Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Howard Shane
<hshane[AT]austin.rr.com>
Revision History
Revision 1.61 2005−02−21 Revised by: jhs
Update on revived Philips Webcam driver development
Revision 1.6 2005−01−02 Revised by: jhs
Errata fixed, some rewrites for readability, new chipsets and updates
Revision 1.1 2004−01−12 Revised by: jhs
Update for 2.6 series kernel release and info on NW802−based webcams
Revision 1.0 2003−12−04 Revised by: JP
Initial Release / Reviewed by TLDP
Revision 0.5 2003−11−07 Revised by: jhs
Final revision after v4l mailing list feedback
Revision 0.1 2003−10−12 Revised by: jhs
Initial draft posted
This document was written to assist the reader in the steps necessary to configure and use a webcam within
the Linux operating system.
The Webcam HOWTO
Table of Contents
1. Introduction.....................................................................................................................................................1
1.1. Copyright Information......................................................................................................................1
1.2. Disclaimer.........................................................................................................................................1
1.3. New Versions....................................................................................................................................1
1.4. Credits...............................................................................................................................................1
1.5. Feedback...........................................................................................................................................2
1.6. Conventions Used in this Document................................................................................................2
4. Framegrabbing Applications.......................................................................................................................14
4.1. Command Line Programs...............................................................................................................14
4.1.1. Streamer.................................................................................................................................14
4.1.2. camE......................................................................................................................................14
4.1.3. Motion...................................................................................................................................14
4.1.4. Webcam.................................................................................................................................15
4.1.5. SANE.....................................................................................................................................15
4.2. GUI(Grapical User Interface)−Based Programs.............................................................................15
4.2.1. Xawtv....................................................................................................................................15
4.2.2. Gqcam...................................................................................................................................15
4.2.3. Camorama.............................................................................................................................15
4.2.4. GnomeMeeting......................................................................................................................16
i
The Webcam HOWTO
Table of Contents
5. Troubleshooting............................................................................................................................................17
5.1. Help, I have a USB webcam and don't know exactly what model it is and/or who the
manufacturer is. What do I do?.............................................................................................................17
5.2. Help, I can't find the camera device in /dev!..................................................................................17
5.3. Help, I can see the camera device (both in person and as a device node in /dev), but I can't
access it!................................................................................................................................................17
5.4. Help, my camera has a driver that is source−only, i.e., has to be built by me! Where do I
start?......................................................................................................................................................18
5.5. I am using Debian GNU/Linux. Is there an easier way to go through all this kernel compiling
stuff and building of source modules?..................................................................................................18
5.6. Help, my camera is supported by a driver that has to be patched into my kernel! What do I
do?.........................................................................................................................................................19
5.7. Help−−as in, where can I get more of it?........................................................................................19
5.8. Help, I want to contribute to Video4Linux support in Linux! Who do I get in touch with?..........19
ii
1. Introduction
This document was written to assist the reader in setting up and configuring a webcam, digital camera, or
other video device in the Linux operating system. It outlines how to enable the necessary kernel and/or
software support and various frame−grabber applications that can be used to access your device. It does not
discuss the differences in graphic and video formats, the features and/or capabilities of particular devices, or
the encoding or conversion of video formats.
Permission is granted to copy, distribute, and/or modify this document under the terms of the GNU Free
Documentation License, Version 1.2 or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation with no
Invariant Sections, no Front−Cover Texts, and no Back−Cover Texts. A copy of the license can be found in
Appendix A.
1.2. Disclaimer
No liability for the contents of this document can be accepted. Use the concepts, examples and other content
entirely at your own risk. As this is a new edition, there may be technical or other inaccuracies that may result
in the loss of irreplaceable data. In any case, proceed with caution, and realize that although errors are highly
unlikely, the author can accept no responsibility for them.
All copyrights are held by their respective owners, unless specifically noted otherwise. Use of a term in this
document should not be regarded as affecting the validity of any trademark or service mark.
1.4. Credits
I would like to thank all of the individuals that have pioneered video support for Linux, in particular the v4l
and v4l2 teams, Gerd Knorr, and the Metzler Brothers among others.
Also, I would like to thank Marla, who has the grace to accept my imperfections and idiosyncrasies
unconditionally, including my obsession with projects such as this.
