of the material remains of the human past. These processes reflect the human need to learn about and in some instances preserve the past and can be considered part of fulfilling the basic human need of situating ourselves in time. Archaeologists in general advocate the use of technology and often adapt techniques from other industries in their research and to disseminate information about archaeology. The process of facilitating public involvement and education in archaeology is known as ‘Public Archaeology’. The Internet allows the representation and recording of archaeological material and sites and the dissemination of information to a wide audience in new ways. The construction of an archaeological virtual world provides the opportunity for archaeologists to introduce collaborative Elearning opportunities to the public and engage them in a set of archaeology related activities. It has been suggested that this type of learning environment allows the construction, manipulation and exploration of virtual objects and provides a more effective learning environment than 2-D alternatives. This paper explores the contribution of ICT in the construction of virtual archaeology worlds and the impact it has on archaeological dissemination. ICT AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL DISSEMINATION ICT provides information through communication technologies such as the Internet, wireless networks, mobile phones and other mediums that allow people to communicate electronically. A simple description of the interaction of ICT and virtual worlds is given in Figure 1. Keywords: ICT, Public archaeology, Virtual worlds, Elearning 1. INTRODUCTION Figure 1 ICT and virtual worlds Archaeology is traditionally a ‘hands on’ discipline. The practical aspects of archaeological investigation focus on the survey, excavation and analysis of archaeological sites. However the advent of the Internet and its associated technology provide opportunities for public ‘virtual participation’ in archaeological activities, and since the 1980’s Data regarding sites, artefacts and heritage are used to create archaeological virtual worlds that are stored on a medium such as a server or cloud. Open access to these worlds via the Internet make them a powerful tool in communicating archaeology to the public. Virtual worlds are valuable not only 253 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) for education purposes but also because they concentrate and preserve data that is represented in visual form. This allows a site or excavation to have a continuous presence as an education medium because it never closes, which means contact between the public and cultural heritage represented in virtual worlds is not lost. This can be a symbiotic and productive relationship between information provision and the user, particularly in regard to programs that utilize virtual worlds for education and information dissemination. The extent to which members of the public become involved in archaeology is partly influenced by how archaeology as a profession responds to public input and opinion. The public can influence the profession even via virtual access just as virtual worlds and their content can influence and educate the user. The choices of a visitor to a virtual archaeology site are reflected in their use of the interactive mediums that allow them to explore the virtual world. These users make choices about how and to what extent they explore the site and their choices can be measured through web analytics. Web analytics can determine the optimum conditions for visitor interaction and a virtual site can be adapted accordingly. In effect the user influences how the information about archaeology is represented to the public as clicks and site navigation focus on information that is of most interest to the user. Technology redefines the boundaries between the creators of the site and the users similar to the changes occurring in social media communication [2]. This analysis in turn can be used to develop further variables associated with a web site such as marketing or visitor data that have commercial applications. As a method of interface between the visitor and the site, virtual worlds can redefine the relationship between the public and archaeology. Similar to the way that site usage may reflect its eventual development, users of virtual worlds may be tempted to visit a ‘real’ site they have visited virtually and this in effect may expose a section of the community to heritage where previously there was none [3]. Therefore access to virtual words about archaeology and their use is much more than just information dissemination; it is an active and engaged environment. This virtual environment does not facilitate learning by doing where students learn through problem solving [4]; doing becomes learning as the virtual visitor navigates their way around a virtual archaeology site clicking and interacting via a variety of choices. These choices provide an unlimited opportunity for archaeology learning experiences via virtual worlds. Table 1 Virtual world categories Site: These provide the public with the opportunity for interactive virtual tours of archaeological sites. Examples include the ‘the Virtual World Project’ (http://www.virtualworldproject.org/) or CyArk (http://archive.cyark.org/) which has 3D and 2D content on different heritage sites. Maritime: Access to maritime archaeology through a virtual world experience is one way to negate the difficult factors normally associated with visiting this type of archaeological site. Environment, diving, site and artefact restrictions play a great part in depriving access to the public. This is true of a traditional dive or conservation site where the artefacts must be kept under controlled conditions such as those of the ‘Mary Rose’ or of shipwreck sites present in virtual 3D worlds like those in ‘Second Life’ [5]. Reconstruction: The reconstruction of buildings using 3D and video provides an opportunity to superimpose a digital version of the ruins on top of the current site or vice versa. This can give insights about the construction methods, materials, destruction and cultural aspects of ancient building technology. It can also provide an opportunity for public archaeological education of indigenous people to learn skills and about cultural heritage that they have lost or forgotten [7]. Real estate: This provides the opportunity for the public to create and participate in an online virtual community whose focus varies according to the user. Membership of a virtual world such as ‘Second Life’ allows the user to create sites related to archaeological activities such as site tours, excavations, shipwreck sites as well live content such as discussion and interaction activities and classrooms [5]. It can be also used as a visualization tool to enhance analysis of sites through the use of modelling the original site within a virtual world [8]. VIRTUAL WORLDS AND THEIR USE A review of the literature revealed that there are seven categories of virtual world related to archaeology. Table 1 indicates a representative example of each type of category: site, shipwreck, reconstruction, real estate, landscape, excavation and museums. These categories do not represent the totality of the virtual worlds representing public archaeology on the Internet but were defined for illustrative purposes. Each site type varies and some contain only images and text whilst others include, video, simulation, animation, panoramic video and 3D content. Each virtual world archaeology site has its own focus, educational resources and strategies; however the experience they provide is common insofar as they each represent a different aspect of archaeology and its dissemination to the public through a virtual experience. Landscape: Virtual reproduction of landscape can be modelled to show changes between the past and the present and the position and impact of sites on the landscape. This is useful in site interpretation but also allows for scenario testing in the reconstruction of past sites and the surrounding environment as well as indicating human environment interaction [9]. Representation of these changes on a website allows the public to understand the context in which sites were formed and developed as well as consider human/environment interaction. 254 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) Excavation: The practice of excavation in a virtual world can represent professional and a public archaeological experience. Practical field experience involving a considerable investment in time and money is not always an option for archaeology students despite the necessity of acquiring discipline specific skills. Projects such as the LAVA project provide an environment where students can gave necessary skills in a cooperative exploratory environment [10,12]. The development of a virtual participatory framework whereby people advance in skill and level acquisition similar to games technology provides a valuable tool for both students and the wider public such as site volunteers who also need training in excavation skills. heritage on a virtual level and acts as a medium to influence those who might not visit a physical site. The 3D world becomes a place of play, dissemination and research and given the increasing refinement and use of technology in artifact analysis and conservation provides an indication of the direction of future public and discipline interaction. Museum: A visit to a museum provides an interactive experience and can be combined with a visit to the actual museum site. It can also provide exposure to collection material that is not displayed in the physical site due to funding or space restrictions. It also provides participants (public, disabled, students, children) with differing needs the opportunity to access collections in an integrated manner [11]. Modelling three-dimensionally can help archaeologists preserve their findings, share them with the world, and, very importantly, prevent artefacts from becoming damaged or even destroyed. Using 3D technologies can help preserve even the most fragile and minuscule artefacts. Computer programs specialized in 3D image processing, along with 3D scanning techniques and 3D printers, all contribute to creating replicas of ancient objects or even entire ancient sites. One common method is to take pictures of the real objects from numerous angles (sometimes hundreds of different pictures) and then recreate the object in 3 dimensions. Once the object is translated into a 3D image that can be saved in a file, using the appropriate software program, 3D printers read the files and create a number of layers. They are printed and then, through various methods, like using glue and binders, powders that can be removed etc., the actual 3D real-life model is created. This technology is reflected in the Wilder 3D Imaging, used by the Texas A&M University, Center for Maritime Archaeology and Conservation (http://nautarch.tamu.edu/WilderLab/3dprinting.shtml). A process called "photomodeling", with 3D printers and 3D scanners, is used by Harvard University's Semitic Museum (http://www.semiticmuseum.fas.harvard.edu). 3D technologies are used for larger scale projects, as well. 3D models of entire sites can be created, with all details in place, with the artefacts in view and with the soil layers displayed in colour codes. Scientists can manipulate these models in ways that would be impossible in the real world (freely changing the point of view, "slicing", observing objects hard to reach without actually disturbing them in any way and so on). Using 3D technologies in constructing virtual worlds has raised the public interest as well. It is not only the archaeologists, but also the IT developers who find this a fulfilling and exciting field. Computer scientists, along with software developers have taken on the task of creating software that helps with 3D simulations of archaeological sites. Many commercially available products exist that offer such services. To offer a single example, "Digitale archaeologie" is a German company based in Freiburg that specializes in computer aided visualization and reconstruction of archaeological objects (http://www.digital-archaeology.com) [17]. It has an extensive portfolio and its clients include museums, universities, research institutes etc. A visit on their web site allows the public to visit Roman forts, medieval castles, Stone Age sites and many others. USING 3D TECHNOLOGIES AND DIGITAL ARCHAEOLOGY A simple Google search on the Internet using the terms ‘Archaeology and Virtual Worlds’ on 30 April 2013 yielded ‘About 8,210,000 results (0.21 seconds)’. The first 50 pages were reviewed to ascertain in general which type of virtual world was most accessible to the public. Links to virtual archaeology sites or information about them were counted. The results are not definitive but serve as example for illustrative purposes only. Figure 2 shows the breakdown in the different web pages. Category refers to the distinct page type of a virtual world whilst Referral refers to their mention in other web page results. Fig. 2 Accessibility of virtual world sites By far the most accessible web page containing virtual worlds on archaeology are the ones that contain site tours, followed by museums and pages giving access to virtual real estate. The visual and interactive natures of tours are reasons why this type of medium is more accessible. Site tours are more prolific than virtual real estate experiences that offer free and paid membership through the installation of specific software to access the sites. For example the number online avatars vary at any given time [5]. However, access to virtual estate such as Second Life provides an opportunity for people to interact with Among the large number of 3D applications that can model archaeological data, the following are worth mentioning: AutoCAD, ArcGIS 3D Analyst, Blender, OpenSim etc. While the use of 3D technology along with virtual reality have been around for more than 30 years in the field of archaeology, it is only in the past decade that scientists are using 3D as a 255 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) research tool as well [13]). In their paper, Hermon and Nikodem integrate a database with a 3D modelling tool offering a solution for the virtual reconstruction of a structure that does not exist anymore [ibid]. In their paper dealing with a 3D model of an archaeological excavation, Barcelo et. al. explain how to acquire 3D data from the field, a task that has to be performed by the archaeologists themselves [14]. Details are given regarding capturing the coordinates and shape data, and then the mathematical approach to processing the images is explained. Brutto and Meli explore the automatic approach of using computer vision interfaces for 3D survey of archaeological sites [15]. It is worth mentioning at this point that, even though many proprietary software applications exist, in numerous cases, archaeologists appear to prefer open source software. The continuous improvement of such software programs, along with the other advantages of open source programs, is as appealing to archaeologists as they are to other scientists today. heritage sites increasing site exposure and the possibility of funding contributions and conservation for lesser-known sites. In a museum environment the objects on display usually only represent a small percentage of the total collection, most of which is in storage and virtual access to objects extends this exposure. CONCLUSION The practical aspects of archaeology often limit the contribution and engagement of the public in archaeological activities however archaeology as a discipline has always been quick to adopt new technology. The tradition of using virtual technology for modelling and reconstruction is continued and enhanced through the use of 3D technology to analyze and re-create artefacts and sites in virtual worlds. These virtual worlds provide a place for public interaction and engagement. Virtual worlds have the capacity to reach and enthuse the public towards physical site visits because of their prior virtual exposure. They also have the potential to facilitate exposure to cultural heritage because of the interactive nature of this medium and to reach an audience interested in technology. A brief count of accessibility for virtual world examples via the Internet indicated that virtual tours not virtual real estate was the more accessible option however if the number of visitors or participants in virtual worlds are taken into consideration then places such as Second Life have much higher potential to become a platform for archaeology and public interaction. This environment can provide a learning environment for the public and a research and professional development environment for the discipline. The increasing complexity and application of 3D imaging software provides a valuable tool to catalogue and record artefacts and sites before they deteriorate and represents an opportunity to retain and digitally curate threatened material as well as provide an opportunity not only for public archaeological engagement in the present but also in the future. PUBLIC PARTICIPATION AND ENGAGEMENT Archaeologists and cultural heritage professionals need to ‘sell’ heritage to the public to protect and ensure that cultural heritage is available to future generations. One way this can be done is to involve members of the public in what archaeologists do. The best way to preserve something is to educate people about its importance. Exposure to cultural heritage is an important criterion in determining and changing how the public thinks. For this reason cultural heritage professionals and archaeologists need to ensure that the public comes into contact with all types of archaeology in order to foster this understanding. Virtual worlds, via computer and Internet access provide this opportunity to a wider participatory audience than traditional site visits. The advent of the Internet allows the representation and recording of archaeological material and sites and the dissemination of information about them to a wide audience in new ways. This includes the construction of archaeological virtual worlds, which facilitates public participation in archaeology on another level. Virtual worlds provide an opportunity for remote but nevertheless interactive public participation and engagement in heritage activities. Archaeological virtual environments or buildings are a product of data and are representations of the original sites that are used to construct them. They are limited by the quality and quantity of the data used in their creation. However their interactive nature allows a level of participation that is hard to duplicate at a physical site. This interaction facilitates a collaborative learning process for visitors to virtual sites. Collaborative learning occurs where students are in control of their own learning and outcomes [16] and in a virtual world, participants’ control the extent of their interaction with the medium and their exposure to public archaeology. Virtual worlds provide another opportunity for people to come into contact with heritage. The appreciation of cultural heritage can be developed, reinforced or discouraged depending on the experience of visitors. This is equally true of visitors to a virtual or a physical site. The participation of the public in online excavations, site tours or museum visits in a virtual world is beneficial in many ways. Virtual participation in an excavation is an educational, safe and non-destructive way of demonstrating archaeological techniques. On line site tours offer wider audience access to REFERENCES [1] D.H. Sanders, “Virtual Worlds for Archaeological Research and Education”, Archaeology in the Age of the Internet: Proceedings of the 25th Anniversary Conference of CAA, Birmingham, April 1997. [2] D. Zheng, H. Chen, R. Lusch & S.H. Li, “Social Media Analytics and Intelligence”, Intelligent Systems, Vol 25, No. 6, 2010, pp.13-16. [3] M. Malkemis, Science and Space: CNN Future Summit Forum (opinion), http://edition.cnn.com/2007/TECH/science/05/08/fs.virtual.herit age.forum/, 2007, (Date accessed 1 June 2013) [4]Y. Anzai, & H.A. Simon, “The theory of learning by doing”, Psychological Review, Vol 86, No. 2, 1979, pp.124-140. [5] B.A. Chiarulli, R.S. Moore, S.W. Neusisius, B. Ford & M Smeltzer, “Public Archaeology in Virtual Worlds”, Anthropology News, Vol 51, No. 6, 2010, p.35. 