1. Introduction 1
The Webcam HOWTO
1.5. Feedback
Please send any additions or comments pertaining to this document to the following email address:
<hshane[AT]austin.rr.com>. In particular, if you have information about new devices or interfaces
supported or errata, please contact me so we can keep this document up−to−date!
Commands in Linux are executed (or 'called') at the command prompt, otherwise known as the 'command
line.' If you are in the non−graphical (text−based) environment, you will usually be presented with the Bash
shell prompt which is a dollar sign:
$
...or the hash mark:
#
...if you have logged in as root or have otherwise acquired root, or 'superuser' privileges. You can also access
the Bash shell in the X window system, otherwise known as X or X11, with an xterm or similar
X−terminal−emulator. Commands to be performed at the Bash prompt, but referenced in a paragraph of this
document, usually look like this: do this now
Commands and/or the resulting output of commands may also be outlined with screen output in their own
paragraph or heading:
$ date
Sun Jul 27 22:37:11 CDT 2003
When a command is written in front of the Bash prompt (e.g., $ date above), it is assumed the [Return] or
[Enter] key has been pressed after the command, possibly followed by the output on a new line (e.g., as in the
date in the above example).
1. Introduction 2
2. Enabling Support for Your (Webcam) Hardware
in Linux
2.1. Drivers and Modules
For your webcam to work you will need support for the connection and support for the actual camera
hardware. Those who are already versed in kernels and modules and how to load them should skip to Section
2.2, which addresses support of the connection type. If you know your USB, IEEE 1394 or whatever bus you
will be connecting your camera to is already configured and working, you should move on to the list of
specific webcam hardware listed in Section 2.3.
Webcam drivers are usually available one of three ways: within the kernel, as a compilable stand alone
module, or available as a pre−compiled (packaged) binary driver from your Linux distribution.
An easy way to tell if the driver is enabled is to use the dmesg command piped into less (for easy paging) to
look for an acknowledgement that it was loaded when your system started up:
$ dmesg | less
...which may yield something like the following, depending on your hardware:
You can get a list of all modules available by typing the following at the command line:
$ ls −R /lib/modules/`uname −r`/kernel
Where `uname −r`, surrounded by forward tick marks, is your kernel version number. The following output is
an example of what you might find in a USB webcam−ready kernel , where everything is loaded as a module
(all but the relevant lines have been edited for brevity):
Once you know which module your camera needs you can find out if it is already loaded by typing the
following at the command line:
# lsmod
As shown by the prompt above, you will need to have root privileges to do this. You should get output similar
to the following:
# modprobe −v ibmcam
Drivers for specific webcam models, or links to project pages hosting code for drivers, are outlined in Section
2.3. The drivers are usually available one of three ways: within the kernel, as a compilable stand alone
module, or available as a pre−compiled binary from your Linux distribution.
If the support for your driver is not found either enabled statically within the kernel or as a module, don't
despair. Drivers for numerous models are in the Linux kernel source (available directly from kernel.org source
code repository), or in code offered separately from the kernel that can be configured to work with your
current setup as oulined in Section 2.1.2. If your webcam driver is available in the kernel source but not
enabled as a module or otherwise in your default system, you can either recompile the kernel from the source
code you have or obtain a new version of the kernel source, either pre−packaged by your Linux distributor or
directly from the previous link (as a so−called "vanilla" kernel). If you are unfamiliar with the prerequisites
and procedure of compiling your own kernel, I direct you to the Kernel HOWTO for more information.
Unless you know your driver requires libusb support, you should probably stick with the more conventional
in−kernel support for USB devices beginning in Section 2.2.1.2.
2.2.1.1. Libusb
Libusb is a library that allows access to the USB functions in Linux through userspace and without the need to
enable kernel support and insert modules. Most distributions, at this point, are offering libusb in their stable
branches (and some install it by default), so if you don't already have kernel support for USB devices, then
you may only have to install the libusb package in order to access your device. You must have USB device
filesystem support enabled in your kernel, which most distributions do. To find out for sure, issue the
following at the command line:
$ cat /proc/filesystems
You should see (among others):
nodev usbdevfs
nodev usbfs
You may need to mount usbdevfs to enable it and see the device files, which you can do at the command line
with mount −t usbdevfs none /proc/bus/usb. Don't try to use libusb while your particular kernel webcam
support is enabled either statically or the module loaded; you can only use one at at time.