256 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) [6] G.P. Watts, & T.K. Knoerl, “Entering the Virtual World of Underwater Archaeology” in John H Jameson & Della A ScottIreton, (eds), Out of the Blue, Springer, 2007, pp. 223-239. [13] S. Hernon & S. Nikodem, “3D Modeling as a Scientific Research Tool in Archaeology”, International Conference on Computer Applications and Quantitative Methods in Archaeology (CAA), 2007. [7] P. Dawson, R. Levy & N. Lyons, “Breaking the fourth wall’: 3D virtual worlds as tools for knowledge repatriation in archaeology”, Journal of Social Archaeology, Vol 11, No. 3, 2011, pp.387-402. [14] J.A. Barcelo, O. De Castro, D. Travet & O.Vincente, “A 3D Model of an Archaeological Excavation”, in The Digital Heritage of Archaeology. Computer Applications and Quantitative Methods in Archaeology, 2003. [8] C.L. Morgan, “(Re) Building Catalhoyuk: Changing Virtual reality in Archaeology”, Archaeologies: Journal of the World Archaeological Congress, Vol 5, No. 3, 2009, pp.468-487. [15] M.L. Brutto & P. Meli, “., Computer Vision Tools for 3D Modeling in Archaeology”, International Conference on Cultural Heritage and Digital Libraries, EUROMED 2012. [9] S.J. Winterbottom & D. Long, “From Abstract digital models to rich virtual environments: landscape contexts in Kilmartin Glen, Scotland”, Journal of Archaeological Science, Vol 33, No. 10, 2006, pp.1356-1367. [16] T. Panitz, “Collaborative vs Cooperative Learning: Comparing the two definitions help understand the nature of interactive learning”, Cooperative Learning and College Teaching, Vol 8, No. 2, 1997, Accessed online at http://home.capecod.net/~tpanitz/tedsarticles/coopdefinition.ht m (April 2013) [10] K. Getchell, A. Miller, J.R, Nicoll, R. Sweetman, & C. Allison, “Games Methodologies and Immersive Environments for Virtual Fieldwork”, IEEE Transactions on Learning Technologies, Vol 3, No. 4, 2010, pp. 281-293. [17] "Digital Archaeology: 3D Modeling Reveal Ancient Artifacts: http://www.popularmechanics.com/technology/gadgets/tools/di gital-archaeology-3d-modeling-reveals-ancient-artifacts15222887 (Date accessed: June 3rd, 2013) [11] K. Walczak, W. Cellary, & M. White, “Virtual Museum Exhibitions”, Computer, Vol 39, No. 3, 2006, pp. 93-95. [12] K, Getchell, A. Miller, C. Allison, R. Hardy, R. Sweetman & V, Crook, “. The Lava Project: A Service Based Approach to supporting Exploratory Learning”, Proceedings of the IADIS International Conference. WWW/Internet (Vol.2006). 257 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) E-Learning for Teaching Humanities in Undergraduate Medical Education Ksenia A. MITROFANOVA Department of Foreign Languages, Ural State Medical Academy Yekaterinburg, Sverdlovskaya oblast, Russia Moreover, there is a problem concerning ubiquitous use of information and communication technologies during pre-clinical and clinical years of medical education in the Russian Federation. Generally not all medical courses are considered to be suitable for the replacement of conventional teaching methods with the innovative one. Nevertheless, the Humanities traditionally being taught face-to-face during medical training are appeared to be a field of interest for IT introduction in the studying process. ABSTRACT The Humanities traditionally being taught face-to-face during medical training are appeared to be a field of interest for E-learning introduction. An electronic version of the elective course “Intercultural Communication” was approved for first-year medical students and the pilot study was conducted during September 2012 – January 2013 at the Ural State Medical Academy. We offered 119 students three possible ways to study this course: conventional learning, E-learning, and blended learning. None of the students chose E-learning. Thus, the students formed two groups: conventional learning and blended learning groups, their distribution was voluntary. 64 students were considered as the blended learning group. Students’ perception of the new approach was collected using a questionnaire. The results showed that the majority of students (n=53) preferred blended learning, they considered that the most interesting forms of study were participation in virtual seminars (n=44) and face-toface seminars (n=41). All students (n=64) found it convenient to have 24-hour access to course documents. They considered blended learning to be useful for communication. Nevertheless, small number of students (n=6) thought it was possible to study the Humanities using only E-learning technologies. Further studies need to be conducted to get data on effectiveness of blended learning approach in medical education. SETTING The Ural State Medical Academy is a medical school in Yekaterinburg (the Russian Federation) that provides undergraduate medical education in general medicine, preventive medicine, pediatric care and dentistry. About 600 first-year medical students study at this medical school. INTRODUCTION The humanities are taught during first two pre-clinical years. They included obligatory courses in Philosophy, Bioethics, Russian History, History of Medicine, the medical foreign language (English, German or French), Latin, Psychology and Pedagogy, and Science of Law. Moreover, students should choose one of the following elective courses: Anthropological Basis of Medical Practice, Social Work in Medical Practice, Intercultural Communication, History of Beneficence and Charity, History of the Ural region, Organization of Unsupervised Work, or Theory of Constitutional State and Civil Society. E-learning was firstly introduced in the Ural State Medical Academy in 2007 [6]. Currently due to the development of new technologies alternative teaching methods such as E-learning and blended learning have been introduced in undergraduate medical curriculum. Blended learning has been introduced in integrated, problem-based learning curriculum for pre-clinical medical students [1, 2], and for development of communication skills and lab training skills in clinical medical students [3, 4]. David A. Cook et al. performed a systemic review of 266 studies comparing web-based learning with traditional or other educational methods and revealed that 24% of courses used blended web-based and non-computer-based instructions; however, the authors noticed lack of valid statistically significant data confirming advantages of web-based learning [5]. An elective course in intercultural communication was firstly introduced in the undergraduate medical curriculum in 2008. Thereafter about 110 students studied this course each year. According to the present curriculum the elective presupposes 36 hours of classroom work (18 hours of lectures and 18 hours of seminars). Taking into account that at least 70 students study the elective simultaneously it appeared to be challenging to organize effective work for such number of students during a seminar. Therefore it was important to find adequate teaching methods and educational approaches to provide more personalized learning experience for medical students. Moreover, we wanted to create comfortable educational environment for students to support their learning. Key words: blended learning, undergraduate medical education, Humanities, preclinical education, E-learning 258 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) We considered blended learning to be an effective method to teach electives in the Humanities during preclinical years. Thus, we offered blended learning to the medical school administrators as an approach to teach electives in the Humanities. Blended learning for the elective “Intercultural Communication” was approved for first-year medical students during September 2012 – January 2013. MATERIALS AND METHODS In September 2012 119 first-year medical students chose “Intercultural Communication” as an elective course in their curriculum. We offered three possible ways to study this course. The first was a conventional one consisting of face-to-face lectures and seminars. The second one was based on E-learning approach realized in the virtual campus. The third one was based on blended learning where students were allowed to combine face-to-face education with E-learning. None of the students decided to exclude completely face-to-face communication. Thus, the students formed two groups: conventional learning and blended learning groups. Students’ distribution between these two groups was voluntary. Blended learning or E-learning were not obligatory ways to study the elective. Moreover, students had an opportunity to register in the virtual campus and start using E-materials during the whole study course. It made difficult to determine students from conventional learning and blended learning groups. Therefore, we had to introduce the following criteria to include students in the blended learning group: 1) studying at least 50% of material in the virtual campus (data provided by virtual campus administrators); 2) participation at least in 50% of virtual seminars; 3) completion of controlling tasks (essay writing and the final test) in the virtual campus; and 4) registration in the virtual campus within September – October 2012. Sixty four students met the above mentioned criteria and were considered as the blended learning group. However, it should be noted that by the end of the course 94% of students (n=112) had been registered in the virtual campus. Blended learning at our medical school is based on Elearning technologies that have been recently introduced in the curriculum. New information technologies available via the Internet help both to interact with students and control them more effectively. The virtual campus (http://do.teleclinica.ru) has been functioning using complex educational software “CixSoft”. It offers a number of courses for pre-clinical medical students which correspond to the conventional courses taught at our medical school. The courses in the virtual campus are identically designed. Each course includes the complex of hypertexts (usually electronic version of lectures) divided into modules according to the topics. Modules include not only text but also all necessary illustrated material, e.g. tables, pictures, photos and even multimedia. Visualization helps to study theoretical courses more effectively. Undergraduates are able to choose how much time they spend to study certain modules. Moreover, the system of links allows them to refresh their knowledge of previous topics. All courses in the virtual campus have a developed system of controlling tasks. It includes teaching tests, controlling tests, problem solving tasks, term papers etc. depending on the requirements of the curriculum. However, students do not gain access to final tests if they have missed some topics and teaching tests in modules of a course. Nevertheless, undergraduates can choose what topics to study first within the course. The aims of our research were to evaluate students’ activity in the virtual campus while studying an elective humanities course, to get students’ feedback on blended learning and E-learning methods introduced to teach the Humanities, and to determine whether blended learning and E-learning increase comprehension of the subject. Though E-learning has obvious advantages, it cannot substitute face-to-face communication with lecturers and comrades which is really important for undergraduates. Currently, we offer our students various opportunities to study both in classrooms and in the virtual campus. However, limited technological resources do not allow us to make the use of the virtual campus obligatory for all students. Therefore, the virtual campus at our medical school is only a subsidiary method of learning. Moreover, blended learning methods have not been yet used to conduct seminars in the virtual campus. We evaluated students’ activity by the period of time spent by a student in the virtual campus studying the course material, completion of teaching and final tests and writing an essay in the virtual campus, and participation in virtual seminars and discussions (only informative comments were assessed). We conducted a survey to get students’ feedback. Students’ perception of the new approach was collected using a questionnaire. The self-administered questionnaire included 7 closedend questions concerning the preferred learning approach, the most complicated tasks, the most interesting forms of work, the factors influencing their comprehension of the subject both negatively and positively, and their general perception of blended learning methods for teaching the Humanities. Content validation of the questionnaire was performed by two medical school experts. The questionnaire was distributed We offered first-year students a completely electronic elective humanities course that can be studied without classroom attendance. We used the virtual campus to organize not only lectures and controlling tasks but also seminars. Seminars were designed using the option “Forum” where students could answer questions, share their ideas and participate in discussions by commenting to different points of view. 259 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) only among students from the blended learning group. Though the completion of the questionnaire was voluntary, all students (n=64) did it. Each participant provided consent. We examined the questionnaire’s test – retest reliability. Reliability information was collected from 16% of students (n=10). The mean time between the surveys was 20 days (range 14 – 30 days). Students’ comprehension of the subject in both groups was estimated according to the final scores obtained to pass the examination. The minimum score required for passing grade was 50 and the maximum score was 100. majority of first-year medical students (94%, n=60) considered online learning environments to be particularly useful for communication and collaboration both with other students and a lecturer. Students’ satisfaction with blended learning environment introduced for studying the elective was evaluated according to the scale (range 0 – 5 points, where ‘0’ meant unsatisfied and ‘5’ – completely satisfied). The majority of students were completely satisfied with the study process using blended learning methods (77%, n=49), other students evaluated their satisfaction as 2 (10%, n=7) and 3 (13%, n=8) points. Ninety two percent of students (n=59) would recommend blended learning approach to teach other courses in Humanities. RESULTS Sixty four students regularly participated in virtual seminars (n=8); less than three comments in each virtual seminar were assessed as uninformative. The discussion on the topic of the first virtual seminar involved 55% of students (n=35); of the second one – 72% (n=46); of the third one – 100% (n=64); of the fourth one – 98% (n=63); of the fifth one – 50% (n=32); of the sixth one – 77% (n=49); of the seventh one – 69% (n=44); and of the eighth one – 98% (n=63). The mean time spent by students in the virtual campus was 27.5 academic hours (range 22.5 – 35 academic hours). Compared to conventional teaching approach we were able to evaluate less than 17 students during each face-to-face seminar. We had no opportunity to assess the time spent by students for unsupervised work using traditional teaching methods. Though, according to the curriculum the elective includes 36 academic hours of unsupervised work. The comprehension of the subject between the blended learning and conventional learning groups was significantly different. The mean final score in the blended learning group was 86 (range 69 – 100 scores), and in the conventional group it was 63 (range 50 – 76 scores). LIMITATIONS The present pilot research had a number of limitations. Firstly, as participation in the study was voluntary students were not randomized between the blended learning and conventional learning groups. Those who were included in the blended learning group were thought to be more active and enthusiastic concerning the introduction of new approaches in the study process. Moreover, we suppose that they had wider range of opportunities to obtain higher scores due to more personalized learning process. This fact might significantly influence the comparison results of subject comprehension between the groups. Secondly, only about 54% of students wanted to try new approaches (blended learning and E-learning) to study the humanities elective; thus, the rest 46% of students were missed from our survey. The questionnaire results showed that the majority of students (83%, n=53) preferred blended learning to study the elective; 9% of students (n=6) were ready to study the elective using only E-learning methods; and 8% of students (n=5) preferred only classroom work. According to the acquired data the most captivating forms of study were participation in discussions during virtual seminars (69%, n=44) and face-to-face seminars (64%, n=41); students also found interesting lectures and following discussions (23%, n=15), essay writing (25%, n=16), and the final test (38%, n=24). The most difficult task for the majority of students was essay writing (78%, n=49); the following forms of study also caused some problems for students: the final test (21%, n=13), face-to-face seminars (17%, n=11), virtual seminars (17%, n=11), and lectures with the following discussion (10%, n=6). Students determined the following factors that complicated their comprehension of the subject: large number of people (about 100) who had to participate in face-to-face seminars simultaneously (47%, n=29); problems with registration in the virtual campus (21%, n=13); absence of permanent access to the Internet (15%, n=9); and lack of time to prepare for seminars and controlling tasks (8%, n=5). However, all students (100%, n=64) found it convenient to have course documents all in one place and get to the course any time they want. Furthermore, the CONCLUSIONS Students supported the introduction of new technologies in medical education. Nevertheless, they were not ready to give up the classroom; small number of students thought it was possible to study the Humanities using only distant learning technologies. Though E-Learning has obvious advantages such as providing course material in an organized and structured manner available for students 24 hours a day, it cannot substitute face-to-face classroom communication which is really important for undergraduates. Blended learning which combines both conventional methods of teaching with current E-Learning methods may be an optimal approach to teach the Humanities in medical school to satisfy the needs of students. This approach was enthusiastically accepted by the majority of 260 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) students due to its ability to improve comprehension of the subject, enhance communication and stimulate educational process. However, the problem of students’ motivation to study courses using blended learning approach need to be considered, as currently only about 50% of students are ready to use new study methods. The results of the pilot research are promising in terms of possible creation of blended learning environments to teach the Humanities during pre-clinical years in the medical school. However, further experiments need to be conducted to get statistically significant data on effectiveness of blended learning approach in medical education. REFERENCES [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] S.M. Bridges, J.E. Dyson, E.F. Corbet “Blended learning, knowledge co-construction and undergraduate group work”, Medical Education, Vol. 43, Issue 5, 2009, pp. 490-491. S.M. Bridges, M.G. Botelho, P.C.S. Tsang “PBL.2.0: Blended learning for an interactive, problem-based pedagogy”, Medical Education, Vol. 44, Issue 11, 2010, p. 1131. A. Szulewski, L.K. Davidson “Enriching the clerkship curriculum with blended e-learning”, Medical Education, Vol. 42, Issue 11, 2008, p. 1114. R. Lehmann, H.M. Bosse, S. Huwendiek “Blended learning using virtual patients and skills laboratory training”, Medical Education, Vol. 44, Issue 5, 2010, pp. 521-522. D.A. Cook, S. Garside, A.J. Levinson, D.M. Dupras, V.M. Montori “What do we mean by web-based learning? A systematic review of the variability of interventions”, Medical Education, Vol. 44, Issue 8, 2010, pp. 765-774. P.V. Ivachev “Innovative models and technologies of training in the sphere of social and medical education”, Ural Medical Journal, Issue 6, 2010, pp. 107-110. 261 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) Mathematical Laboratory in Your Smartphone Mercedes BARCHILON BEN-AV Achva Academic College, Mobile Post Office Shikmim 79800, Israel and Radel BEN-AV Software engineering Department, Azrieli College of Engineering P.O.Box 3566, Jerusalem, Israel virtual reality environment for mathematics education using special equipment (e.g. [3]). ABSTRACT In the last years there is an explosive growth of smartphone availability in the USA and other western countries. In our work we show how existing smartphones properties (hardware and software) can be used to teach and experience the abstract concept of a vector. We believe that using gadgets loved by the students will enhance their motivation, curiosity and active participation in the class. Smartphone characteristics An accelerometer is a device that measures the proper acceleration in the Cartesian coordinates (x,y,z). At rest, on the earth surface, it measures the gravitational vector denoted by . The highly popular iPhone©, introduced in 2007, has an integrated accelerometer. The main reason for the accelerometer integration was the ability to sense the iPhone orientation and automatically change the view when the phone is held vertically or horizontally. It is also used for controlling games. Since then, integrated accelerometer became a standard for almost all smartphones. As of today “everybody” has an accelerometer in his/her pocket. There are available Software tools in smartphones (apps) that record the data measured by the accelerometer in a log file. The data can be later analyzed on a PC. Keywords: Mathematical education, smartphone, new technology for education INTRODUCTION In the last years there is an explosive growth of smartphone availability in the USA and other western countries[1]. Some educational authorities drew attention to the disturbance it creates to the learning process[2]. We wish to view also possible positive contribution of this wave on high education learning. In this paper we show how smartphones can contribute to enhance the quality of learning of mathematical concepts. METHOD In our work we show how this data can be used to teach and experience the abstract concept of a vector. We take the gravitational vector as an example. Using their own smartphones, we teach the students how to show to themselves some important properties of a vector: Modern smartphones contain sensors that enable to set up an environment where the learner (student) can feel and “play” with virtual (and at the same time real) objects in their mathematical representation. It is important to note that this can be achieved using commonly available smartphones and easy “of the shelf” products. It does not necessitate any additional or specially designed software or hardware unlike previous work building    262 Measuring the vector size given its coordinates Vector size independence of rotation Rotation effect on the coordinates of a vector Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013)  Rotation matrix in two dimensions (2D rotation matrix) and in three dimensions (Euler angles). 15 The experimentation uses the smartphone’s ability to measure the components of the acceleration on earth surface according to the smartphone’s self coordinate system (see figure 1) 5 10 1 14 27 40 53 66 79 92 105 118 131 144 157 170 183 196 209 0 -5 Ax Az -10 Ay Figure 2- Vector coordinates under rotation CONCLUSIONS We believe that using gadgets loved by the students will enhance their motivation, curiosity and active participation in the class, thus improving the understanding of the learned subject[4,5]. Figure 1- Vector coordinates under rotation RESULTS In figure 2 we show the result of a sample activity were accelerometer raw data of the proper acceleration along the axis (Ax,Ay,Az) is plotted against time. The data was recorded while manually rotating a common smartphone (Samsung Galaxy SII) using standard free application (Accelerometer Log). We calculated the acceleration vector size also as a function of time using Eq. (1).  Ax 2  Ay 2   Az 2 13 8 3 (1) -2 The result is plotted in figure 3. All the graphs were produced using Excel. One can note that the projection along the axis may change due to rotation of the smartphone while the proper acceleration vector size does not change. -7 1 14 27 40 53 66 79 92 105 118 131 144 157 170 183 196 209 A The depth level and the subject matters can be adjusted according to the class level. Ax Ay Az Vector Size -12 Additional activities were developed and will be presented. Figure 3-Vector size invariant under rotation REFERENCES [1] Business Insider; 9/12/2012 http://www.businessinsider.com/us-smartphonemarket-2012-9 [2] http://www.telegraph.co.uk/education/ educationnews/9326884/Ditch-smartphones-toboost-reading-skills-pupils-told.html [3] H. Kaufmann, D. Schmalstieg, M. Wagner, (2000) “Construct3D: A Virtual Reality Application for 263 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) Mathematics and Geometry Education”; Education and Information Technologies, 5(4), pp 263-276 [4] G. W Hill, R. A. Smith, & M. Horn (2004). Using Technology to Increase Student Interest, Motivation, and (Perhaps) Learning, http://smartroom.com/KSUAPA.pdf [5] T. Campbell, S. K. Wang, H-Y. Hsu, A. M. Duffy, P. G. Wolf (2010). “Learning with Web Tools, Simulations, and Other Technologies in Science Classrooms”. Journal of Science Education and Technology. ISSN: 1059-0145 (Print) 1573-1839 (Online) 264 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) Enhancement of an Undergraduate Software Engineering Course by Infusing Security Lecture Modules Hyunju KIM, Natarajan MEGHANATHAN, and *Loretta A. MOORE Department of Computer Science, *Division of Research and Federal Relations Jackson State University Jackson, MS 39217, USA ABSTRACT 2. BACKGROUND AND RELATED WORK As software is used everywhere in our daily lives, the importance of developing secure software becomes more apparent. Software security is increasingly considered a software engineering problem, thus traditional software engineering curricula need to be enriched with security components. This paper reports an effort to incorporate security topics in a senior-level undergraduate software engineering course. The course was modified with respect to topics covered, course objectives, and course requirements. This paper also details specific security topics introduced into the course and their associations with traditional software engineering topics. Course assessment data and student feedback show that our enhancements have been efficient in infusing the security considerations required for secure software development. The Department of Homeland Security has established the Build Security In (BSI) project and provided useful resources through a website (https://buildsecurityin.uscert.gov/) for incorporating security into every phase of software development. These resources have been developed according to the principle that software security is a software engineering problem and must be addressed in a systematic way throughout the software development life cycle [6]. In response to this principle, there have been several efforts to develop new software engineering modules and courses to educate computer science majors in secure software development. A study reported in [13] developed a course module for writing secure code. The module consisted of security and insecure code concepts, safe programming practices, and simple lab exercises. It was taught in an introductory Java programming class and a programming design class for freshman and sophomore, respectively. This study showed that a course module-based approach is an effective method of educating the students about the impacts of insecure code and safe programming practices. Alternatively, the authors of [3] developed a software security learning process that used outcomes of a traditional software engineering course and developed secure software. It was an effort to develop a teaching process for secure software rather than to develop teaching materials. Keywords: Software Engineering Education, Secure Software Engineering, Security Lecture Modules, Course Enhancement, Software Security Attacks 1. INTRODUCTION As software is used everywhere in our daily lives, the importance of developing secure software becomes more apparent. The challenge is to enrich the traditional software engineering approach with security aspects, taking into account limited time and resources. Most successful attacks result from targeting and exploiting known, non-patched software vulnerabilities and insecure software configurations, many of which are introduced during design and coding [2]. Thus it is imperative that secure design and coding principles are embedded throughout the whole software development lifecycle. Efforts reported in [4, 5, 8, 9, 11, 12] developed undergraduate or graduate software engineering courses and/or teaching materials to incorporate security topics and issues into a traditional software engineering education. The studies in [8, 11, 12] involved the development of teaching modules covering major security topics for a graduate secure software engineering course. Although the course developed in [9] was undergraduate-level, it was designed to replace the traditional software engineering course within an undergraduate computer science curriculum. This paper reports an effort to incorporate security lecture modules in a traditional undergraduate software engineering course. This effort forms part of the NSF (National Science Foundation)-funded TUES (Transforming Undergraduate Education in STEM) program on incorporating security aspects in the undergraduate Computer Science curriculum at Jackson State University. On the other hand, an effort reported in [4, 5] incorporated security studies into an existing undergraduate software engineering course. This traditional undergraduate software engineering course 265 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) was modified in three areas: instructions; lecture materials and exercises; and the semester-long project. The course adopted a combination of both facilitator and formal authority-based teaching. Along with the traditional software engineering topics, security-related topics such as the security development lifecycle model, security risk, and secure design were introduced to the course. A single, semester-long project was executed as well. The challenges identified from this effort were a lack of security teaching materials for undergraduate students and a lack of time for completing the development project within a single semester. Besides developing or enhancing software engineering courses, a study in [10] proposed security topics for secure software engineering according to the Software Engineering Body of Knowledge (SWEBOK) Guide. before their graduation. While students are taking the software engineering course, they form a team of three to four members for their senior project. Each team selects a capstone project, and students are asked to complete requirements engineering and system analysis while in CSC 475. During their capstone project course, they focus more on system design, implementation, and testing. The CSC 475 Software Engineering course has the course description: "Introduction to software engineering, software design, APIs, software tools and environments, software development processes, software requirements and specifications, software verification and validation, software implementation, software evolution, and software project management". As this description indicates, the course covers the fundamentals of software engineering for senior-level computer science majors. Prior to Fall 2010 semester, however, it did not have appreciable coverage of security-related issues. These efforts demonstrate an awareness that traditional software engineering education needs to be enhanced with security components. The new Computer Science Curricula 2013 [1] reflects this particular need by introducing the new knowledge area of Information Assurance and Security (IAS). IAS covers Security Concepts, Secure Design, Defensive Programming, Threats and Attacks, Network Security, and Cryptography as its Core-Tier topics. As part of our TUES project, since Fall 2010 semester, we have (1) identified security-related issues and topics in developing software; (2) developed security lecture modules; (3) mapped security topics to relevant software engineering topics; and (4) incorporated the security lecture modules into the software engineering teaching materials. In this particular effort, our team did not intend to develop a new software engineering course. Instead, we aimed to efficiently incorporate security components in the traditional software engineering course. The traditional knowledge area of Software Engineering (SE) has been also changed: Security Risk has been added to Software Project Management, and Software Construction (secure coding practices, security enhanced programming, security problems in programming, and security considerations) has been added as two hours of Core-Tier2. In addition, the elective topic of Software Reliability from the 2001 computing curricula is now a one hour Core-Tier2 topic. 3.1 Course Modification As security topics were introduced, the course has been modified with respect to topics covered, course objectives, and course requirements. A set of security topics that are closely related to software development was identified as follows: • Secure Software Development Lifecycle • Principles and Models for Software Security o System dependability: security fundamentals o The 10 principles of software security o Bell-LaPadula confidentiality model o Biba integrity model • Security Requirements o Functional and nonfunctional security requirements o Misuse cases and mitigation plans • Security Risk Analysis o Risk assessment process o STRIDE threat model o Attack trees • Software Security Attacks o Attack patterns o Dependency attacks o User interface attacks o Design attacks o Implementation attacks Addressing the need for secure software engineering, this paper presents security component enhancements made to a traditional undergraduate software engineering course. As part of our TUES project, the team developed two new elective senior-level undergraduate security courses: Systems and Software Security, and Advanced Information Security [7]. Besides these elective courses, we adopted security lecture modules used in these courses into our undergraduate software engineering course required by the Computer Science BS program. Consequently, all computer science majors have been educated in the essentials of secure software engineering for the past three academic years. Section 3 of this paper introduces this enhanced software engineering course. Section 4 discusses findings from our experiences, followed by a conclusion in Section 5. 3. THE UNDERGRADUATE SOFTWARE ENGINEERING COURSE The BS program in Computer Science at Jackson State University requires students to take CSC 475 Software Engineering followed by a senior capstone project course 266 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) • Testing for Software Security o Security functional testing: a fault model o Fuzz testing o Mutation testing o Run-time fault injection • • These topics range from the concepts of software security to security testing methods so that students can learn security considerations and guidelines in every phase of software development. Thus, the course teaches the importance of secure software development lifecycle as a semester progresses. Our approach to infuse these security topics to the existing software engineering topics is presented in Section 3.2. The course objectives were also updated accordingly as follows: Not all these exercises were required by the course in every semester: they were selectively provided to the class depending on student's background and learning pace. However, all the exercises were usually covered in the two consecutive courses of Software Engineering and Senior Project. Each student who successfully completes this course should be able to: • CO1: Explain software process models and their characteristics and principles and models for software security. • CO2: Understand issues in project management, including planning for software development and specify software evolution processes and issues in software maintenance. • CO3: Apply key elements and common methods for elicitation and analysis to produce a set of software requirements, including the appropriate security-related aspects, for the chosen Senior Project. • CO4: Select and apply appropriate design tools and guidelines in developing software. • CO5: Specify issues in risk assessment for secure software design and explore different software security attacks with respect to dependency, user interface, design, and implementation. • CO6: Test software, including the security aspects using software verification and validation methods. The course requires each student to be in a team for a capstone project. The project teams are directed to identify a project topic that has security components, for instance authentication, authorization, encryption, etc. During the requirements engineering and system analysis, each team is asked to identify and document security requirements, misuse cases, and mitigation plans for their project. The knowledge and tools taught by this course are heavily used in implementing and testing the project during the capstone project course. 