You can obtain the libusb package in .rpm, .tgz or .deb format from your Linux distribution.
Kernel support is required for USB webcam support if not using libusb (outlined above).
For 2.2 and 2.4 series kernels, your USB webcam may require the module usbvideo to function. This is not
required in the 2.6+ series.
For generic USB bus support in Linux, you will need USB subsystem support in your kernel, whether
usb−ohci, usb−ehci, or whatever flavor of USB driver your system prefers. USB subsystem support has been
present in the Linux kernel since the late 2.2 series. For a more in−depth discussion of USB support in
general, I direct you to the Linux−usb project site. If you want to find out which modules are loaded, at the
command line or in an xterm, type the following:
# lsmod
As shown by the prompt above, you will need to have root privileges to do this. You should get output similar
to the following:
# modprobe −v ibmcam
...at which point you should see something like the following:
Using /lib/modules/2.4.20/kernel/drivers/usb/ibmcam.o
By placing the entry ibmcam (for example) in /etc/modules (note that this varies by distribution), you
can have the module load at boot−time automatically. You can then confirm the module was loaded by
checking the syslog or in the boot−time record with dmesg | less), where you should see an entry such as the
following:
Oct 18 12:43:12 K7 kernel: hub.c: new USB device 00:02.3−2, assigned address 3
Oct 18 12:43:12 K7 kernel: ibmcam.c: IBM PC Camera USB camera found (model 2, rev. 0x030a)
Oct 18 12:43:12 K7 kernel: usbvideo.c: ibmcam on /dev/video1: canvas=352x240 videosize=352x240
The IEEE1394 Digital Camera List, by Damien Douxchamps, offers an outstanding summary of the
capabilities of IEEE 1394 cameras as well as the current status of support for individual models.
If modprobe returns an error when you attempt to load the module, note that you may need to determine and
supply the hardware address when invoking modprobe. The most common address is 0x378 for an x86
system; 0x278 and 0x3BC are other possibilities for integrated or ISA parallel ports. Add−in PCI parallel
ports may have unusual base addresses. You can also arrange multiple devices with either the parport_pc or
parport_arc modules, though that topic is beyond the scope of this document.
WARNING: Be sure you have the correct address before entering this information at the command line
or else your machine may become unstable, crash or otherwise implode.
Your parallel port should be set to preferably "EPP" mode, or alternatively ECP/EPP. "Bidirectional" (also
known as "BPP" or "PS/2") may work, albeit much more slowly. "Unidirectional" mode is unsuitable for
scanning. The above setting can usually be accessed through your BIOS menu, at least on x86 systems.
source, so you may find more up−to−date information through the previous link. If you can't find an entry for
your particular hardware, you can find links to resources on how to write your own driver!
It is important to note that if your camera isn't listed, the easiest way to find out if your camera is
supported is to find out what chipset is used in its manufacture.
This information is usually present in the specifications published in your webcam's manual or on the
manufacturer's website.
If you can't find your camera model listed and aren't sure what chipset your camera is made with, you should
consider searching and/or subscribing to the video4linux−list mailing list hosted by Redhat.
• Spypen Actor
• Rimax Slim Multicam
• Concord Eye−Q Easy
• Creative PD1001
• Chicony DC−100
• Endpoints SE402 and EP800
The Quickcam driver is represented by two different projects that offer two different flavors of driver for
certain Quickcam models, both of which are stand−alone drivers that do not require a kernel patch or
recompile. The qce−ga and qc−usb drivers support the following models:
The qc−usb driver is more experimental but reportedly works better on some models such as the Quickcam
Web. Also, I have recieved correspondence that newer versions of the Logitech Quickcam Express no longer
work with the above drivers; instead this page offers an experimental driver that claims to support the newer
model.
Note to Redhat users: The qce−ga driver doesn't compile properly using the modified kernel source provided
in Redhat 9, but a fix is available here.
Some Logitech camera models are supported by the Philips driver in Section 2.3.8.