3.2 A Mapping of Security Topics in Software Engineering As mentioned earlier, our TUES project developed two, new security courses (CSC 438 Systems and Software Security and CSC 439 Advanced Information Security) as senior-level electives. During the first year of the course modification, the software engineering course invited the instructor who developed the new security courses. The invited instructor taught the security lecture modules of the topics listed in Section 3.1. However, based on student feedback, the team decided to infuse these security topics to the existing software engineering teaching materials, and a single instructor began to teach all the course topics. This made the class flow more seamless, and a consolidated set of teaching materials became available to students. The course objective of CO5 was newly added, and the course objectives of CO1, CO3, and CO6 were updated in order to incorporate the security components. Each student was evaluated with respect to the objectives through exams, quizzes, and project assignments. In addition, the following in-class or lab exercises were designed and used to provide students hand-on experiences and/or real-life attack examples: • • are launched. An online auction site was setup using PHP and XAMPP. Students are asked to develop client-side input validation controls and server-side controls to prevent such injection attacks. Cross-Site Request Forgery (XSRF) attack: this exercise shows how the attack exploits a web site's trust in the user. Email tracker: this exercise shows a web bug and how it works. In order to infuse the security topics to the teaching materials, we identified software engineering topics that are related to these security topics. We developed a mapping of security topics in software engineering, which also includes the associations with the course objectives. Table 1 summarizes the mapping that has been implemented as teaching materials in the forms of lecture notes, project assignments, and/or lab exercises. All the security modules and teaching materials are available through our project website (http://www.jsums.edu/cms/tues) for the public and possible adoption at other institutions. TOCTTOU (Time-of-Control-to-Time-of-Use) attack: this exercise asks students to simulate the TOCTTOU vulnerability by granting and revoking the permissions to access a text file in an Ubuntu virtual machine. Code injection attack: this exercise shows how code injection attacks such as SQL injection attack and Cross-Site Scripting (XSS) attacks 267 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) Table 1. A mapping of security topics in software engineering Software Engineering Topics Software Process Models Software Quality Management: System Dependability Project Risk Management Requirement Engineering: Functional, Nonfunctional, User, System, and Domain Requirements; Object-oriented Analysis: UML Diagrams Object-oriented Design: Providing Access Control Software Verification and Validation Security Topics Secure Software Development Lifecycle Principles and Models for Software Security Security Risk Analysis Security Functional and Nonfunctional Requirements; Misuse cases and mitigation plans Authentication and Authorization; Software Security Attacks Testing for Software Security Adding the security topics to the course required the course topics and their depth to be adjusted. The incorporation of security topics limited the coverage of certain elective or advanced software engineering topics in the course. Project discussions during lecture were also limited in order to allocate sufficient time for the security coverage. Course Objectives CO1 CO2, CO5 CO2, CO5 CO3 CO4 CO6 software engineering course to be 1.3 on average. After taking the course, they evaluated their ability to be 2.7 on average, which indicates that the course has contributed to their security education. Students were also able to design and implement security modules in their senior projects. Table 2 summarizes security features that were commonly incorporated into capstone projects since the course was modified. 4. FINDINGS AND STUDENT ASSESSMENT Unlike the most of the previous studies described in Section 2, our goal in this effort was not to develop a new secure software engineering course, but to enhance the existing software engineering course with security components. Independent guest lectures on security topics were not appreciated by students because the lectures were considered an extra burden. Therefore, there was a need to seamlessly integrate the teaching of security and the teaching of software engineering. Our approach of developing subject mapping and infusing security topics according to mapping in software engineering has been observed to be sufficient to satisfy this need. As reported in the previous studies [4, 5, 8], challenges commonly faced in efforts to incorporate security into the teaching of software engineering, especially at undergraduate level, include a lack of teaching materials and a lack of time for students to complete development projects. Our approach to these problems was to develop portable security lecture modules in one or more security courses and infuse them to the existing teaching materials in the software engineering course/s. This also made it possible to easily adjust levels of coverage and depth of the course depending on the student's background and learning pace. In relation to the implementation of security features, capstone projects have been used. Because the projects span two consecutive courses, students are able to spend more time working on security aspects and risk analysis in developing system requirements. On the other hand, the course demands that students select projects with security features, which puts a limit on available project topics. It has been challenging to identify student projects that are both reasonable and diverse. 5. CONCLUSION We developed a mapping of security topics in software engineering and infused the security lecture modules to the undergraduate software engineering teaching materials according to the mapping. This approach required modification of the course topics, course objectives, and course requirements. Our approach has been observed to be efficient in delivering a desirable amount of security coverage according to student background and learning pace. Thus, it can be utilized as a method to introduce security components to undergraduate software engineering, with no curriculumlevel changes. The incorporation of security topics into the course has primarily been evaluated through faculty course assessment and self-assessment feedback surveys from students. The data and feedback indicate that students have gained knowledge on the security topics as intended. On a scale of 1-4 (1 being Poor and 4 being Excellent), students from Fall 2010 through Spring 2012 semesters evaluated their ability to incorporate security-related aspects in software development before taking the In order to evaluate our activities, we collected course assessment data through faculty course assessment and feedback surveys from students. The data has shown that 268 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) the students' knowledge of software security and its related issues increased after taking the enhanced software engineering course, and they were able to effectively incorporate security modules in their capstone projects. [3] A. Hazeyama and H. Shimizu, "A Learning Environment for Software Security Education", In Proc. of the 5th International Conference on Secure Software Integration and Reliability Improvement - Companion, 2011, pp. 7-8. [4] C. Y. Lester and F. Jamerson, "Incorporating Software Security into an Undergraduate Software Engineering Course", In Proc. of the 3rd International Conference on Emerging Security Information, Systems and Technologies, 2009, pp. 161-166. [5] C. Y. Lester, "A Practical Application of Software Security in an Undergraduate Software Engineering Course", International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 7, No. 7, 2010, pp. 1-10. [6] G. M. McGraw and N. R. Mead, "Engineering Security into the Software Development Life Cycle", CrossTalk: The Journal of Defense Software Engineering, Vol. 18, No. 10, 2005, pp. 4. [7] N. Meghanathan, H. Kim, and L. A. Moore, "Incorporation of Aspects of Systems Security and Software Security in Senior Capstone Projects", In Proc. of the 9th International Conference on Information Technology - New Generation, 2012, pp. 319-324. [8] R. Shumba, J. Walden, S. Ludim C. Taylor, and A. J. A. Wang, "Teaching the Secure Development Lifecycle: Challenges and Experiences", In Proc. of the 10th Colloquium for Information Systems Security Education, 2006, pp. 116-123. [9] M. L. Stamat and J. W. Humphries, "Training≠ Education: Putting Secure Software Engineering Back in the Classroom", In Proc. of the 14th Western Canadian Conference on Computing Education, 2009, pp. 116-123. [10] M. A. Talib, A. Khelifi, and L. Jololian, "Secure Software Engineering: A New Teaching Perspective based on the SWEBOK", Interdisciplinary Journal of Information, Knowledge, and Management, Vol. 5, 2010, pp. 83-99. [11] J. Walden and C. E. Frank, "Secure Software Engineering Teaching Modules", In Proc. of the 3rd Annual Conference on Information Security Curriculum Development, 2006, pp. 19-23. [12] S. S. Yau and Z. Chen, "Software Security: Integrating Secure Software Engineering in Graduate Computer Science Curriculum", In Proc. of the 10th Colloquium for Information Systems Security Education, 2006, pp. 124-130. [13] H. Yu, N. Jones, G. Bullock, and X. Y. Yuan, "Teaching Secure Software Engineering: Writing Secure Code", In Proc. of the 7th Central and Eastern European Software Engineering Conference in Russia, 2011, pp. 1-5. Table 2. Security features commonly incorporated in capstone projects Injection attack prevention module Authentication module Encryption module Denial of Service (DOS) prevention module Automatic logout module Static testing with Fortify SCA (Static Code Analyzer) User input fields are protected from injection attacks with a white-list sanitization approach. Security questions are asked for registration and used when the user tries to reset the password after failing to provide the correct one in a certain number of tries. Confidential data such as user IDs and passwords are protected by encryption procedures at the client and server sides. * Each user's requests are limited to a certain number during a certain period of time to prevent DOS attacks. * A registration email is sent to an email address during registration to prevent a single user from having multiple user accounts. When the user is inactive for a certain amount of time, the application automatically logs out the user to prevent spoofing identity. As part of testing, the code is tested with Fortify SCA. Acknowledgement This work has been supported through the National Science Foundation CCLI/TUES grant (Grant # DUE0941959) on "Incorporating Systems Security and Software Security in Senior Projects". The views and conclusions contained in this document are those of the author and should not be interpreted as necessarily representing the official policies, either expressed or implied, of the funding agency. 6. REFERENCES [1] Computer Science Curricula 2013, Ver. 1.0, http://ai.stanford.edu/users/sahami/CS2013/ironman -draft/cs2013-ironman-v1.0.pdf. [2] K. M. Goertzel, "Introduction to Software Security", https://buildsecurityin.us-cert.gov/introductionsoftware-security. 269 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) Introducing Requirements Acquisition and Analysis Through a Very Incompletely Specified Problem Thomas J. Marlowe Seton Hall University South Orange, NJ, USA thomas.marlowe@shu.edu James W. Benham Montclair State University Montclair, NJ, USA benhamj@mail.montclair.edu Vassilka Kirova Alcatel-Lucent Murray Hill, NJ, USA vassilka.kirova@alcatel-lucent.com Cyril S. Ku William Paterson University Wayne, NJ, USA kuc@wpunj.edu Susu Nousala Aalto University Helsinki, Finland s.nousala@gmail.com Norbert Jastroch MET Communications Bad Homburg, Germany norbert.jastroch@metcommunications.de ABSTRACT need to be codified, and sometimes extracted from common knowledge or in response standard concerns, or in discussions with stakeholders and experts (requirements elicitation and acquisition) and then developed in a coherent and consistent set of documents and artifacts (requirements analysis) [9,27]. Moreover, real-world or research development projects have to deal with the Moving Target Problem [25], in which requirements are changed or refined as the project evolves and product emerges, and thereafter, during maintenance and evolution. After succeeding in programming courses, many students in computer science and related areas have developed expectations, habits and practices that make the need for analysis of complex problems— through modeling, requirements and specification— difficult to grasp. Exposing students to a highly incomplete problem description early in a software engineering course promotes internalization of this often critical process. We suggest that analogous challenges may be important across many disciplines and at all levels of education. Keywords: Computer science pedagogy, requirements analysis, problem specification, critical thinking, modeling, software engineering Offered a simple but very incompletely specified problem, many students will, based on their past experience, conclude that they know enough, or will be given enough information to precisely define the task and allow its completion. Challenged with either writing the program, or simulating development activities, they soon become convinced that requirements analysis is a non-trivial and important activity. 1. INTRODUCTION A common problem in an upper-level introductory software engineering sequence is that most problems that students have seen are close to fully specified and require only a prototype solution that has to work once for users familiar with the application, and who are more interested in its core functionality. They are moreover suited to individual developers or small teams and a short development interval. 2. A VERY INCOMPLETELY SPECIFIED PROBLEM Students are presented with the problem: Sort a collection of student records and provide the result. The constraints they are told are: the program will be used by administrators who are not familiar with the code; it will be used repeatedly; and it must return the intended result in the intended form. They are then asked: “Do In contrast, most software engineering projects are much larger and will take much longer— often requiring large teams with changing personnel. The problems are initially only partially defined, with many requirements that 270 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) you know enough to write the program?” Most agree that they do. 3. THE FURPS+ REQUIREMENTS FRAMEWORK Then “What questions would you want to ask?” Typically, questions will concern the programming language or environment to be used (“Your choice”), whether the program should run on laptops or mobile devices, or both (“Good question. We’ll get back to that.”), and possibly other implementation issues. FURPS+ [22,23] is one of the standard frameworks for requirements. The classification (with comments) is as follows. It may be a student’s first formal introduction to the difference between functional and nonfunctional requirements—most students may never have thought of a non-functional requirement other than the project due date. Figure 1 shows a view of the software engineering process (compare [10]). The lower highlighted box shows — perhaps overestimates — a typical student’s experience and awareness of the process, while the upper highlighted box shows the disciplines introduced in this exercise.  Figure 1. Software Engineering Disciplines/Workflows  Business Modeling This Exercise Requirements Specification/Domain Analysis Design Past Student Experience Implementation Testing Deployment Maintenance   Students’ worldview is limited not only by this narrow awareness, but also by their experience of and faith in a simple code-and-fix model [24], in which a program can (supposedly) be modified to fit any instructor demands as they emerge. This often suffices for class projects, but causes substantial economic, managerial, and technical problems for larger or more realistic projects undertaken for a client [15].   Functionality: What should the program do? What should the inputs and outputs be, and in what form and syntax? What are the major possible errors and exceptions, and how should they be handled? Are needed options provided? Usability: How does a typical user interact with the application? Is this natural and understandable? [Do interface choices interfere with usability? Are the needs of disabled users addressed?] Reliability: Generally has two dimensions, Availability and Integrity (security and privacy). [Safety and timeliness also fit here, and are further concerns for real-time, embedded and active applications.] Performance: average and worst-case throughput, number of simultaneous transactions, Supportability: Documentation, help, learnability, maintenance. Other criteria: resource constraints (staffing, budget, time), implementation interactions and constraints, interfaces with other systems, operations, packaging, legal, standards and compliance. In addition to considering the issues that need to be addressed by requirements, the resulting set of requirements have to be reviewed to eliminate conflict, incompleteness, imprecision, and ambiguity. For example, “the records should be sorted” is, as we have said, ambiguous, since neither the key nor the order has been specified. “The application needs to handle large numbers of students, and a moderate number of changes between instances” is obviously imprecise and arguably incomplete. Likewise, “the application should be easy to learn”, a non-functional requirement, is clearly imprecise. The next step is to review a requirements classification/framework and to see if that provokes questions, and to attempt to come up with a full initial specification for the problem. Most questions about program semantics or even user interfaces are not addressed. We have typically spent some time trying to suggest directions to look, but rarely get many issues covered. Most times, however, someone will ask the crucial question, “What should we be sorting on?” But many issues remain to be addressed. 271 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013)  4. MISSING INFORMATION AND INTERESTING QUESTIONS There are more relevant questions than can be addressed here, and not all questions are likely to emerge, even with guidance, in any given class. Some of the most important or interesting include the following. For clarity, some of the requirements that span functionality and another category have been moved to that alternative category. Finally, while most are phrased as if this is a development project, a few remain in the context of a student project. Usability:   Functionality:        [Perhaps] Is storage for large files local or in the cloud? Will the users be on an organizational LAN? Alternatively, what remote access should be supported? What user interface will be provided? (Or will this be a completely batch process?) What user input will be required and how will the user enter it? What options will the user have? Should we provide a browse function for the output? Reliability and security: What is the key for sorting? (Name, student number, GPA, … .) What is the order? (Ascending or descending for numerical keys, more complex otherwise.) What is the form and syntax of student records? Is the set of records homogeneous? If not, what variants are supported? Is there a limit to record length? How large a set of records should the application be able to handle? What should be done about duplicate key values? (Assuming key values are supposed to be unique, there could be different error messages for exact duplicate records and repeated keys for non-duplicates. If key values are not unique, non-duplicates may not be an error, but lead to the question, “How are ties broken?”) What should be done about records with invalid keys or invalid data? What if some record is empty, perhaps except for a key value? Where is the input coming from? (File, network, user input.) One source or more? If, for example, file input, is it a fixed file? Otherwise, how will the location and file name be provided? Will all the input be available initially? Likewise, where is the output to be sent? What should be done if the input is empty? What if either the input or output file cannot be opened? Is this a one-shot process, or will it be executed repeatedly? If repeatedly, do we need to handle changes to existing information, or will we always start with fresh information?    Is the information confidential? Does communication and/or storage need to be secure? Once the application is deployed, who will have permission to run it? To look at the output? What access controls will be needed? What user authentication will be required? If the process is to be run often, when should the results be available? If a revision is in process, should the old results be available? Supportability:   What menus, documentation, error messages need to be provided? What responsibilities do we have for testing? What Other (primarily resources and planning):   How long will we have for this project? What intermediate products have to be submitted, and when? How will the final project be evaluated? Are we working alone or in teams? Performance and other supplementary requirements are arguably not ripe for discussion this early in the course. 5. DISCUSSION This approach promotes critical and contextual thinking. It can easily be extended to other disciplines and domains, although some may not have useful and well-accepted frameworks analogous to FURPS, requiring more effort from the instructor or mentor. Requirements analysis 272 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) is closely related to mathematical, statistical, and scientific modeling, but naturally differs in its emphasis of the interaction of the problem with the conceptual solution. That is, case studies solve a (largely) known problem, and involve model elaboration and perhaps translation, while requirements elicitation and analysis demands formation an evaluation of an initial model. Case studies entail finding good answers; requirements analysis is based on finding good questions. On the other hand, modern software engineering methods, such as Agile Methods [11,12,13] or Extreme Programming [1], seem to devalue requirements analysis, letting requirements emerge and be refined during an integrated design and programming process, and students also need to internalize that lesson as well. But even the strongest proponents of those approaches would acknowledge that the project should not begin without a basic understanding of the nature of the problem/customer request and the intended functionality and constraints, any governing non-functional constraints, and the resource constraints and deadlines for the project itself [15,22]. Moreover, there is a widespread understanding that issues such as security and privacy, safety for embedded applications, timeliness for hard-real-time applications, and environmental interactions for active applications such as robot process controllers require full and early exploration of requirements and incorporation of those concerns from the start of design and implementation, although agile methods and object-oriented design can be used within that context (compare [5,14,21]). As a method for qualitative research, the case study method also includes determining and defining the research questions, selecting cases and specifying data collection approaches, which in turn requires survey design [2,8]. While these additional activities have more of a flavor of requirements analysis, they typically “emphasize detailed contextual analysis of a [well-understood] limited number of events or conditions and their relationships” [2], and develop a “logic model” (which connects conditions or inferences rather than actions) to be tested [8]. One can think of contextual analysis as finding a path to explore on a map, while requirements analysis also looks to develop or refine the map. 6. EXPERIENCE Marlowe uses this approach very early in his upper-level undergraduate software engineering class, more-or-less as described in Section 2. Ku introduces the same issues a bit later in his undergraduate course, with a more complex but underspecified problem, in the course of introducing Use Cases and system-level Communication Diagrams [10,24]. As the diagrams are constructed, the functional requirements (and some of the non-functional requirements) emerge and are clarified, sometimes as a result of instructor interactions. Requirements analysis complements the case study method [8,19] used in business, economics, engineering, and other areas. The case study approach (a study of “history” or synthesized instances) presents students with a (largely) complete collection of data and information, together with a problem or set of questions. The difficulties in the case study method are extracting or translating information from data and knowledge from information, analyzing the problem or questions in the context of that knowledge, and arriving at recommendations in the face of complications such as ambiguity, uncertainty and risk. To the extent that incompleteness or ambiguity in the specification is addressed, the result would be conditional recommendations: “Determine the average ambient January daily minimum temperature at the construction site. If it is below freezing, use Plan 1. Otherwise, use Plan 2.” Ideally, this approach should be introduced earlier, at an appropriate level, and revisited more than once in subsequent appropriate courses. Benham has used something similar in a second-semester freshman course, emphasizing missing functionality (such as alternative flows) rather than other requirements. The problem is “Read in a list of positive integers I will provide, and sort them in ascending order. The list is read from the keyboard and the result displayed to the screen.” Students are then asked, “Do you understand enough to write the program” (other than details 273 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) of language syntax and semantics)? After the students agree, examples are presented with invalid input (negative numbers, floating point numbers, characters, and so on) and duplicates. It also became clear that there was no agreed way for the user to end the list, and no understanding of how to handle display of the empty list. (Subsequent programming assignments were defined clearly and fully, but students became aware of the need for requirements, and perhaps more comfortable with asking if they perceived a problem.) information. The approach encourages critical thinking and develops analytical skills. The section of the course and the exercise described above are followed by a lecture and project work on use case modeling [10], allowing the students to practice requirements analysis and specification. Through this exercise, students (on average) demonstrate noticeably improved understanding of the iterative nature of requirements elicitation and the acquisition of an understanding of system behavior, constraints, and important extra-functional properties such as availability, usability, performance, security and safety. They also specify more balanced use case models, with “sunny day” and “rainy day” scenarios (roughly, “happy path” and “alternative flows”) and associated nonfunctional requirements. Kirova has likewise used a similar if more nuanced educational approach in a graduate level software engineering course. The exercise presented below is integrated into a set of topics related to agile methods, including values, principles, practices and frameworks [3,4,11,12]. After the introduction of essential concepts, a student-moderated discussion on requirements and requirements analysis in agile frameworks, and several brief exercises on self-organization, writing user stories and creation of a simple Product Backlog [3,26], students are introduced to agile estimation techniques, including the “Planning Poker Game,” [6] based on Wideband Delphi method [4]. This is followed with an inclass exercise, in which students are asked to form “agile” teams of 5+/-2 members and are given a simple product backlog (a collection of user stories) for a simple project from a domain of general familiarity. The teams are then asked to rank-order the items on the product backlog and to estimate them using “story points” or “ideal hours” [4]. The items on the backlog are concrete, but provide no detail on size, complexity or dependency information. Some teams rush and complete the exercise, assuming their understanding of the domain is sufficient. Most teams, however after an initial discussion (if needed, prompted by the instructor) discover that the requirements are grossly incomplete and that gathering of additional information is needed for them to perform even initial estimation and planning activities. As the exercise simulates an agile team environment, the next steps include the formulation of a list of questions and a meeting/discussion with the “product owner” and/or “customer” to elicit additional requirements and contextual Finally, such an exercise and emphasis may well be applicable across a wide range of disciplines. Nousala has had similar experiences with graduate students in the interdisciplinary Aalto LAB Mexico projects, oriented on sustainability in community environments: students [7,16,17,18,20]. While the group’s approach blends analysis, case studies, application and evaluation/reflection, it is found that although students may be well-prepared for the case study and application aspects, they are less familiar and less comfortable with requirements analysis and reflection [7,19], and similar exercises are employed to develop those skills. 7. CONCLUSION In many computer science programs, students’ exposure to application development as underclassmen, and for that matter in many upper-level courses, consists of well-defined, fully specified programs that need to work only in constrained settings. It is therefore difficult for many students to appreciate the need for requirements elicitation and analysis and highlevel design. We propose challenging students in an introductory software engineering course with a very incompletely specified problem, but one well within student programming experience and capability. This not only provides those students with an appreciation of requirements analysis, but also allows students to participate in 274 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) specification and preliminary (if not fully objectoriented) application design. [17] What students learn in this exercise will apply not only in the rest of their software engineering courses (and often other courses such as databases), but also after graduation, in careers in computing and IT or in graduate education. There are in fact benefits for critical analysis and problem analysis across a wide range of fields. [18] [19] We therefore suggest that the education of technical managers and staff (particularly in software development) needs to combine requirements analysis, case studies, application design, and reflection. [20] [21] 8. REFERENCES [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15] [16] [22] K. Beck, C. Andres: Extreme Programming Explained: Embrace Change. Pearson Education Inc., 2004. The Case Study as a Research Method. http://www.gslis.utexas.edu/~ssoy/usesusers/l391d1b.htm (last accessed February 14, 2013). M. Cohn: User Stories Applied: For Agile Software Development, 2004. M. Cohn: Agile Estimating and Planning, Prentice Hall PTR, 2005. B.P. Douglass: Real-Time UML: Developing Efficient Objects for Embedded Systems, 3rd ed. Addison-Wesley Object Technology Series, 2000. J. W. Grenning: Planning Poker or How to Avoid Analysis Paralysis while Release Planning, 2002. http://www.objectmentor.com/resources/articles/PlanningPok er.zip (last accessed February 16, 2013). W.P. Hall, S. Nousala, B. Kilpatrick: One company — two outcomes: Knowledge integration vs. corporate disintegration in the absence of knowledge management. Vine, 39 (3), p. 242-258, 2009. L.T. Kohn: Methods in Case Study Analysis. The Center for Studying Health Care Systems Change, Technical Publication 2, June 1997. P. Laplante: Requirements Engineering for Software and Systems. Redmond, WA: CRC Press, 2009. C. Larman: Applying UML and Design Patterns. 3rd ed., Prentice Hall, Pub. 2004. C. Larman, B. Vodde: Scaling Lean & Agile Development: Thinking and Organizational Tools for Large-Scale Scrum. Addison-Wesley Professional, 2008. C. Larman, B. Vodde: Practices for Scaling Lean & Agile Development: Large, Multisite, and Offshore Product Development with Large-Scale Scrum. Addison-Wesley Professional, 2010. R.C. Martin: Agile Software Development: Principles, Patterns and Practices. Prentice Hall, 2002. P. Marwedel: Embedded System Design: Embedded Systems Foundations of Cyber-Physical Systems. Springer, 2011. S. McConnell: Rapid Development: Taming Wild Software Schedules. Redmond, WA: Microsoft Press, 1996. http://www.stevemcconnell.com/. J.P.T. Mo, M. Zhou, J. Anticey, L. Nemes, M. Jones, W.P. Hall: A study on the logistics and performance of a real ‘virtual enterprise’. International Journal of Business [23] [24] [25] [26] [27] 275 Performance Management, 8 (2/3), p. 152-169, http://tinyurl.com/yyjx9q S. Nousala, A. Miles, B, Kilpatrick, W.P. Hall: Building knowledge sharing communities using team expertise maps. International Journal of Business and Systems Research, 3 (3), 2009. S. Nousala, J. Jamsai-White: The value of sustainable knowledge transfer methods for SMEs, utilizing sociotechnical networks and complex systems. 4th International Conference on Knowledge Generation, Communication and Management (KGCM), 2010. S. Nousala: Social Adaptability of Communities of Practice Case Studies: A review of indicators and developments for economic sustainability, Proc. 56th ISSS Conference, 2012. S. Nousala, A. Moulet, B. Hall, A. Morris: A polydisciplinary approach: A creative commons for social complex adaptive systems. Book of Abstracts, European Conference on Complexity Systems (ECCS 2012), p 79, 2012. F.J.B. Nunes, A.D. Belchior, A.B. Albuquerque: Security Engineering Approach to Support Software Security. 2010 6th World Congress on Services (SERVICES-1), 2010. T. Ottinger, J. Langr: Agile In a Flash: FURPS+. http://agileinaflash.blogspot.com/2009/04/furps.html (last accessed February 14, 2013). R. S. Pressman: Software Engineering: A practitioner’s approach, 7th ed.. McGraw-Hill., Pub. 2010. S.R. Schach: Object-Oriented and Classical Software Engineering, 8th ed. McGraw-Hill, 2010. S.R. Schach, A. Tomer: Development/Maintenance/Reuse: Software Evolution in Product Lines. https://www.research.ibm.com/haifa/info/ple/papers/evolutio n.pdf (last accessed February 14, 2013). Scrum.org: Scrum Guides. http://www.scrum.org/scrumguides (last accessed February 16, 2013) Wikipedia: Requirements Analysis. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Requirements_analysis, last accessed February 14, 2013. Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) Challenging academic performance to excel: the ‘BE’ project (performing Beyond Expectations) $ ! " $%& ' $ ! ( % Abstract This paper attempts succinctly present and share our recent experience and reflections in planning and producing a digitally-rich Teacher Training (TT) Numeracy and Additional Learning needs recently validated course in a a Higher Education Institution in the UK. Services’. Career pathways could see learners teaching in one of a broad range of lifelong learning sector settings, ranging from traditional FE college settings, through to charities and offender learning with varied technology access and uses as well as levels of restriction in using resources (i.e. some colleges do not allow access to social media resources within their college servers). Consequently, teacher trainers have to adapt and innovate content, activities and delivery approaches to the market. Keywords: Teacher Training, Online, Digital, Engagement, Performance, Literacy, Technology As a Reader in Technology Enhanced Learning at a British University (The University of Bolton - UoB, UK) and a passionate about staff engagement and development, I am use to face challenges when planning, developing and delivering Technology-rich courses. However, when challenged by teacher trainees new innovative e-developments, I always feel I need to go back to the basics: eStaff engagement principles. The website also adds that ‘the University has a reputation as one of the leading universities in the country when it comes to support with academic staff operating an open door policy to support trainees ‘. The recent achievement of the programme (Outstanding) by Ofsted (the Office for Standards in Education, Children’s Services and Skills in the UK), demonstrates the TT programme commitment to deliver high quality standards in teaching and learning supported by a highly qualified, motivated and supported academic staff team as well as strong learning infrastructure. By 2014, many things could happen in the world: David Cameron Could resign; Barrack Obama could resign; England could win the football (soccer) world cup; or all our planets climate changes problem could end!. Or, all these might not happen at all!. One thing will: Students technology demands to enhance their learning experience will increase and our staff need to be prepared for it!. Indeed, the UoB provides with a range of technologies and ICT infrastructure to support teaching and learning, however although all academics have access to these, very few of them are enthusiastic enough to integrate them within the curriculum efficiently and effectively, making visible a clear gap between students technology expectations and academic staff digital engagement. We all know by know that Learning no longer needs to be one size fits all . ‘The challenge for our education system is to leverage technology to create relevant learning experiences that mirror students’ daily lives and the reality of their futures’. National Educational Technology Plan, USED 2010 Following our success of the online ESOL/Literacy programmes as well as the Teaching and Learning for Professional Practice (T&L PP) which addresses health practitioners (which started in 2011), the UoB Education Subject group has aimed to make available integrated SfL Numeracy and Additional Needs Initial Teacher Training provision for trainees who find traditional provision difficult to access. The plan has been to develop, with some project partners, a blended learning approach for the Numeracy and the Special Needs routes, delivered flexibly, involving online study supported by locally delivered faceto-face sessions. This is a fully technology-rich blended learning approach. Numeracy and Teaching is a challenging but rewarding profession. However, the energy, enthusiasm and talents are not always enough to fulfill student satisfaction rates. The new emerging technologies are challenging and reshaping the way we present, deliver and collaborate