• PCA645VC
• PCA646VC
• PCVC675K Vesta, Vesta Pro and Vesta Scan
• PCVC720K/40 ToUCam XS, ToUCam Fun, ToUCam Pro and ToUCam Scan
• Askey VC010
• Creative Labs Webcam 5, Pro Ex
• Logitech 3000 and 4000 Pro, Notebook Pro, and Zoom
• Samsung MPC−C10 and MPC−C30
• Sotec Afina Eye
• Visionite VCS UM100 and UC300
If you have a serial version, the main one of which is the Scan e−Studio, you should go here.
An easy way to create them, if available with your Linux distribution, is use of the MAKEDEV script, which
may be located in /dev or the usual places for storing executable commands (/bin,/sbin and so on). The
manual page for MAKEDEV (man MAKEDEV) can guide you further, but be aware of the device−specific
command options. If MAKEDEV doesn't work or doesn't exist, or you just prefer doing things the hard way,
move on to the next paragraph.
A device can be created as a block (such as a drive), a fifo (file−in−file−out or pipe, as in xconsole) or a
character device, which represents other hardware. Each device has a major and a minor number "coordinate"
to tell the kernel what it is and where to access it. These numbers are not arbitrary. The major number 81 with
minor number 0, 1, 2, and so on are by convention assigned to Video4linux devices, including TV tuner
boards and webcams. In order to create the video device /dev/video0, use mknod at the command line:
# mknod /dev/video0 c 81 0
where c represents a character device.
You can use the following script, which I have borrowed from the kernel source (located in
linux/Documentation/video4linux/bttv/MAKEDEV of the source tree):
#!/bin/bash
function makedev () {
for dev in 0 1 2 3; do echo "/dev/$1$dev:
char 81 $[ $2 + $dev ]" rm −f /dev/$1$dev
mknod /dev/$1$dev c 81 $[ $2 + $dev ] chmod
666 /dev/$1$dev
done
# see http://roadrunner.swansea.uk.linux.org/v4lapi.shtml
echo "*** new device names ***" makedev video
0 makedev radio 64 makedev vtx 192 makedev vbi 224
# "*** old device names (for compatibility only) ***"
#makedev bttv 0 #makedev bttv−fm 64 #makedev bttv−vbi 224
Simply copy and paste the above into your favorite editing program, save it as MAKEDEV or whatever name
you like, make it executable (i.e., chmod u+x MAKEDEV), and then execute it as root:
# ./MAKEDEV
To see if your user account is a member of the group in question, as root issue the following command: grep
−e video /etc/group. You should see something like the following:
video:x:44:
...where '44' is the group number. Since no members follow the last colon in the 'video' group, we can add
them, let's say user 'jhs' with the command
4.1.1. Streamer
Streamer is a versatile program that allows a capture from a webcam or video device using only the command
line. It may be offered in your Linux distribution's Xawtv package, or may need to be fetched separately as in
Debian. You can find it and more information at Gerd Knorr's Xawtv homepage.
To take a standard JPEG picture from the command line where the camera is accessed through
/dev/video0:
4.1.2. camE
CamE is a command−line program that works in daemon mode to capture frames from your v4l device for
archive or upload (to a webserver, for example) via ftp or scp. You can overlay other graphics, timestamp the
frames, or add other dynamic text all by altering the appropriate line in the configuration file. See the camE
homepage for more information.
4.1.3. Motion
Motion is a brilliant program that is able to monitor the video signal from one or several webcams. It can
record periodic snapshots, and when motion is detected, record an mpeg and/or perform another action such as
sending an email or executing a command. It can track and graphically mark the motion it detects, feed files
via an http server to your website, stream them to another application and more. The number of command line
options may be intimidating; there is however, a Wiki available online that outlines the various command and
configuration file options nicely. The motion homepage can be found here.
4. Framegrabbing Applications 14
The Webcam HOWTO
4.1.4. Webcam
Webcam is an automated command line tool for operating a webcam that is also available from the Xawtv
homepage. It is excellent for automated operation such as from a cron job, as it requires no command line
options, only a previously edited configuration file (usually ~/.webcamrc). It is similar to camE above in
that one can captures images and upload them to a Web−Server via ftp or ssh.