in our practice and the development of new digitallyrich tools are becoming more and more necessary to provide access to all, to perform to high standards and to develop personal career. As in mentioned in our Website , our ‘teacher training program embraces courses for the UK Learning and Skills Sector. These Sectors include Further Education Colleges, Adult Education, Community Education, Sixth Form Colleges, Universities and the National Health #$ 276 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) Special Needs provisions, for both TT and CPD, are increasingly difficult to access due to the small number of providers regionally. implications, but hey!, we are after all teachers and we have a duty to continue our professional development and to innovate in all areas of teaching and learning. Howeve, what any institution can do to ensure their staff are digitally prepared to face new challenges to fulfill the growing learners expectations?. Another consideration in our carefully planned TT programme mentioned above, is to use a form of loop input (using the technology to teach the technology) so that teachers were learning about the technologies they could use with students by actually using them for themselves, breaking barriers of access and resource ‘ownership’ issues. A teacher that feels confident using a Virtual Learning Environment digitally-rich multimedia video, for example, will be more likely to use it innovatively in their session, that one that is only a ‘user’ (someone else, i.e. another colleague, upload resources and readymade activities for the module teacher to deliver it with little or ‘no’ involvement with the interactive content). For this purpose, discussions are currently being carried out to agree ‘development time’ for academics (a one-off time, as e-resources should be developed to be ‘reusable’ and shareable across the subject group) to allow creative development of resources, activities and delivery approaches for all TT modules. After 2 years of intense Teacher Training developments, and in between two Ofsted visits, four key areas have been identified as crucial to guarantee highly performance staff : • Engaged and motivated staff • Empower staff to develop new ideas • Good ICT infrastructure and support • Promote and keep academic collaboration to support best practice and enhancements After these testing two years, staff have almost achieved self-management in planning, developing, implementing and reviewing interactive courses (in ESOL/Literacy and T&L PP), enhancing their staff development needs by sharing practices and collaborating with partner colleges and across university colleagues with outstanding achievement in delivering digitally –rich academic resources. The fact that these academics are top performers in their various teaching backgrounds, ensured that all resources and activities were pedagogic-rich as well as accessible and inclusive, resulting in simply but creatively presented blended learning resources. So, what are we looking at in our newly validated TT programmes?: we have learned and developed loads of good practices with the ESOL/Literacy and T&L PP. In addition one thing we consider important to look at, as fundamental for any improvements in the way teachers relate to technology, it is not just changes and enhancements in the classroom with supporting tools for teaching learners, but also to consider technology as a tool within their everyday working practice as well as their professional lives. The following examples (Examples 1) show simple, inclusive and accessible approaches to deliver a technology-rich session on ‘Applying Knowledge of Literacy, Numeracy and ICT for Learning and Teaching’. The module includes a variety of interactive parts, which include podcasts, video-casts, interactive reading, selfassessment and quizzes, as well as learners-led online reflective and collaborative discussions (asynchronous and synchronous). All these produced by the module tutor with adequate UoB ICT staff support. Examples 1 Another key plan we want to progress on, is to ensure that our paper-free ‘sub-goal’ courses to be a reality in most new TT courses to set out to run courses with minimum (and in some cases, absolutely no) paper. That means minimum or no photocopied handouts and no paper based note taking from trainees, etc. The challenge is to push teachers-to-be to the point where they will work totally in the digital medium and where paper became totally unnecessary. This has clear accessibility and inclusivity 277 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) The learners-led online reflective and collaborative discussions are supported by the VLE (Moodle discussion and simple chat forums – asynchronous), as well any other free cloud technology platform available to students (Skype, Live Chat software, MSN as Synchronous). Examples 2 below. There has been an increasing pressure on all academic institutions, at F and HE levels in the UK , to respond quickly and efficiently to changes produced by the increasing globalisation of education markets, and the capacities of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) to transform the ways education is delivered and making it more flexible, inclusive and accessible. This has presented serious challenges for many academics whose own formative educational experiences and professional orientations were shaped under different circumstances, especially in Teacher Training programmes. Teaching is experiencing its biggest recruitment boom in years, with one in ten workers now considering a career in teaching at the moment. This new emerging markets require a more flexible delivery keeping quality standards at its highest, as competitors are aggressively opening new opportunities With all this in mind, it is important to develop new partnerships and stronger collaborations, keeping academic staff motivated, engaged and in constant development, to ensure they perform ‘beyond expectations’, keeping their programme highly competitive in the market and in constant progression, and the TT academic and support team are taking steps by developing innovative but accessible resources and delivery approaches to respond to a very demanding emerging learners market If we want our students to succeed in a global environment, then we, as educators, must be engaged in 21st century content, context, tools, thinking skills, and assessment. Thanks to digitally-rich learning we are all a 21st century inclusive life-long learners!. References OFSTED [online 07/29/2013] University of Bolton, UK [online 07/29/2013] National Educational Technology Plan, USED 2010 [online 07/29/2013] 278 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) Critical Reflection; Practicing Public Scholarly Inquiry while Processing with Science, Technology & Society Christine M. YUKECH C & I, Science Education, the University of Akron Akron, Ohio 44325, U.S. ABSTRACT will. Democracy is explained as the third leg of education. Democracy is the ultimate end to be achieved, initiated by university values of scholarship, academic discovery, and artistic pursuit. These can be expressed as a public resource, not void of volunteerism or philanthropic service. These are positive benefits that help contribute to a worthy cause and help community and civic organizations succeed. This paper is a pilot for future courses such as the one discussed in this paper to be supported through grants enhanced by the application of research involving Science Technology & Society projects related to public scholarship when solving real world community based problems. A research study was conducted with a 3707 course in Science, Technology and Society undergraduate course with secondary science education students. The goals of public scholarship are to present students with a deeper understanding of their obligations and duties of a democratic community and unity through academic and experiential learning. This provides an opportunity to employ the university's intellectual and creative resources in service of those obligations. Public scholarship requires active thinking, reflection, and engagement with relevant theory. It addresses issues of public interest and knowledge generated by the community by generating innovative awareness through reflection and engagement with social theory. Keywords: Science, Technology & Society, Scholarship, Science Education, Social Justice PUBLIC SCHOLARSHIP DEFINED Public scholarship by Lakshman Yapa’s definition is any scholarly activity generating new knowledge through academic reflection on issues in community engagement. Public scholarship requires active thinking, reflection, and engagement with relevant theory. It addresses issues of public interest and knowledge generated by the community by generating innovative awareness through reflection and engagement with social theory. The goals of public scholarship are to present students with a deeper understanding of the obligations and duties of democratic unity through academic and experiential learning. This provides an opportunity to employ the university's intellectual and creative resources in service of those obligations. Public INTRODUCTION POPULAR THEORIES The structure of scholarly inquiry from a science education perspective allows the individual to view scientific phenomenon from a variety of epistemologies to solve problems. Educational philosopher John Dewey, suggest that we solve problems by using our past experiences and connecting them to things we currently know about. Modern philosopher, Thomas Kuhn discusses the structure of scientific revolutions by experiencing a paradigm shift. If we look at the disciplines in nature, culture and religion we may reveal a deeper understanding of social and science contexts. These ideas are in line with the ideas of John Dewey (18501952) who was believed to be the most influential thinker in education in the last 100 years. Dewey believed in learning by doing. He integrated theories of politics, knowledge and education. He linked democracy to education and theory to knowledge, grounded by philosophical tradition of American pragmatism. As partners of new knowledge and with hope that this will have a profound effect on college students. Tools for building such social and practical scholarship are rooted in John Dewey's ideas and can build the epistemologies in philosophies of postmodernism and American pragmatism. HOW CAN FACULTY MOTIVATE RESEARCH IN PUBLIC SCHOLARLSHIP INQUIRY? PARTNERS OF NEW GENERATION OF KNOWLEDGE WORKING WITH COMMUNITIES Jeremy Cohen, founder of Penn State's laboratory for public scholarship and democracy talks about the student and faculty discovery contribution to public scholarship and how democracy needs to be learned. Those who believe in this type of scholarship say it goes beyond community service and good Transitional paradigms 279 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) A research study was conducted from a 3707 course of Science, Technology and Society undergraduate secondary science students. Issues of Science/Technology and Society among preservice secondary science students became an interesting endeavor. Students needed to first find out about issues related to their content in science, how technology modifies the content and how to understand how the issues relate to the Science Technology, Society & community. Students who did have exposure to technology were proficient users; however they had no idea how to link that knowledge to their content, and had issues relating to the content and technology needed to solve real world problems. Students had little practical exposure to professional practice of their subject matter. The ideas of motivation related to Science, Technology & Society and public scholarship were difficult to construct. Tools for building public scholarship inquiry The tools for building such social and practical scholarship are rooted in John Dewey's ideas and can build the epistemologies in philosophies of postmodernism and American pragmatism. In relation to motivation for higher-order learning, Janet G. Donald, discussed orientations to learning and studying. Higher order learning goals help students take responsibility for their learning, that is to assume self control to self regulate. Criteria for student learning were the ability to analyze, and think critically. Our homeless rates alone would point to the direction that we need to be reaching for connections between departments at universities and between neighborhoods and communities. We can reciprocate needs faster and create a starting place for curriculum and academics. THE STEM APPROACH Constructing Public Scholarly Curriculum How does one motivate the science learners to use a STEM platform and find conscientious ways to direct their future technological experiences and find a direct link towards public scholarly inquiry or practical tie into their lessons? The 3707 course students were responsible for researching STS curriculum research articles related to the STS approach and reflect about them. They would then role-play representative members of society who could help solve STS issues. Students related the science content to technology issues relating to real world issues and completed a STS project which was presented through power point or another form of creative presentation. The STS undergraduate class also used a book by Richard F. Brinkerhoff, One minute reading issues in science, technology, and society. Mentlo Park, CA: Addison Wesley., that addressed societal issues related to physics, chemistry, and biology. Social Justice Awareness & Public scholarship inquiry Social justice awareness and perspectives provides clues that recognize the need to teach towards democracy. Public scholarship inquiry and social inquiry requires the proper collaboration among and between departments at universities and within communities. It also takes brain power in pre-thought out ideas and proper access to professional engagements, with faculty and resources. Some say it takes the whole to function together so that synergetic transformations take place to engage in social life in cognitive cooperative and non competitive ways. SCIENCE/TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY COLLEGE COURSE Motivational projects and field trips Critique: I wonder who influences who in such a situation. In other words whose needs/interest comes first, the student, the university or the community? If action is to take place then students need to be doing something with processing applications for democracy and public scholarly inquiry. Possibly that is where the science, technology, engineering and society ideas tie in. I do believe public scholarship is necessary in order to keep things moving at the university level, to teach democracy and to live, learn and take action that solve complex societal problems. Public discussion needs to take place to bridge the gaps given current tension. Only six universities in the United States engage in public scholarship type inquiry; Cornell, Michigan, Minnesota, Penn State, Stanford, and Maryland. The students had a tendency to resort to learning about STS content. Later in the course they became more interested in research that tied into the Science Technology and Society approach. Projects: The projects students picked related to distance learning, grant writing, surveys, video-broadcasting, and a review and presentation of multi-media that can be used in science classrooms to teach with the STS approach. Field trips: A) a hospital mega-data center in Youngstown, the Youngstown Business Incubator, a company that houses new software companies for six months for free to get them established B) The Curriculum Resource Center at YSU's Beeghly School of Education with a presentation by the librarian who talked about the information technology age related to the history of library science and technology and the science content areas C) A local grant writer D) A salesman for audio visual projectors, wireless tablets and hand-held personal response systems. HOW DOES ONE MOTIVE PRE-SERVICE SCIENCE EDUCATION STUDENTS ABOUT ISSUES RELATED TO SCIENCE TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY CONCEPTS? Students then had to critique a STS lesson and or create one of their own. The eight secondary science students in the course 280 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) became more curious, interested and motivated to look at different aspects of the Science Technology and Society approach to teaching. Rebecca’s Article Reflection Building a World and online science and learning environment motivates and teaches RESEARCH ARTICLE CRITIQUE AND SUMMARY Elizabeth Anne Viau wanted to build a world where her students could explore and learn so she did so with the help of a website. She began the site at California State University as part of a course for in-service teachers. The site included both basic and more advanced material and has been developed over the last ten years. It now includes 500 pages of instructional material and 34 fictional planets that were made by adult students and teachers. There are also lessons, notes, links, rubrics, activities, worksheets, tests and diagrams on the site. "World Builders" as the site is called, has 10 different units that deal with different parts of science. The units include astronomy, geology, meteorology, microbiology, botany, zoology, and ecology. Ultimately, students can take the information that they learn and build a world that fits in with scientific principles. This type of resource can lead to a deeper understanding of theme based units relating to secondary science content. The STS issues could then tie into the content. Each student was given an assignment to research, summarize and critique an article related to motivation and STS. This assignment made them feel as authentic members of a whole group project. Each summary related to the STS approach in a creative and unique way. Some students included personal reflections while others just chose to summarize an article relating to the STS and motivation. The following ideas came from the students from my undergraduate Science/Technology/and Society course who researched articles related to the STS, and motivation. Most students provided summaries and a personal critique others provided a summary. The critique to their response and their articles is italicized for distinction. Heidi’s Article Summary The article accelerating the Learning of Low Achievers, by Deborah Perkins Gough Katherine’s Reflection This article talks about several different ways that could motivate and encourage low achieving students to do better. Some are: "Motivational Aspects of Learning Genetics with Interactive Multimedia" This article discussed how motivation can affect the learning and teaching of science subjects, specifically genetics. It also talked about how learning the basic genetic concepts can lead to further issues for students to investigate such as biotechnology and genetic engineering. Additionally, it stated that biology teachers are increasing their use of technology to supplement their teaching. A survey of student interests and motivation was included in the article. Students stated they become motivated to learn about genetics when using software that provides them the following: instant feedback, flexibility, visualization, control, and challenges. I think this was a very useful and up-to date article that really covers an important topic. Teaching basic genetic concepts are important and if technology can be used to enhance lessons that are even better. When students understand the basics and are motivated they can then critically think about larger issues such as genetic engineering. Culture: this is the culture of the school. The high impact schools had a culture of high expectations. Policies focused on academics, and preparing students for college. Academic Core: this is the teachers taking responsibility for students' ability to succeed. They removed barriers from higher level courses and encourage students to take them. Support: they provided extra instructional time to students who needed it. High impact schools provided the help in the form of college prep courses. Teachers: High impact schools made assignments to suit the need of the students, instead of having cookie cutter assignments to fit every student. The principle of the high impact schools also had more say in which teachers were hired. Time and other resources: the high impact schools used time more efficiently and deliberately like in the way of college prep courses instead of remedial classes. By incorporating all of these one can see how motivated a school could be. The major part was the staff. Without having an active, motivated, and excited group of people to work with, I don't feel that this program would work. There needs to be an environment of encouragement where students are constantly hearing, “This is possible" and that "They can do it". Katherine’s Critique: In this article about using multimedia and motivation to teach genetics a lot of issues were covered. It is very important to motivate students to learn difficult material such as genetics. Devising new ways or ideas to motivate students can be difficult. Using technology and the multimedia approach is definitely the way to go in order for students to process the lesson the best they possibly can. Teaching is about student 281 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) success, motivation, and understanding. No one ever said that teaching or motivating students is an easy job, but we wouldn't be pre-service teachers if someone hadn't motivated and inspired us to pursue such a career. Mario’s Article Reflection: This article talks of the instructor's role in motivation instead of looking at the students' role in motivation. Specifically the article entailed cost-effective methods of utilizing differing technologies (projects, power points, video, etc.) into instruction strategies. This article discusses the fact that many college students are commuters, having the availability of email and other long distance forms of communication increases the teacher/student interaction which can be done more conveniently. Consequently, the article discusses that the instructors influence on motivation among student increases. This notion discusses time-delayed communication. In the past this was done by a teacher giving homework, the student turning the homework back in, and then the teacher giving feedback (by means of a grade) back to the student. E-mail and other forms of communication can decrease the time-delay communication which can occur over a shorter period of time. Critique: I liked the idea of BioLogica's use in the classroom except that sometimes it is too playful in nature and may distract from mindful activities. I'd like to see the software rated by asking questions to see if the technology helps students to think critically, apply the ideas to science theories, laws and principles, or to the concept of Science/Technology/ and Society. Julie’s Article Reflection The use of flash technology as an assessment tool plays a major role in the success or failure of the student learning process. Students who enter a program with high motivation levels usually sustain and improve on those levels. Those students who lack motivation require attention and teacher intervention. This article suggests using motivational and assessment tools that are more interactive. Software applications such as Macromedia's Flash MX and Swishzone's Swish and SwishMAX may be beneficial. These applications assist students in creating interactive technology projects. They also assist students by allowing them to demonstrate their understanding of key concepts and how to use various theories in context. By using various software suggestions students are able to have more insight into their individual progress which aides in improving motivation levels. A few of the web sites mentioned in the article include www.macromedia.com and www.swishzone.com. Critique: Ultimately this article mainly discusses how the use of technology can improve teacher/learner relationships through increased communication. Furthermore, motivation is achieved through the work that is put in by the instructor. On the flip side of the coin, motivation can be a function of self interest if the self interest is worth more than the pay-out. You can relate the ideas to the feedback given to students using the real time smart phone instant feedback. Bonnie’s Article Reflection Science, Technology & Society Approach by Gilbert, Anthony F. Julie's Critique: The technology curricula used today focuses on knowledge domain based science, technology and humanities. The emphasis is on tools and materials and the student learns the concepts and vocabulary through text and lectures. As a result, students have lost interest in science, as well as school in general; and this has resulted in the closing of schools and programs. The students have lost their motivation to learn, thus they are not learning the information and technology that they will need to survive in a technology based world. When the students graduate, they will not be able to work or exist in society. They lack the skills to survive on their own thus depending on the government to support them. This is a result of losing their motivation to learn, due to boring school curriculum that does not relate to the real world. Education should prepare the students for the real world ahead; therefore the curriculum should motivate students to learn. The overall objective of a science/technology/society curriculum is to educate students who understand science and technology and how it is implemented and alters their environment. We all realize that motivation can be intrinsic (internal) and extrinsic (external). External rewards are useful; however, I believe that if you are able to convince a student to strive for and appreciate internal rewards, you have attained a major goal as a teacher. I find myself often considering material rewards, such as grades, a good income, etc., but in reality, these items are not everlasting -they fade away with time. The true rewards are those you internalize. Self-satisfaction in accomplishing a goal and the power of knowledge itself are true rewards and motivators. No one can ever rob you of these precious items. I hope to be able to instill the value of these intrinsic motivators in my future students. Critique: I liked the idea of exposing students to flash and swishzone. Tools such as these can help teachers and students to create using modern software which helps make students more authentic authors of their individual ideas related to science topics and issues. 282 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) there was some resistance at first by Indians who lived on the reserve. Once the Indians realized the intent of the project they delivered their expertise and helped to build the straw houses. They later used the houses for public resources such as stores and as a place for students from other universities to visit and study. The STS approach is society centered, which in itself is the means to the end. The students become motivated when society is incorporated into science, because it then becomes an issue that directly affects them or their families. They are also motivated by the use of the technology as a tool to complement the science curriculum through research and computer programs that allow assignments to expand. The students should be taught that the reason to learn science and technology is to be able to use it to solve everyday problems. Thus they can make decisions on social and environmental concerns, rather than become a scientific genius or discover new cures. A science curriculum should be society based, use technology as a tool, and be saturated in the issues of society that effect the students, their families and futures. CONCLUSION My personal interest in this study was to help to build an environment for enrichment for my students and for my own educational purposes. The study helped engage students when dealing with the Science Technology & Society issues. This course helped students understand the STS approach and why they may need to use this approach to motivate their own students. Bonnie's Critique: In order to demonstrate some aspects of public scholarship as it relates to the STS issues chosen to study, the STS course at the university students would have to incorporate their projects into something worthwhile for university and school classroom settings. The class talked of implementing ideas related to STS problems to types of classrooms on campus and similar classrooms of their own. To make the projects interactive students would have to design them to impact community schools, or businesses. This course may have been the pilot to the future courses supported through grant funding enhanced by the application of such research learning and STS projects related to public scholarship and solving real world community based problems. I found the articles the students reported about of interest for the future types of environments that need to be created for a STS university courses. In this way students can experience the applications to test and use the technology related to solving issues related to the content, technology critiques for critical thinking, and social issues. I hope to be able to grow the course into a project that will one day enhance many classroom, teachers, faculty and community. Included is the rubric for the STS projects to show a link into the types of community issues students need to solve. Also included is a poem from the article Teaching Global Reflections on the American Indian Housing Initiative. This article sums up everything that you have taught us all semester. The fact is that we should teach the science curriculum using technology for educational enhancement. The issues we teach should be society based that will in itself motivate the students. I totally agree with this article as it nicely sums up your teachings and supplies examples on the curriculum changes. I agree we need to move from the banking type of curriculum to one that fosters empowering students to take ownership of the knowledge gained through ideas in relation to the STS and public scholarship. Students and teachers need to feel empowered with the STS topics in order to find relevance to them. However, some not all schools have the technologies and structure to construct such curriculum. HOW DOES ONE BUILD A PROGRAM AT THE UNIVERSITY LEVEL THAT INCORPORATES A SCIENCE TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY APPROACH, MOTIVATES FACULTY & DOCTORATE STUDENTS TO APPLY THESE IDEAS & HELPS INDIVIDUALS ORGANIZE TOPICS THAT INFLUENCE CONCEPTS OF PUBLIC SCHOLARSHIP? When relating to public scholarship, many articles discussed the need for departments to function as a whole and not separate mechanic parts. In order to build healthy environments all teaching faculty should share and engage in the research teaching, and fostering of partnerships with local and state communities and other university departments. Poem from the American Indian Housing Initiative An elder Cherokee Indian was teaching his grandchildren about life, He said to them, “A fight is going on inside of me: It is a terrible fight and it is between two wolves. “One wolf represents, fear, anger, envy, sorrow, regret, greed, arrogance, self-pity, guilt, resentment, inferiority, lies, false pride, superiority, and ego. The other stands for joy, peace, love, hope, sharing, serenity, humility, kindness, benevolence, friendship, empathy, generosity, truth, compassion, and faith. They thought The article, Teaching Global Citizenship Reflections on the American Indian Housing Initiative, Dr. David R. Riley, architectural engineering and director of the center for Sustainability at Penn State and leader of the American Indian Housing Initiative relating to public scholarship by talking about building houses at a reserve in Montana. In this article, a labor of love had to take place to complete the project. Although the project was to help build up a community in an Indian reserve, 283 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) about it for a minute and then one child asked his grandfather, “Which wolf will win?” The old Indian simply replied, “The one you feed.” ~author unknown Science Technology & Society Rubric: Criterion for Rubric Unsuccessfu l Emerging Evolving Profic 2 3 4 clear 1 2 3 4 STS accurate Not accurate vague relevant understood STS unifying themes vague vague Themes relate to content Unified themes with content Important communit y or Social Context Does not address a community problem Vaguely addresse s a problem Relates to a local problem Address an important communit y problem 1 STS concept Clear Vague Relevanc e Understood REFERENCES New Directions for Teaching and Learning. Jossey-Bass Publishers. No. 78 Pp. 71-77. [1] Brinkerhoff, Richard F. (1995). One Minute readings issue in science, technology, and society. Menlo Park, CA: Addison-Wesley [10] Riley, D. (2006). Teaching Global Citizenship: Reflections on the American Indian Housing [2] Chickering, Arthur W., & Ehrmann, Stephen C. updated (2003). lmplementing the Seven Principles: Technology as a Lever. pp. 1-12. [11] Initiative. New Directions for teaching and Learning. Wiley Periodicals. No. 105. Pp. 51-61. [3] Cohen, J. (2006) A Laboratory for Public Scholarship and Democracy. New Directions for Teaching and Learning. No. 105 [12] Robinson, M. &Tatar, D. (2003). Use of the Digital Center to Increase Student Interest and Learning in High School Biology. Journal of Science and Technology. Vol. 12, Plenum Publishing. Pp.89-95. [4] Colbeck, C. &Wharton-Michael P. (2006). Individual and Organizational Influences on Faculty Members' Engagement in Public Scholarship. New Directions for Teaching and Learning. Whiley Periodicals. No. 105 pp. 17-26. [13] Theall, M. &Franklin, J. (1999) What Have We Learned? A synthesis and Some Guidelines for Effective Motivation in Higher Education. New Directions for Teaching and Learning. Jossey-Bass Publishers. No.78. Pp. 99-109. [5] Deal, W. (2004). Using Flash Technology for Motivation and Assessment. The Technology Teacher. Vol. 63 No.8 Pp. 16-19. [14] Tsui, Chi-Yan & Treagust, David F. (2004). Motivational Aspects of Learning Genetics with Interactive Multimedia. American Biology Teacher. Vol. 66 (4) pp. 277-285. [6] Donald, J. (1999) Motivation for Higher-Order Learning. New Directions for Teaching and Learning. Jossey-Bass Publishers. No. 78. Pp.27-35. [15] Viau, Elizabeth Anna, (2004) Building a World An online science learning environment motivates and teaches. U.S. &Canada: International Society for Teaching in Education. Volume 31(5). Pp. 18-21. [7] Gilbert, Anthony F. (2006) The Science/Technology/Society Approach, Journal of Curriculum Studies. 18(2). Pp.133-146. [8] Gough, Debora Perkins. (2006). Accelerating the Learning of Low Achievers, Educational Leadership. Pp. 88-89. [16] Yapa, 1. (2006) Public Scholarship in the Postmodern University. New Directions for Teaching and Learning. Wiley Periodicals. Pp. 73-83. [9] Feldman, Kenneth A. &Paulsen, M. (1999) Faculty Motivation: The Role of a Supportive Teaching Culture. 284 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) Coaching and Sponsoring Extra-Curricular Activities: Does it Make Future Principals Better School Leaders? Christopher N. Amos Sr. School of Education, The University of West Florida Pensacola, FL 32514 ABSTRACT This paper examines a group of Blue Ribbon School principals and their previous experiences playing/participating, coaching and/or sponsoring extracurricular activities and the impact these experiences had on their leadership development. This paper presents the principal’s self-reported growth and development of leadership traits through various experiences in extracurricular activities. The data was collected through the use of a 25 open-ended question survey, which was completed by a group of 63 Blue Ribbon Principals and the findings produced six main findings, which were: 1) Blue Ribbon Principals indicated at a high percentage (87%) that they coached and/ or sponsored an extracurricular activity prior to becoming a principal. 2) Coaching and/or sponsoring an extracurricular activity have a positive impact on the development of leadership abilities. 3) That most of the respondents (66%) indicated they coached more than two sports and/or activities while they were in the K-12 teaching role and that experience was significant in their leadership development. 4) Principals ranked teachers and students as having more impact on their success as a principal than other factors such as: testing data, district level support and funding. 