4.1.5. SANE
SANE, or Scanner Access Now Easy, supports access of v4l devices including webcams in later versions. If
you are familiar with using a photographic scanner device in Linux, you may be interested in using SANE for
image capture, especially since a few devices double as both scanners and digital cameras. See the relevant
sections of the Scanner−HOWTO here.
When you first try out your webcam, and you think things are configured right, use the −hwscan option:
$ xawtv −hwscan This is xawtv−3.72, running on Linux/i686 (2.4.21) looking for available devi
4.2.2. Gqcam
Gqcam is a graphical GTK+−based application originally written to access Connectix QuickCams but now
supports nearly all Video4Linux compatible webcam devices. It has an intuitive interface that makes viewing,
taking snapshots, and configuring webcam settings blissfully easy. It is highly recommended for those who
only want to take a picture here and there without editing a configuration file or using the command line.
4.2.3. Camorama
Camorama is a graphical GTK+2.0−based application very similar to gqcam written for the Gnome2 desktop.
The home page is here.
4. Framegrabbing Applications 15
The Webcam HOWTO
4.2.4. GnomeMeeting
GnomeMeeting is a VOIP/IP−Telephony application for the Gnome2 desktop that also supports
videoconferencing with a webcam. The homepage can be found at gnomemeeting.org.
4. Framegrabbing Applications 16
5. Troubleshooting
5.1. Help, I have a USB webcam and don't know exactly
what model it is and/or who the manufacturer is. What do I
do?
Use lsusb; it can give you an idea of what other USB devices are available on your system, too:
$ lsusb
Bus 007 Device 001: ID 0000:0000
Bus 006 Device 001: ID 0000:0000
Bus 005 Device 001: ID 0000:0000
Bus 004 Device 001: ID 0000:0000
Bus 003 Device 003: ID 0545:8080 Xirlink, Inc. IBM C−It WebCam
Bus 003 Device 002: ID 046d:0840 Logitech, Inc. QuickCam Express
Bus 003 Device 001: ID 0000:0000
Bus 002 Device 003: ID 051d:0002 American Power Conversion Back−UPS Pro 500/1000/1500
Bus 002 Device 001: ID 0000:0000
Bus 001 Device 001: ID 0000:0000
The numbers after 'ID' are the Vendor and Product numbers, respectively. They can then be looked up in the
Linux USB ID catalog.
If lsusb is not available to you, and you have support for /proc filesystem support and USB−filesystem
support, issue the following at the command line:
$ cat /proc/bus/usb/devices
You should receive output including (but not necessarily limited to) the following:
5.3. Help, I can see the camera device (both in person and
as a device node in /dev), but I can't access it!
See Section 3.2.
5. Troubleshooting 17
The Webcam HOWTO
Download the driver source (in this example named src.tar.gz) and uncompress/untar it:
# cd /usr/src/linux
Make the necessary source files:
# ln −s /usr/src/kernel−source−2.X.X /usr/src/linux
Then cd /usr/src/linux and clean: make−kpkg clean, followed by make menuconfig or make xconfig as
you would if compiling a new kernel. Next, you can use make−kpkg kernel_image and then install your new
kernel package that has been deposited in /usr/src with dpkg −i ../kernel−image−2.X.X. Next, you can
get the pre−packaged source driver using apt. So, in the case of the Quickcam Express, the package is
qc−usb−source:
# make−kpkg modules_image
5. Troubleshooting 18
The Webcam HOWTO
Install the new package, in /usr/src/, called qc−usb−modules−[arch].deb using dpkg −i. Finally,
load the module:
# modprobe quickcam
Check the documentation in /usr/share/doc/kernel−package for any problems.
The short and unguaranteed version of patching, by your humble author, goes as follows: Be sure you have
the same prerequisites outlined in Section 5.4 installed. First, on the command line or in an xterm change to
the source directory of the kernel version you are (or will be) running with the camera patch (in this example
named patch.diff).
# cd /usr/src/linux
# patch −p1 −E patch.diff
You should see a confirmation that the 'hunks' were successfully applied. At this point, you can make
menuconfig or whatever program you use to recompile, enabling the appropriate support. If any of the hunks
failed, or you run into any problems in addition to the link referenced above you, should consult man patch
and Section 5.7.