5) That coaching or sponsoring an extracurricular activity as a teacher can lead to the development of important school leadership traits that can be transferred to the principal role. This study helps school districts and universities identify candidates for education leadership programs and eventually appoint them to school leadership positions to increase the number of schools that are high achieving. Keywords: Blue Ribbon Principal, Student Achievement, Leadership, and accountability INTRODUCTION In this era of data driven decisions and school accountability, the pressure on stakeholders in K-12 has never been greater. The pressure to have high performing students on high stakes testing has many school districts and schools reevaluating their practices in areas such as: hiring, curriculum development, teacher retention and leadership development. These various points of concern are intricate in the success of schools however this paper will investigate leadership development and the leadership traits of successful principals and how their professional experiences influenced their leadership development. The paper will also show how these traits and experiences influence and impact their ability to lead effectively as a K-12 school principal. The National Blue Ribbon Schools Program, which was started in 1982, recognizes public and private elementary, middle, and high schools where students perform at very high levels and/or where significant student achievement improvements are being made. Since the program's inception, more than 7000 schools have been honored to fly the flag that has become a mark of excellence in education recognized by everyone in thousands of communities [1]. In the 2011 school year the DOE received thousands of applications from schools across the country to be recognized as a Blue Ribbon School. Of these applicants, only 314 schools were awarded this distinction [1]. The researcher used the most recent list (20112012) of Blue Ribbon Award winning school principals (314 schools) and chose, at random, 150 principals to participate in the study. The researcher asked these topperforming principals to identify their previous experiences in extracurricular activities as a K-12 student, collegiate student, coach, sponsor, teacher and school administrator as well as some of the leadership traits they attained through these experiences. The principals were also asked to identify the level of importance these experiences had on their leadership development and the impact these skills had on their success as a school principal. A response rate of 42% (63 out of 150) was achieved and the data was collected via an electronic survey, coded and evaluated. As school districts search for various ways to increase student achievement in their schools, the principal is recognized as one of the most impactful school positions. In 2007, a paper published in the Peabody Journal of Education indicated that there were several key items that a school leaders has direct impact on, which were: Safe and Orderly Environment, Mission and Vision, Stakeholder Involvement, Monitoring School Progress, Instructional Focus, High Expectations for Student Performance, and professional development [7]. When addressing these items a school leader must possess leadership traits such as: being organized, effective problem solving, interpersonal skills, and a student centered philosophy, which allow them to handle the various issues more efficiently and with greater impact to ensure that the students are receiving the necessary information and education to be successful. The research indicates that school principals make a positive impact on school performance. There is an ample amount of evidence in the body of research and in educational practice to confirm that the school principal is regarded as 285 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) critical to school success and student achievement. There is research that suggests that the principal position has morphed into a time-consuming position that is not focused on student achievement. Educational leaders often feel as though they are spread way too thin and that most of the problems they manage have little to do with education or helping children [4]. Understanding and developing future school leaders to address these concerns is an important task for school districts. The efforts of school district central office leaders to support principals’ instructional leadership reflect several specific developments in research and practice that suggest the promise of these efforts for strengthening systems of support for improved classroom instruction and ultimately, results for students [3]. In particular, several decades of research on the topic has resulted in a body of knowledge that details the positive relationships between the practice of school principals and student academic achievement. Although classroom instruction has the greatest school level impact on student achievement, leadership has the second greatest effect [5]. Leaders who improve upon their leadership skills and responsibilities can contribute to as much as a 10 percentile point increase on student test scores [6]. The critical issue facing principals is understanding the core practices that yield high results in student achievement. Utilizing these practices enables us to move beyond a ”cause-and-effect” approach to effective school leadership found in many studies and explore the multi-faceted nature of the leadership position [8]. Extra-curricular activities are critical to the success of students. Participation in school-based extracurricular activities has been found to be associated with increased educational achievement and attainment, reduced problem behavior, improved attitudes toward educational and occupational goals, more positive psychosocial adjustment, and a decreased likelihood of dropping out [2]. Coaches and sponsors are the teachers that help these students do much more than just play a sport or participate in a club. For a lot of these students, these adults are the only person they have in their life that can make a positive impact on their decisions and social development. This is especially in the Latin and Hispanic student population. It is within the educational system that Latino immigrant children learn not only about U.S. values, beliefs, and behaviors, but also about their social and cultural role in American society [9]. The impact that coaches and sponsors have is far more reaching than just the activity they are engaged in with students. There is little research available that identifies the relationship between principals and their previous experience as extracurricular coaches/sponsors and the impact on student achievement but there is research that shows these two areas can have a significant impact on the success of students. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM The purpose of this study was to investigate if Blue Ribbon Principals had previous experience with coaching and/or sponsoring extra-curricular activities and if this experience impacted their leadership development. The survey was based on the following research questions: 1) Does coaching and/or sponsoring an extracurricular activities have an impact on the leadership development of Blue Ribbon Principals? 2) What factors, traits and lessons from coaching and/or sponsoring an extracurricular activities impacted their ability to lead at a successful level? METHODOLOGY The participants consisted of 150 K-12 Blue Ribbon Principals, chosen at random, from the United States Department of Education Blue Ribbon Award Winner list. Of these 150 principals, 63 principals (42%) responded to the 25 open-ended question electronic survey. There were 34 male and 29 female participants. The responses were coded, collected and evaluated in Excel. LIMITATIONS This study only looked at high achieving school principals who were awarded the National Blue Ribbon Award. Another limitation was that only 150 principals were surveyed and only 63 principals responded to the survey. FINDINGS The data was collected and evaluated using Excel and the respondents indicated the following: 1) The 87% of respondents indicated they coached and/sponsored an extra-curricular activity as shown in Figure 1. Figure 1 13% Yes No 87% 2) Figure 2 shows the percentage (70%) of respondents who indicated that coaching and/or sponsoring an extracurricular activity has a positive impact on the development of leadership abilities. 286 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) Figure 2 Figure 3 One Sport/ Activity 30% Yes 70% No Two Sports/ Activities 8% 15% The respondents also provided narrative information when asked how their coaching experiences impacts their leadership ability in a positive way: “It helps me with Imparting motivating ideas to my team which is very important. Everyone needs to have some recognition for a job well done and have direction (either from myself of another team mate) when needed.”, “Successful administrators coach their faculty. It allows for faculty input, teamwork, high morale, low turnover, the will to want to succeed and more importantly the determination to prepare students to succeed. Administration is coaching!” and “Making thoughtful and at times, difficult decisions that always considered the best interests of the team. Treating all team members with honesty and respect. Lead by example and not by words. Hold all accountable, including myself to high standards of performance.” 34% Four Sports/ Activities 24% 8% Three Sports/ Activities 11% more than four Sports/ Activites None Figure 4 3%$ Sports and Non-Sports Sports Only 3) That most of the respondents (66%) indicated they coached two or more sports and/or activities while they were in the K-12 teaching role and that experience was significant in their leadership development as shown in Figure 3. The majority of respondents (53%) coached and sponsored both sports and non-sports as shown in Figure 4. This indicates that these principals were interested in both athletic and non-athletic activities. There were more respondents who indicated they coached sports only than there were of teachers who indicated they sponsored only non-sport and fine art activities. This is also indicated in Figure 4. 44%$ 53%$ Only NonSports and Fine Arts 4) The respondents were asked to rank attributes/ factors (1 being the most important to 10 being the least important) as it pertains to their success as a school leader, the rankings were as follows: 1. Teachers/Staff Ability 2. Students 3. Teacher/ Student Buy-In 4. Leadership Style 5. Personal Drive 6. Interpersonal Skills 7. Parents 8. Testing Data 9. District/School Board Support 10. Funding 287 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) The rankings indicated that these principals value and attribute their success to the immediate stakeholders (Teachers and Students) at a higher level than the other factors such as testing data, funding and district support. The respondents also self-identified their leadership style (Democratic, Autocratic, Bureaucratic, Laissez Faire) in this survey, these results are represented in Figure 5. The respondents were given the definitions of the four leadership styles, which are: Autocratic: In this style of leadership, a leader has complete command and hold over their employees/team. The team cannot put forward their views even if they are best for the team or organizational interests. They cannot criticize or question the leader’s way of getting things done. The leader himself gets the things done. The advantage of this style is that it leads to speedy decision-making and greater productivity under leader’s supervision. Drawbacks of this leadership style are that it leads to greater employee absenteeism and turnover. This leadership style works only when the leader is the best in performing or when the job is monotonous, unskilled and routine in nature or where the project is short-term and risky. Laissez Faire: Here, the leader totally trusts their employees/team to perform the job themselves. He just concentrates on the intellectual/rational aspect of his work and does not focus on the management aspect of his work. The team/employees are welcomed to share their views and provide suggestions, which are best for organizational interests. This leadership style works only when the employees are skilled, loyal, experienced and intellectual. Democratic: The leaders invite and encourage the team members to play an important role in decisionmaking process, though the ultimate decision-making power rests with the leader. The leader guides the employees on what to perform and how to perform, while the employees communicate to the leader their experience and the suggestions if any. The advantages of this leadership style are that it leads to satisfied, motivated and more skilled employees. It leads to an optimistic work environment and also encourages creativity. This leadership style has the only drawback that it is timeconsuming. Bureaucratic: Here the leaders strictly adhere to the organizational rules and policies. Also, they make sure that the employees/team also strictly follows the rules and procedures. Promotions take place on the basis of employees’ ability to adhere to organizational rules. This leadership style gradually develops over time. This leadership style is more suitable when safe work conditions and quality are required. But this leadership style discourages creativity and does not make employees self-contented. Figure 5 2%3%2% Autocratic$ Laissez$Faire$ Democratic$ Bureaucratic$ 93% 5) That coaching or sponsoring an extracurricular activity as a teacher can lead to the development of important school leadership traits that can be transferred to the principal role. The respondents were asked to list some of the qualities and characteristics they believe are necessary to become a successful school principal and were learned from coaching and/or sponsoring an extracurricular activity. Some of the respondents wrote: “Patience, organization, time management, ability to motivate, approachability, integrity”, “Ability to listen, servant's attitude, endurance, patience”, “Content knowledge and being able to manage people with various personalities. Problem solving and quick thinking as well as be a people person who has the ability to listen and communicate effectively” and “Ability to get a group to form a vision and goal and work toward them, flexibility, good decision making skills, collaborative skills”. CONCLUSION The data indicates that coaching and/or sponsoring has an impact on school leadership development. The principals who responded to the survey are considered by the U.S. Department of Education to be the very best in their field and their overwhelming indication that coaching and/or sponsoring had a positive impact on their development indicates that school districts and universities could focus on identifying future school leaders who are in this role currently. School districts are under an enormous amount of pressure to find highly effective principals to lead schools to higher levels of student achievement. This study indicates that these future leaders are already leading student organizations. School districts and universities should be mentoring and encouraging them to move into school level leadership. The impact of student achievement is far reaching in our society and it is critical to provide our students with the best teachers and to provide our teachers with the best leaders to who can help them be the best teachers they can. These Blue Ribbon Principals are a strong example of the type of leader school districts should be identifying 288 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) and mentoring. The common theme that was evident through the responses was that these principals have “servant” leader mentality. Leading by helping everyone be the best at what they can be and always putting the students’ well being at the forefront of every decision. This is should also be the charge of school district administrators as well but there is little data to show that superintendents have direct impact on student achievement. The school boards and district level administrators do have the job of selecting the best candidate for the principal position. There are many factors that go into picking a new principal for a school and unfortunately sometimes the best candidate isn’t chosen for the job because of various reasons. This study has identified that successful principals are coaching and sponsoring teams and organizations. These experiences are providing these teachers with an opportunity to lead and learn to lead more effectively. The traits needed to be a successful coach and a successful principal are similar and understanding how these traits can be applied to a school-wide setting is critical to the development of future school leaders. Mentoring and advancement for these teachers are critical to their success as future school leaders. Future research in this area would be to duplicate the study with non-Blue Ribbon Principals and compare the findings, identify high achieving schools in the various states and duplicate the study with those principals and duplicate this study with superintendents. Understanding teacher leadership in schools is critical to ensure that the cycle of school leadership continues to improve by keeping the best candidates in schools and then encouraging them to move into school leadership. REFERENCES [1] Blue Ribbon Schools Program. (n.d.). Blue Ribbon Schools Program. Retrieved from http://www2.ed.gov/programs/nclbbrs/index.html. [2] Feldman, A. F., & Matjasko, J. L. (2005). The role of school-based extracurricular activities in adolescent development: A comprehensive review and future directions. Review of Educational Research, 75, 159–211 [3] Honig, M. I. (2012). District Central Office Leadership as Teaching : How Central Office Administrators Support Principals' Development as Instructional Leaders. Educational Leadership Quarterly, 48(4), 733-774. [4] Hopkins, G. (2003, May). From the principal files: The principal shortage-why doesn’t anybody want the job? [Electronic version]. Education World. http://www.educationworld.com/a_admin/admin/admin19 7_a.shtml [5] Leithwood, K., Louis, K., Anderson, S. and Wahlstrom, K. (2004), How Leadership Influences Student Learning, Wallace Foundation, New York, NY. [6] Marzano, R.J., Waters, T. and McNulty, B.A. (2005), School Leadership that Works: From Research to Results, Mid-continent Research for Education and Learning, Aurora, CO. [7] Nettles, S. M., & Herrington, C. (2007). Revisiting the Importance of the Direct Effects of School Leadership on Student Achievement: The Implications for School Improvement Policy. PEABODY JOURNAL OF EDUCATION, 82(4), 724-736. [8] Parkes, S.E. and Thomas, R.A. (2006), “Values in action: observations of effective principals at work”, Journal of Educational Administration, Vol. 45 No. 2, pp. 204-28. [9] Perreira, K. M., Harris, K. M., & Lee, D. (2006). Making it in America: High school completion by immigrant and native youth. Demography, 43, 511–536. 289 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) 290 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) AUTHORS INDEX Abreu, João Francisco de Acs, Bernie Aguilar Cisneros, Jorge Aloteawi, Saleh Mohammed Amos Sr., Christopher N. Anacleto, Gracia M. C. Anagusko, Claudio K. Arnab, R. Bahl, Vikram Barb, Adrian S. Barchilon Ben-Av, Mercedes Barnes, Cathy Ben-Av, Radel Benham, James W. Benton, Tara Bialaszewski, Dennis Bonometti, Robert Brage, Christina Budnik, Mark M. Butrime, Edita Cerruto, Audra Chebchoub, Zahida Chen, Jia-Ling Chitcharoena, Chaisak Comer, Denise Costa, Regina Coeli Cumbie, Barry Duellberg, Donna Fernández, Trinidad Folley, Duncan García-Pérez, Grisel Guo, Jiayan Haggis, Devena Hansen, Christine Hartpence, Bruce Heilmann, Heidi Hendel, Russell Jay Hsieh, Ching-Jung Hu, Yang-Chih Hultman Jakobsson, Ann 49 6 10 239 285 135 135 23 107 147 262 85 262 270 16 153 29 217 192 38 16 201 68 118 248 181 140 205 159 85 159 107 253 205 91; 170 16 211 164 68 16 Jastroch, Norbert Johnson, Daryl Johnston, Hal Kanthawongs, Penjira Kanthawongs, Penjuree Kim, Hyunju Kirova, Vassilka Koller, Karine Korman, Thomas Koyama, Yukie Ku, Cyril S. Kurtulus, Kemal Kurtulus, Sema Lantz, Agneta Laudares, Sandro Leong, David Leszczy ska, Dorota Long, Cynthia Marlowe, Thomas J. Mashl, R. Jay Mason, Sharon McCarthy, Erin McGovern, Beth Meghanathan, Natarajan Menyhárt, László Mitrofanova, Ksenia A. Miyazaki, Yoshinori Monteiro, Maria da Conceição Moore, Loretta A. Nousala, Susu Nunes, Sheila Torres Orantes-Jiménez, Sandra-Dinora Ozturk, Selen Pacheco, Beatriz A. Pacheco, Roberto Carlos dos Santos Pap, Gáborné Peterson, Patricia Polik, William F. Putz, Lisa-Maria Ristvey, John 291 270 91; 170 1 113; 118 113; 118 265 270 63 1 129 270 44 44 217 49 107 54 124 270 6 91; 170 16 16 265 97 258 129 181 265 270 181 59 44 135 63 97 103 6 223 124 Proceedings of The 7th International Multi-Conference on Society, Cybernetics and Informatics (IMSCI 2013) Rodriguez-Yborra, Maria A. Romero Rivera, Manuel Salm Junior, José Francisco Santiago, Joaquin Schauer, Oliver Schiering, Marjorie S. Schmidt, J. R. Schneider, Viviane Scott, Philip Richard Serumaga-Zake, Philip A. E. Siang, Jonathan Souza-Concilio, Ilana A. Stackpole, Bill Styron, Jennifer L. Styron, Jr., Ronald A. Swendsen, Mary Ann Tai, David W. S. Tanaka, Shosaku Tarnittanakorn, Nittana Thorton, Quintan Trna, Josef Van de Vegte, Joyce Vasilache, Simona Vázquez-Álvarez, Graciela Villas-Bôas, Glauco Wang, Ray White, Marta Szabo Wilkinson, Stephen Wiziecki, Edee Norman Wu, Min-Kun Yeh, Dowming Yukech, Christine M. Zavala-Galindo, Alejandro Zhang, Ren-Cheng Zhu, Qi Zuzeviciute, Vaiva 276 10 63 159 223 16 6 63 85 23 107 135 91; 170 140 229 205 68 129 74 85 176 195 253 59 181 68 79 85 6 233 233 279 59 68 187 38 292