5. Troubleshooting 19
A. Gnu Free Documentation License
Version 1.2, November 2002
Copyright (C) 2000,2001,2002 Free Software Foundation, Inc. 59 Temple Place, Suite 330, Boston, MA
02111−1307 USA Everyone is permitted to copy and distribute verbatim copies of this license document but
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It is requested, but not required, that you contact the authors of the Document well before redistributing any
large number of copies, to give them a chance to provide you with an updated version of the Document.
4. MODIFICATIONS
You may copy and distribute a Modified Version of the Document under the conditions of sections 2 and 3
above, provided that you release the Modified Version under precisely this License, with the Modified
Version filling the role of the Document, thus licensing distribution and modification of the Modified Version
to whoever possesses a copy of it. In addition, you must do these things in the Modified Version:
A. Use in the Title Page (and on the covers, if any) a title distinct from that of the Document, and from those
of previous versions (which should, if there were any, be listed in the History section of the Document). You
may use the same title as a previous version if the original publisher of that version gives permission.
B. List on the Title Page, as authors, one or more persons or entities responsible for authorship of the
modifications in the Modified Version, together with at least five of the principal authors of the Document (all
of its principal authors, if it has fewer than five), unless they release you from this requirement.
C. State on the Title page the name of the publisher of the Modified Version, as the publisher.
E. Add an appropriate copyright notice for your modifications adjacent to the other copyright notices.
F. Include, immediately after the copyright notices, a license notice giving the public permission to use the
Modified Version under the terms of this License, in the form shown in the Addendum below.
G. Preserve in that license notice the full lists of Invariant Sections and required Cover Texts given in the
Document's license notice.
I. Preserve the section Entitled "History", Preserve its Title, and add to it an item stating at least the title, year,
new authors, and publisher of the Modified Version as given on the Title Page. If there is no section Entitled
"History" in the Document, create one stating the title, year, authors, and publisher of the Document as given
on its Title Page, then add an item describing the Modified Version as stated in the previous sentence.
J. Preserve the network location, if any, given in the Document for public access to a Transparent copy of the
Document and likewise the network locations given in the Document for previous versions it was based on.
These may be placed in the "History" section. You may omit a network location for a work that was published
at least four years before the Document itself, or if the original publisher of the version it refers to gives
permission.
K. For any section Entitled "Acknowledgements" or "Dedications", Preserve the Title of the section, and
preserve in the section all the substance and tone of each of the contributor acknowledgements and/or
dedications given therein.
L. Preserve all the Invariant Sections of the Document, unaltered in their text and in their titles. Section
numbers or the equivalent are not considered part of the section titles.
M. Delete any section Entitled "Endorsements". Such a section may not be included in the Modified Version.
N. Do not retitle any existing section to be Entitled "Endorsements" or to conflict in title with any Invariant
Section.
O. Preserve any Warranty Disclaimers. If the Modified Version includes new front−matter sections or
appendices that qualify as Secondary Sections and contain no material copied from the Document, you may at
your option designate some or all of these sections as invariant. To do this, add their titles to the list of
Invariant Sections in the Modified Version's license notice. These titles must be distinct from any other
section titles. You may add a section Entitled "Endorsements", provided it contains nothing but endorsements
of your Modified Version by various parties−−for example, statements of peer review or that the text has been
approved by an organization as the authoritative definition of a standard.
You may add a passage of up to five words as a Front−Cover Text, and a passage of up to 25 words as a
Back−Cover Text, to the end of the list of Cover Texts in the Modified Version. Only one passage of
Front−Cover Text and one of Back−Cover Text may be added by (or through arrangements made by) any one
entity. If the Document already includes a cover text for the same cover, previously added by you or by
arrangement made by the same entity you are acting on behalf of, you may not add another; but you may
replace the old one, on explicit permission from the previous publisher that added the old one.
The author(s) and publisher(s) of the Document do not by this License give permission to use their names for
publicity for or to assert or imply endorsement of any Modified Version.
5. COMBINING DOCUMENTS
You may combine the Document with other documents released under this License, under the terms defined
in section 4 above for modified versions, provided that you include in the combination all of the Invariant
Sections of all of the original documents, unmodified, and list them all as Invariant Sections of your combined
work in its license notice, and that you preserve all their Warranty Disclaimers.
The combined work need only contain one copy of this License, and multiple identical Invariant Sections may
be replaced with a single copy. If there are multiple Invariant Sections with the same name but different
contents, make the title of each such section unique by adding at the end of it, in parentheses, the name of the
original author or publisher of that section if known, or else a unique number. Make the same adjustment to
the section titles in the list of Invariant Sections in the license notice of the combined work.
In the combination, you must combine any sections Entitled "History" in the various original documents,
forming one section Entitled "History"; likewise combine any sections Entitled "Acknowledgements", and any
sections Entitled "Dedications". You must delete all sections Entitled "Endorsements".
6. COLLECTIONS OF DOCUMENTS
You may make a collection consisting of the Document and other documents released under this License, and
replace the individual copies of this License in the various documents with a single copy that is included in
the collection, provided that you follow the rules of this License for verbatim copying of each of the
documents in all other respects.
You may extract a single document from such a collection and distribute it individually under this License,
provided you insert a copy of this License into the extracted document and follow this License in all other
respects regarding verbatim copying of that document.
A compilation of the Document or its derivatives with other separate and independent documents or works, in
or on a volume of a storage or distribution medium, is called an "aggregate" if the copyright resulting from the
compilation is not used to limit the legal rights of the compilation's users beyond what the individual works
permit. When the Document is included in an aggregate, this License does not apply to the other works in the
aggregate which are not themselves derivative works of the Document.
If the Cover Text requirement of section 3 is applicable to these copies of the Document, then if the Document
is less than one half of the entire aggregate, the Document's Cover Texts may be placed on covers that bracket
the Document within the aggregate, or the electronic equivalent of covers if the Document is in electronic
form. Otherwise, they must appear on printed covers that bracket the whole aggregate.
8. TRANSLATION
Translation is considered a kind of modification, so you may distribute translations of the Document under the
terms of section 4. Replacing Invariant Sections with translations requires special permission from their
copyright holders, but you may include translations of some or all Invariant Sections in addition to the
original versions of these Invariant Sections. You may include a translation of this License, and all the license
notices in the Document, and any Warranty Disclaimers, provided that you also include the original English
version of this License and the original versions of those notices and disclaimers. In case of a disagreement
between the translation and the original version of this License or a notice or disclaimer, the original version
will prevail.
9. TERMINATION
You may not copy, modify, sublicense, or distribute the Document except as expressly provided for under this
License. Any other attempt to copy, modify, sublicense, or distribute the Document is void and will
automatically terminate your rights under this License. However, parties who have received copies, or rights,
from you under this License will not have their licenses terminated so long as such parties remain in full
compliance.
The Free Software Foundation may publish new, revised versions of the GNU Free Documentation License
from time to time. Such new versions will be similar in spirit to the present version but may differ in detail to
address new problems or concerns. See http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/.
Each version of the License is given a distinguishing version number. If the Document specifies that a
particular numbered version of this License "or any later version" applies to it, you have the option of
following the terms and conditions either of that specified version or of any later version that has been
published (not as a draft) by the Free Software Foundation. If the Document does not specify a version
number of this License, you may choose any version ever published (not as a draft) by the Free Software
Foundation.
To use this License in a document you have written, include a copy of the License in the document and put the
following copyright and license notices just after the title page:
Copyright (c) YEAR YOUR NAME. Permission is granted to copy, distribute, and/or modify this document
under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.2 or any later version published by the
Free Software Foundation; with no Invariant Sections, no Front−Cover Texts, and no Back−Cover Texts. A
copy of the license is included in the section entitled "GNU Free Documentation License".
If you have Invariant Sections, Front−Cover Texts and Back−Cover Texts, replace the "with...Texts." line
with this: with the Invariant Sections being LIST THEIR TITLES, with the Front−Cover Texts being LIST,
and with the Back−Cover Texts being LIST. If you have Invariant Sections without Cover Texts, or some
other combination of the three, merge those two alternatives to suit the situation.
If your document contains nontrivial examples of program code, we recommend releasing these examples in
parallel under your choice of free software license, such as the GNU General Public License, to permit their
use in free software.